green nanobiotechnology - an overview of synthesis

www.wjpps.com Vol 5, Issue 8, 2016.

501

Singh. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences

GREEN NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY - AN OVERVIEW OF SYNTHESIS,

CHRACTERISATION AND APPLICATIONS

Shruti Singh*

*Assistant Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Mithibai College, Vile Parle

(W), Mumbai - 400056. India.

ABSTRACT

The recent development and implementation of new technologies have

led to new era, the nano- revolution which unfolds role of plants in bio

and green synthesis of nanoparticles which seem to have drawn quite

an unequivocal attention with a view of synthesizing stable

nanoparticles. Although nanoparticles can be synthesized through array

of conventional methods biological route of synthesizing are good

competent over the physical and chemical techniques. Green principle

route of synthesizing have emerged as alternative to overcome the

limitation of conventional methods among which plant and

microorganisms are majorly exploited. Plants extracts provide rapid,

cost effective and eco-friendly sources for fabrication of metallic

nanoparticles. Employing plants towards synthesis of nanoparticles are emerging as

advantageous compared to microbes with the presence of broad variability of bio-molecules

in plants can act as capping and reducing agents and thus increases the rate of reduction and

stabilization of nanoparticles. Biological synthesized nanoparticles have upsurge applications

in various sectors. Hence this review envisions on biosynthesis of nanoparticles from plants

which are emerging as nanofactories.

KEYWORD: Biosynthesized nanoparticles, Green Source, Biofabrication, Ecofriendly,

Applications.

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of nanotechnology has provided an extensive research in recent years by

intersecting with various other branches of science and forming impact on all forms of life.[1]

The concept of nanotechnology was first begun with lecture delivered by Richard Feynman

WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES

SJIF Impact Factor 6.041

Volume 5, Issue 8, 501-531 Review Article ISSN 2278 – 4357

*Corresponding Author

Dr. Shruti Singh

Assistant Professor,

Department of

Biotechnology, Mithibai

College, Vile Parle(W),

Mumbai - 400056. India.

Article Received on

08 June 2016,

Revised on 28 June 2016,

Accepted on 18 July 2016

DOI: 10.20959/wjpps20168-7391


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in 1952.[2]

Nanotechnology is a field of science which deals with production, manipulation

and use of materials ranging in nanometers (1to100nm). In nanotechnology nanoparticles

research is an important aspect due to its innumerable applications. Evolution of Nano field

leads to tremendous growth in various areas such as food and agriculture, pharmaceutical,

material science, bio technology, medicine, energy and environment, bio-medical, sensors,

antimicrobials, catalysts, electronics, optical fibers, bio-labeling and in other areas.[3]

The surface to volume ratio of nano particles is increased compare than bulk materials with

the same composition which leads to developing a material with enhanced properties and

attributes such as catalytic activity, electrical conductivity, hardness, mechanical strength,

optical properties and melting point and antimicrobial effects. The reactivity of the surface

initiates from quantum phenomena which can make nanoparticle unpredictable. Therefore

another hand, Nano particle had large functional surface area which is able to bind, adsorb

and carry the other compounds. This surface is more chemically active than fine analogue.[4]

Therefore, this review was conducted to highlight the nanoparticle synthesis using green

technology and different techniques for characterization of nanoparticles to provide a better

understanding of nanoparticles and thus improve their uses in modern technology.

GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanoparticles can be synthesized using a variety of methods including physical, chemical,

biological, and hybrid techniques[5-7]

(figure-1). Methods employed for the synthesis of

nanoparticles are broadly classified under two processes such as “Top-down” process and

“Bottom-up” process (figure-1). Top-down approach: Bulk material is broken down into

particles at nanoscale with various lithographic techniques e.g.: grinding, milling etc.

Bottom-up approach: Atoms self-assemble to new nuclei which grow into a particle of

nanoscale. The production of nanoparticles through conventional physical and chemical

methods results in toxic byproducts that are environmental hazards. Additionally, these

particles cannot be used in medicine due to health-related issues, especially in clinical

fields.[8, 9]

Conventional methods can be used to produce nanoparticles in large quantities

with defined sizes and shapes in a shorter period of time; however, these techniques are

complicated, costly, inefficient and outdated. In recent years, there has been growing interest

in the synthesis of environmentally friendly nanoparticles that do not produce toxic waste

products during the manufacturing process.[10, 11, 12]

This can only be achieved through benign

synthesis procedures of a biological nature using biotechnological tools that are considered


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safe and ecologically sound for nanomaterial fabrication as an alternative to conventional

physical and chemical methods.[13]

This has given rise to the concept of greentechnology or green nanobiotechnology. In

general, green nanobiotechnology means synthesizing nanoparticles or nanomaterials using

biological routes such as those involving microorganisms, plants and viruses or their

byproducts, such as proteins and lipids, with the help of various biotechnological tools.

Nanoparticles produced by green technology are far superior to those manufactured with

physical and chemical methods based on several aspects. For example, green techniques

eliminate the use of expensive chemicals, consume less energy, and generate environmentally

benign products and byproducts.

The 12 principles of green chemistry have now become a reference guide for researchers,

scientists, chemical technologists and chemists around the world for developing less

hazardous chemical products and byproducts.[14, 15]

Accordingly, green nanobiotechnology is

a reliable, environmentally benign method and a promising alternate route for synthesis of

biocompatible stable nanoparticles and its characterization.[16]

Biological-based synthesis of

nanoparticles utilizes a bottom-upapproach in which synthesis occurs with the help of

reducing and stabilizing agents (Figure-2).

Three main steps are followed for the synthesis of nanoparticles using a biological system:

the choice of solvent medium used, the choice of an ecofriendly and environmentally benign

reducing agent and the choice of a nontoxicmaterial as a capping agent to stabilize the

synthesized nanoparticles.[17]

Nanotechnology has more advantages over other conventional

approaches owing to the availability of more components by biological system for the

formation of nanoparticles. The rich biodiversity of such biological components has been

explored for the synthesis of bionanomaterials, which are environmentally benign and can be

used in various medical applications.

The present review emphasizes reported plant resources for the synthesis of different

nanoparticles. Plants are known to possess various therapeutic compounds which are being

exploited since ancient time as a traditional medicine. Due its huge diversity plants have been

explored constantly for wide range of applications in the field of pharmaceutical, agricultural,

industrial etc. Recent reports of plants towards production of nanoparticles is said to have

advantages such as easily available, safe to handle and broad range of biomolecules such as


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alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols, flavanoids, tannins, quinines etc. are known to mediate

synthesis of nanoparticles. Plants reported to mediate nanoparticles synthesis are mentioned

in the table-1 which is discussed briefly in this present review.

Figure 1: Different approaches and methods for synthesizing nanoparticles


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Figure 2: Biological synthesis of nanoparticles using green technology

FABRICATION OF DIFFERENT NANOPARTICLES USING PLANTS

Plant-mediated biosynthesis of nanoparticle is considered a widely acceptable technology for

rapid production of metallic nanoparticles for successfully meeting the excessive need and

current market demand and resulting in a reduction in the employment or generation of

hazardous substances to public health. Similar to microbes which have been used as a “bio-

factory” in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles, plants are also the natural “chemical

factories” which are economical and require minimal maintenance.[18]

Plants have several

cellular structures and physiological processes to combat the toxicity of metals and maintain

homeostasis. They also possess dynamic solutions to detoxify metals and hence scientists

have now turned into phytoremediation.[19]

The modus operandi of detoxification includes

immobilization, exclusion, chelation and compartmentalization of the metals ions and the

expression of more general stress response mechanisms, such as ethylene and stress

proteins.[20]

The ability to tolerate inimical concentrations of toxic metals is found in the plant

kingdom from ages. Their ability to accumulate high concentrations of metals was observed

for both essential nutrients, such as copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and selenium, as well as

non-essential metals, such as cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), aluminum (Al) and

arsenic (As).[21]

In plants or plantderived materials, a wide range of metabolites with redox

potentials is determined, which are playing a principal role as a reducing agent in the

biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles. In comparison to the microbial synthesis of


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nanoparticles, highly stable nanoparticles are synthesized by plant or plant extracts with the

higher rate of production. Consequently, the advantages of plant-mediated preparation of

metal nanoparticles lead researchers to in search of further exploration of the bio-reduction

mechanism of metal ions by plants and the possible mechanism of formation of metal

nanoparticle in and by the plants.[22, 23]

Table-1 Representing plant reported synthesis of nanoparticles

NO. PLANTS BIOMOLECULES

INVOLVED

NANO

PARTICLES SIZE REFERENCES

1 Allium cepa L. Vitamin C Au ~100 nm Parida et al.[23]

2 Allium sativum Sucrose and fructose Ag 4.4±1.5nm White II et al.[24]

3 Achyranthus aspera L. Polyols Ag 20-30nm Daniel et al.[25]

4 Anacardium

occidentale Polyols and proteins

Au, Ag, Au-

Ag alloy and

Au core-Ag

shell

- Sheny et al.[26]

5 Andrographis

paniculata Nees.

Hydroxyflavones

catechins Ag 28nm Sulochana et al.

[27]

6 Astragalus gummifer

Labill. Proteins Ag 13.1±1.0 nm Kora et al.

[28]

7 Azadirachta indica A.

Juss.

Salanin, Nimbin,

Azadirone and

Azadirachtins

Au 2-100nm Thirumurugan et al.[29]

8 Camellia sinensis L. Polyphenolic

compounds Au 25nm Boruah et al.

[30]

9 Carica papaya L. hydroxyflavones and

catechins. Ag 15 nm Jain et al.

[31]

10 Centella asiatica L. Terpenoid, flavonoid Ag - Palaniselvam et al.[32]

11 Chenopodium album L. Oxalic acid Ag, Au 12nm,

10 nm Dwivedi and Gopal.

[33]

12 Coleus aromaticus

Lour. Flavonoids Ag 40-50 nm

Vanaja and

Annadurai.[34]

13 Cinnamomum

zeylanicum Blume. Terpenoids Pd 15-20 nm Sathishkumar et al.

[35]

14 Cinnamomum

camphora L.

Polyols, heterocyclic

components Pd 3.2 to 6.0 nm Xin et al.

[36]

15 Citrullus colocynthis L

Polyphenols with

aromatic ring and

bound amide region

Ag 31 nm Satyavani et al.[37]

16 Datura metel L. Plastohydroquinone or

plastrocohydroquinol Ag 16 to 40 nm Kesharwani et al.

[38]

17 Desmodium triflorum

(L) DC

Water-soluble

antioxidative agents

like ascorbic acids

Ag 5–20 nm Ahmed et al.[39]

18 Diopyros kaki Terpenoids and

reducing sugars Pt 2-12 nm Song et al.

[40]


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19 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Polyphenols or

flavonoids Ag 8-20 nm Ghosh et al.

[41]

20 Dioscorea oppositifolia

L.

Polyphenols with

aromatic ring and

bound amide region

Ag 14 nm Maheswari et al.[42]

21

Elettaria cardamomom

(L) Maton.

Alcohols, carboxylic,

acids, ethers, esters

and aliphatic amines

Ag - Gnana Jobitha et al.[43]

22. Gardenia jasminoides

Ellis.

Geniposide,

chlorogenicacid,

crocins and crocetin

Pd 3-5 nm Jia et al.[44]

23 Glycyrrhiza Glabra L. Flavonoids,

terpenoids, thiamine Ag 20 nm Dinesh et al.

[45]

24 Hibiscus cannabinus L. Ascorbic acid Ag 9 nm Bindhu and Umadevi.[46]

25 Hydrilla verticilata

(L.f.) Royle Proteins Ag 65.55 nm Sable et al.

[47]

26 Jatropha curcas L.

Curcacycline A (an

octapeptide),

Curcacycline B

(a nonapeptide)

Curcain (anenzyme)

ZnS

Pb

10nm

10-12.5 nm

Hudlikar et al.[48]

Joglekar et al.[49]

27 Justicia gendarussa L. Polyphenol and

flavonoid Au 27 nm Fazaludeena et al.

[50]

28 Lantana camara L.

Carbohydrates,

glycosides and

flavonoids

Ag 2.55 Sivakumar et al.[51]

29 Leonuri herba L.

Polyphenols and

hydroxyl

groups

Ag

Ag 9.9 to

13.0 nm A-Rang Im et al.

[52]

31 Mentha piperita L. Menthol Ag, Au 90nm,

150nm Ali et al.

[53]

32 Mirabilis jalapa L. polypols Au 100 nm Vankar and Bajpai.

[54]

33 Morinda pubescens L. Hydroxyflavones,

catechins Ag 25-50nm

Mary and

Inbathamizh.[55]

34 Ocimum sanctum L.

Phenolic and flavanoid

compounds. Proteins

Ascorbic acid, gallic

acid, terpenoids

Ag

Ag

Pt

10 nm

4–30nm

23 nm

Ahmad et al.[56]

Ramteke et al.[57]

Soundarrajan et al.[58]

35 Parthenium

hysterophorus L.

Hydroxyflavones and

catechins Ag 10 nm Ashok Kumar.

[59]

36 Pedilanthus

tithymaloides (L) Poit. Proteins and enzymes Ag 15- 30 nm

Sundarayadivelan et

al.[60]

37 Piper betle L. Proteins Ag 3-37 nm Mallikarjuna et al.[61]

38 Piper nigrum L Proteins Ag 5-50 nm Garg.[62]

39 Plumeria rubra L. Proteins Ag 32-220 nm Patil et al.[63]

40 Sesuvium

portulacastrum L

Proteins, flavones and

terpenoids Ag 5- 20 nm Nabikhan et al.

[64]


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41 Solanum xanthocarpum

L.

Phenolics, alkaloids

and sugars Ag 10 nm Amin et al.

[65]

42 Sorghum Moench. polyphenols Ag, Fe 10 nm Njagi et al.[66]

43 Soybean (Glycine Max)

L.

Proteins and amino

acids Pd 15 nm Petla et al.

[67]

44 44 Swietenia mahogany

(L) Jacq.

Polyhydroxy

limonoids

Ag, Au and

bimetallic

alloy Au-Ag

- Mondala et al.[68]

45 Syzygium aromaticum

(L)Merr & Perr. Flavonoids Au 5-100 nm Deshpande et al.

[69]

46 Terminalia catappa L. Hydrolysable tannins Au 10-25 nm Ankamwar.[70]

47 Trianthema decandra

L. Ag 10-50nm

Hydroxyflavones and

catechins Ag 10-50 nm

Geethalakshmi and

Sarada.[71]

48 Tridax procumbens L. Water-soluble

carbohydrates Cuo2 - Gopalakrishnan et al.

[72]

49 Vitus vinifera L. Flavone and

anthocyanins Pb 661 nm Pavani et al.

[73]

50 Zingiber officinale

Rosc. alkanoids, flavonoids Au 10 nm Singh et al.

[74]

In recent years biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles, such as silver nanoparticles using Allium

plant extracts as nano-factories becomes an important subject of researches in the field of bio-

nanotechnology.[23, 24]

Various other reports also showed the use of plants extract such as

Datura[38]

, Hibiscus cannabinus L[46]

, Ocimum sanctum L.[56-58]

, Piper sps[61,62]

, Solanum

xanthocarpum [65]

for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The plant extract used for the

fabrication of Gold nano particles[54,69-70]

, Copper nanoparticles[72]

, Lead nanoparticles[48,49,73]

,

Iron nanoparticles[66]

were also been reported.

A large number of plants reported to facilitate metal nanoparticles synthesis and based on all

a forementioned information, a tabulated report for plant-mediated fabrication of metal

nanoparticles and is illustrated in Table 1. The different parts of plant such as stem, root,

fruit, seed, callus, peel, leaves and flower are used to synthesis of metallic nanoparticles in

various shapes and sizes by biological approaches.

Generally, the bio-reduction mechanism of metal nanoparticle in plants and plant extracts

includes three main phases.[75]

The activation phase in which the reduction of metal ions and

nucleation of the reduced metal atoms occur. The growth phase, referring to the spontaneous

coalescence of the small adjacent nanoparticles into particles of a larger size, accompanied by

an increase in the thermodynamic stability of nanoparticles, or a process referred to as

Ostwald ripening and the termination phase in which the final shape of the nanoparticles

formed.


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ADVANTAGES OF PLANT -MEDIATED SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES

Due to their easy availability, green preparation of nanoparticles using plant extracts turns out

to be an important research subject in the field of bio-nanotechnology in this era. Principally,

the biogenic synthesis employs plant extracts in aqueous form in the fabrication of noble

nanoparticles for the reason that the availability of reducing agent is higher in the extract than

the whole plant.[76]

Besides, plant-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles is simpler and easier to

be conducted without requiring any specific operating conditions as compared to typical

physical and chemical methods. The synthesized products of the process including waste

products are resulted from natural plant extracts and hence this technique is also more

environmental green. Nevertheless, both strong and weak chemical reducing agents and

capping agents such as sodium citrate, sodium borohydride and alcohols, which are mostly

toxic, flammable, and cannot be degraded easily, are required in the physical and chemical

methods.[77]

Through this bio-based protocol of nanoparticles synthesis, higher

reproducibility of the process and higher stability of the synthesized nanoparticles can be

attained. Therefore, this green-based fabrication of nanoparticles is suitable for large scale

production with more effective cost investment, eco-friendly and safe for human therapeutic

use. Apart from the aspects of reproducibility and stability, the rate of bio-reduction of metal

ions using biological agents is showed to be much faster and also at ambient temperature and

pressure conditions.[78]

On the contrary, previous studies reported that the bio-reduction

potential of the plant extracts is comparatively higher than the microbial culture.[79]

Moreover, the waste products resulted from the microbial-based method is likely to be more

harmful to the environment depending on the type of microbes involved in the synthesis.[80]

Hence, plant-mediated synthesis brings less or almost zero contamination and so reducing the

impact on the environment. With all the aforementioned advantages and outstanding features

over other methods, the biosynthetic method employing plant extracts has now turned as a

simple, effective and viable technique as well as a good alternative to conventional chemical

and physical nanoparticle preparation methods, and even microbial methods.[76]

CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOPARTICLE

The nanoparticles present a range of characterization challenges that affect the detailed and

appropriate characterization of nanoparticles. Thus understanding the problems faced during

characterization of nanoparticles and selecting a suitable characterization technique are of

utmost importance. Specifically, nanoparticle characterization is performed to assess the

surface area and porosity, pore size, solubility, particle size distribution, aggregation,


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hydrated surface analysis, zeta potential, wettability, adsorption potential and shape, size of

the interactive surface, crystallinity, fractal dimensions, orientation and the intercalation and

dispersion of nanoparticles and nanotubes in nanocomposite materials.[81]

Several techniques

can be used to determine nanoparticle parameters, including ultraviolet-(UV-) visible

spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM),

scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray photoelectron

spectroscopy (XPS), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD),

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy(FT-IR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization

time-of-flight mass spectrometry(MALDI-TOF), dual polarization interferometry, nuclear

magnetic resonance (NMR), nanoparticle tracking analysis(NTA)for evaluation of Brownian

motion, and particles is analysis.[82,83,84]

1. Nanoparticle Formation Analysis. UV-visible spectroscopy is used to confirm the

formation of various types of nanoparticles by measuring Plasmonresonance and evaluating

the collective oscillations of conduction band electrons in response to electromagnetic

waves.[81]

This provides information about the size, structure, stability and aggregation of the

nanoparticles.[85]

Metal nanoparticles are associated with specific absorbance bands in

characteristics spectra when the incident light enters in to resonance with the conduction band

electrons on the surface of the nanoparticle. For example, silver nanoparticles produce a

specific absorbance peak between 400 and 450nm, while gold nanoparticles have an

absorbance peak between 500 and 550nm, due to the excitation mode of the surface

plasmons, which vary depending on the size of the nanoparticle.[86, 87, 88]

2. Nanoparticle Extraction Analysis

The extraction of nanoparticles is undertaken by a critical analytical process of Cloud point

extraction. Apart from the matrix effects in the environmental samples, the low

concentrations of nanoparticles require enrichment procedure prior to its analytical

determination that can be obtained by adding a surfactant to the sample at a concentration

that exceeds the critical concentration. At higher temperature than the specific cloud point,

the surfactants form micelles in which the nonpolar substances are encapsulated since their

densities are higher than water; thus they settled down at the bottom of the solution and then

a noparticles are extracted by further centrifugation procedure.[89,90]

3. Morphology and Particle Size Determination

Morphology and particle size distribution are the most important parameters for


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characterizing nanoparticles. These factors can be measured by microscopic techniques such

as TEM, SEM and AFM.[91]

Most nanoparticle applications or associated factors such as drug

targeting and release, tissue targeting, toxicity and biological fate, or in vivo distribution are

linked to the size and size distribution of nanoparticles. Various studies have shown that

microparticles are less effective for drug delivery than nanoparticles owing to their larger

size.[91,92,93]

Nanoparticles are more effective since they provide large surface areas for drug

interaction due to their small size.[92]

However, in some cases, aggregationcan occur with

small particle size. Therefore, nanoparticles with are relatively large size are thought to

promote rapid drug release and more effective polymer degradation.[91, 93]

3.1 TEM

TEM is one of the most commonly used methods for determination of the shape, size and

morphology of nanoparticles.[94, 95]

However, sample preparation for TEM is very complex

and time-consuming because the samples must be ultrathin for electron transmittance. Thus,

thin films containing the samples are prepared on carbon-coated copper grids by dropping a

very small amount of the sample in solution onto the grid and then removing the extra

solution with blotting paper. To withstand the vacuum pressure of the microscope and

facilitate proper handling, the nanoparticles are fixed using a negative staining solution

(phosphotungstic acid) or derivatives (e.g., uranyl acetate), after which they are embedded in

plastic or exposed to liquid nitrogen after embedding in vitreous ice.[91]

The particles are

subsequently allowed to dry under a mercury lamp and then are exposed to a monochromatic

beam of electrons that penetrates the sample and is projected on to a viewing screen to

generate an image.[96-99]

Using TEM, small particles (10−10 m in size, which is near the

atomic level) can be viewed and the crystallographic structure of a sample can be image data

on atomic scale.[91]

Arrangement of the atoms and their local microstructures such as lattice

fringe, glide plane, lattice vacancies and defects, screw axes and the surface atomic

arrangement of crystalline nanoparticles can be analyzed using high-resolution transmission

electron microscopy (HRTEM).[100]

3.2. SEM

SEM is another technique used to characterize the morphology of nanoparticles through

direct visualization. This method is based on electron microscopy and offers several

advantages for morphological and size analysis; however, it is also associated with several

disadvantages, such as the ability to provide only limited information about the size


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distribution and true population average.[91]

The instrument has features that include an

electron gun, condenser lenses, and a vacuum system. SEM produces three types of principal

images: external X-ray maps, backscattered electron images and secondary electron

images.[84]

For SEM analysis, the nanoparticle solution is dried into a powder, mounted on a

sample holder and coated with a conductive metal such as gold, gold/palladium alloy,

platinum, osmium, iridium, tungsten, chromium, or graphite using a sputter coated.[101]

Next,

a beam of high-energy electrons is directed to the sample to generate a variety of signals on

the surface of the specimens.[102]

The signals received from the sample exposed to electron

beams are recorded by a detector that reveals information about the samples, including their

texture (external morphology), crystalline structure, and chemical composition and

orientation of the materials in the sample.[87,88]

For a successful analysis, the nanoparticles

should be able to withstand vacuum pressure and the adverse effects of the electron beam,

which can damage nanopolymers.[91]

In most cases, data for a selected area of the surface of

the nanomaterialarecollectedandatwo-dimensionalimagewith spatial variations is displayed

(Figure5).[103, 104]

Despite these advantages, this technique is time consuming and costly and

often requires complementary information about the size distribution.

3.3. AFM

AFM is used to study the morphology of nanoparticles and biomolecules. Unlike SEM and

TEM, AFM produces three-dimensional images so that particle volume and height can be

evaluated.[105,106]

This method is capable of ultra-high resolution for particle size

measurement and is based on physical scanning of the samples at the submicron level using a

probe tip.[107]

Using AFM, quantitative information regarding individual nanoparticles and

groups of particles such as size (length, width and height), morphology and surface texture

can be evaluated with the help of software based image processing.[94]

AFM can be performed

in either liquid or gas medium. For this method, a small volume of the nanoparticles is spread

on a glass coverslip mounted on the AFM standard dried with nitrogen gas at room

temperature. About six to ten images are then taken for a single sample to enable better

interpretation of the data. The instrument generates a topographical map of the sample based

on the forces between the tip and the surface of the sample, which is scanned in contact

mode. The probe hovers over the conducting surface when in noncontact mode, depending on

the sample-specific properties.[94]

The main advantage of AFM is its ability to image non

conducting samples without any specific treatment and the ability to image delicate biological

or polymeric micro-and nanostructures.[108]


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3.4. DLS

DLS, otherwise known as photon-correlation spectroscopy, is one of the fastest and most

popular methods for determining particle size distribution. DLS is widely used to measure the

size of Brownian nanoparticles in colloidal suspensions.[94, 109]

When a monochromatic beam

of light (laser) is directed onto a solution of spherical particles in Brownian motion, a

Doppler shift occurs when the light hits the moving particles, there by changing the

wavelength of the incoming beam of light by a value related to particle size. Accordingly,

DLS enables computation of size distribution and nanoparticle motion in the medium can be

computed by measuring the diffusion coefficient of the particle.[97]

3.5. Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis

The nanoparticle tracking analysis is an improved system that is used to categorize different

types of nanoparticles on the basis of their size ranging between 30 and 1000nm with the

lower detection limit depending on its refractive index. With the help of this technique, the

liquid nanoparticle suspension can be visualized directly and it has application in

drugdelivery encapsulated nanoparticles for controlled release or precise delivery of the drug

to the specific targeted areas.[110]

4. Surface Charge Analysis

Another important parameter for characterizing nanoparticles is surface charge. The nature

and intensity of the surface charge are very important since these factors determine the

interaction of the nanoparticle with the biological environment and the electrostatic

interactions with the bioactive compounds from plants, algae, fungi and bacteria.

5. XPS

XPS is used to study the mechanism of reaction that occurs on the surface of magnetic

nanoparticles, assess the bonding characteristics of the different elements involved and

confirm the structure and different elements present in the magnetic nanoparticles.[111]

6. FT-IR Spectroscopy

FT-IR spectroscopy is conducted to identify the functional groups present on nanoparticles.

Using FT-IR analysis, the infrared emission spectrum, absorption, photoconductivity, or

Raman scattering of a solid, liquid, or gas can be evaluated. The spectrum represents a

fingerprint of the nanoparticles consisting of absorption peaks that correspond to the

frequencies of vibrations between the bonds of atoms in the nanoparticle. Since each type of


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nanoparticle contains a unique combination of atoms; we can identify functional groups

present inside the nanoparticles based on the FT-IR spectra.[111]

This can help facilitate

nanoparticle synthesis using green technology. The number of functional groups present in

the nanomaterial can be determined by the size of the peaks of the spectrum.[111]

The

transmission spectra for the nanoparticles are obtained by the formation of thin, transparent

potassium bromide (KBr) pellets containing the compound of interest. The KBr mixtures are

placed in a vacuum line overnight prior to pellet formation, and the pellets are again placed in

the vacuum line before use. The transmission spectra are obtained after purging in dry air and

background corrected relative to a reference blank sample (KBr).[84]

With the application of

modern software tools, quantitative analysis of the nanoparticles can be completed within a

few seconds.[96,104]

7. Zetasizer Nanomachine

The stability and surface charge of colloidal nanoparticles are evaluated indirectly by

performing zeta potential analysis using a Zetasizer nanomachine. Zeta potential analysis

corresponds to the potential difference between the outer Helmholtz plane and the surface of

shear. Measurement of the zeta potential predicts the storage stability of the colloidal

dispersion. Either high positive or negative zeta potential values should be achieved to ensure

stability and avoid particle aggregation. Additionally, the extent of surface hydrophobicity

can be predicted. The nature of the materials encapsulated inside the nanoparticle or coated

on the particle surface is also analyzed based on zeta potential.[112]

8. TGA

TGA is used to confirm the composition of coatings such as surfactants or polymers to

estimate the binding efficiency on the surface of magnetic nanoparticles.[111]

9. Crystallinity Analysis

XRD is used to assess the crystallinity of synthesized nanoparticles.[6]

This technique is

employed to identify and quantitatively examine various crystalline forms or the elemental

composition of natural and manufactured materials or nanoparticles.[113]

To accomplish this,

the structure and lattice parameters of the diffracted powder specimen are analyzed by

measuring the angle of diffraction, when X-ray beam are made to incident on them. Particle

size is also determined based on the width of the X-ray peaks using the Scherrer formula.[84]


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10. Surface Hydrophobicity Assessment

Surface hydrophobicity of the nanoparticles can be measured using several analytical

techniques, including biphasic partitioning, probe adsorption, hydrophobic interaction

chromatography and contact angle measurements. X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy has

recently been used to identify specific chemical groups on the surface of nanoparticles.[114]

11. Analysis of Nanoparticle Magnetic Properties

Many techniques are available to investigate the properties of magnetic nanoparticles

including vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) and superconducting quantum interference

device (SQUID) magnetometry.[111]

However, neither of these techniques is element-specific,

and they can only measure general magnetization. SQUID magnetometry is routinely used to

assess the properties of magnetic nanoparticles. To accomplish this, nanoparticles are cooled

with or without an applied magnetic field and then warmed in the presence of a magnetic

field.[111]

Magnetization is monitored as af unction of temperature. VSM is conducted to

evaluate the magnetization of magnetic nanoparticles as a function of an applied external

magnetic field (𝐻), generally between −3 and 3Tesla. Based on the VSM curve obtained at

low and room temperature, the magnetic behavior of the nanoparticles can be observed. VSM

is a good technique for estimating the effects of a shell on saturation magnetization.[111]

APPLICATION OF NANO PARTICLES

An enormous amount of researches are still going on various universities, colleges and

laboratories around the world due to its numerous applications. Some of the applications are

detailed below (Figure 3).

WASTE WATER EFFLUENT TREATMENT

An application of Nano technology in the field of effluent treatment is still under exploited.

Nano catalyst such as TiO2, ZnO, MgO, CuO, etc involved in the photo catalytic reaction,

carried out in the presence of light. The researchers[115]

prefer Nano particles in Effluent

treatment, because the surface area to volume ratio is higher in Nano particles which absorbs

more energy from light thus produces more hydroxyl radical which oxidize the organic

pollutants[116]

done a research on dye removal using clay supported iron Nano particles. Iron

Nano particles were synthesis from green tea by green synthesis method using ferric chloride

as a precursor. They considered the following operating variables such as initial dye

concentration, pH and dosage level. The results were concluded that increasing the dosage

level of clay supported nano particles and decreasing the pH leads to increase the rate of dye


516


removal. Experimental results were illustrated that increasing the pH increases the rate of

removal at pH 9 maximum efficiency achieved afterwards increasing pH leads to decreasing

the removal efficiency and the optimum irradiation time dosage level was 340 minute and

2g/l respectively. Liuand etal[117]

detailed about the role of Nano catalyst applications in

photo catalysis, activity of nanocatalyst and enhancement of activity of Nano catalyst by

coupling, doping, capping and sensitizing. Silver nanoparticles composite by bio reduction

process using ocimum tenuiflorum (Black Tulsi) as a capping and reducing agents. Nano

composite was made with the help of sand for treating the textile dye turquoise blue.[118]

Characterization was made by TEM, SEM and FTIR, the efficiency depends on increasing

the temperature increases the rate of dye adsorption due to high mobility accompanied by

reduction of retarding force acting on the dye. Similar work was done by[119]

to treat acid

green and blue FFS acid dye via chemically synthesized silver Nano particles, reaction was

carried out in the presence of visible light.

FOOD PACKAGING

Nano technology in food packaging sectors was accepted now days due to its tangible

benefits. Currently, widely used food packaging material made of plastic likes poly ethylene,

poly propylene, poly vinyl alcohol, etc which are harmful and non bio degradable. Several

studies going on to develop the bio polymer because it possesses eco friendly properties but

barrier properties are low compare than plastic. It could be done by adding filler matrix, made

of Nano particles provides better interactions.[120]

Other development in Nano technology in

food packaging is carbon Nano tubes which are cylinder structure with Nano scale diameter.

It improves the mechanical properties.[121]

Nano sensors are sensor being added to the

packaging material to detect the gases rise off from the food when its spoiled as well as it

prevent the permeation and transpiration of gases. For example the packaging materials with

silica Nano particles prevent oxygen penetration inside the package at the same time stop the

moisture loss from the product.[122]

Another important application is tracking of food by Nano

technology is unexploited. In tracking system, Nano sensors are embedded in food as a tiny

size chips which produces electrical signal based on this fresh food is tracked from paddock

to factory to retail stores. Food wrapped with smart safety packaging also detects the

microbial spoilage.

FOOD PROCESSING

Potential impact of Nano technology in food processing is an emerging topic in the area of


517


smart delivering of nutrients, bio separation of proteins and Nano encapsulation of

nutraceuticals. As the fundamental components of food materials are vitamins, antimicrobial

agents, antioxidant and food additives such as colorants, flavorants, preservatives, etc. These

components are compatible with food attributes like color, taste, texture and shelf life.

Protection of these could be done by Nano encapsulation, Nano emulsion, etc.[123]

done a

research on encapsulation of fish oil by spray drying technique using maltodextrin combined

with modified starch Hi-Cap and whey protein concentrate (WPC) as a encapsulation agents.

Emulsion was prepared by three methods silver sons, micro fluidizer and ultrasound; they

analyzed various parameters such as emulsion size, powder size, and powder moisture and

encapsulation efficiency for each emulsion method. Results demonstrated that micro

fludization method produced very small size than other emulsification methods as well as

another result was found that Hi-cap sample have higher the emulsion size compared with

WPC due to WPC possessed the both hydrophobic and hydrophilic sites which lead to strong

emulsion capabilities. Another study demonstrated that Nano encapsulated designer

probiotics bacterial cells in yoghurt improve the sustained release and immune enhancing

effects in the gastro-intestinal system. Some food processing operation utilizes the enzyme to

alter the characteristics of any components, Immobilization of these enzymes on the Nano

catalyst is an aid to disperse throughout the food medium and enhance its activity.

Triacylglycerol lipase enzyme was covalently bonded on the Nano silicon dioxide particles

which interesterified the olive oil with good stability, adaptability, consistency and

reusability.[124]

MEDICINE

Nano science and technology are currently have been developed in the field of medicine for

detecting the disease such as cancer, atherosclerosis at early stages and targeted drug delivery

for a cell or tissue of choice. Two important aspects of Nano technology in drug delivery

system are time of drug release and specific targeting of diseased cell which improve the drug

availability. Atherosclerosis associated with two targeted components fibrin and tissue factor,

can be detected by MRI using paramagnetic Nano particles targeted to the components,

alternate lipid bi layers with an aqueous fluid and produce an ultrasound signal based on the

signal, stage of the disease was found.[125]

Nano robotics employed in the field of Nano

dentistry for treating Dentin hyper sensitivity.[126]

Dentin hyper sensitivity is a common

condition of transient tooth pain due to tooth bleaching, tooth pathology and loss of

cementum on root surfaces. It could be prevented by Nano robots which could precisely


518


occlude the specific sites on the teeth quickly and permanent within minutes. An occurrence

of musculoskeletal disorders owing to aging population and other injuries, current treatment

involves use of orthopedic implants for fixing the internal fractured bones. Nano sized

organic and mineral phases can be an effective and new bone material for implantation

because it has greater bone adhesion, durability and flexibility. Large surface to volume ratio

which increases the bone cell interactions thus improves the orthopedic implant efficacy and

minimize the patient compliance.[127]

GENE DELIVERY

Gene delivery it is a technique that plays a vital role that can efficiently introduce a gene of

interest in order to express its encoded protein in a suitable host or host cell. Now a day, there

are different types of primary gene delivery systems that mainly employ viral vectors like

retroviruses and adenoviruses, nucleic acid electroporation, and nucleic acid transfection.[128]

CANCER TREATMENT

There are a variety of nanoparticle systems currently under investigation to be applied in

biomedical with the emphasis on cancer therapeutics. There are a variety of nanoparticle

systems currently investigated and explored for biomedical applications with some particular

emphasis for cancer therapeutics; hence some precious metals (mainly gold and silver

systems, Au and Ag) and some magnetic oxides (in particular magnetite Fe3O4) received

much interest including quantum dots and some of what is called natural nanoparticles. The

unique up conversion process of UCNPs may be utilized to activate photosensitive

therapeutic agents for applications in cancer treatment.[129]

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY

Metal Nano particles had anti microbial activity, The bactericidal effect of metal Nano

particles attributed owing to their small size as well as high surface to volume ratio, which

allows them to interact closely with microbial membranes thus facilitates quick penetration of

metal Nano particles in to the cell and exclude the internal components of cell thus inactivate

the micro organism.[130]

made comparative study on antimicrobial effects of silver and copper

oxide Nano particles for the various strains E.coli, B. subtilis and S. aureus species. Disk

diffusion test was carried out to find the minimum inhibitory effect. Test results demonstrated

that for E.coli, S. aureus inhibition silver Nano particle was superior where as copper oxide

nano particle had better action against B. subtilis. Silver Nano particles synthesized from the

fungus Pestalotia had an anti bactericidal effect against human pathogen S. aureus and S.


519


typhi which shown that silver Nano particles were a powerful potent antibacterial agents

against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is a backbone of some of the countries like India and China, the majority of

national income from agricultural sector. But now a days this sector faced lots of challenges

due to climatic change, environmental issue like pesticide and fertilizer accumulation and

urbanization. Nano technology revolutionizes the agriculture field in the part of absorbing

nutrient, disease detection, disease control and smart delivery system.[131]

In future nano

catalyst will available in the pesticide and fertilizer to increase its efficiency at lower dosage

level which protects the environment from high dose pesticides. There are applications of

silver nano particle (Ag NP), zinc oxide nano particle (ZnO NP) and titanium oxide nano

particle (TiO NP) for the control of grasserie disease in silk worm caused by the virus B.mori

nuclear poly hedrosis virus and rice weevil in rice.

TEXTILE

The use of nano technology in textile industry is attracting due to its distinctive and

significance properties.[132]

Some of the properties are water repellence, wrinkle resistance,

anti bacterial, anti static and UV protection. Water repellence is imparted to the cotton

material simply by coating of a nano plasma over on it.[133]

Conventionally wrinkle resistance

done by resins but it leads to decrease in dye ability, tensile strength of fibre and abrasion

resistance, could be prevented by titanium nano catalyst and silica nano catalyst for cotton

and silk respectively.[134]

Fig. 3 Application of metallic nanoparticles in various fields


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CONCLUSION

Biological synthesis of nanoparticles has upsurge in the field of nano-biotechnology to create

novel materials that are ecofriendly, cost effective, stable nanoparticles with a great

importance for wider applications in the areas of electronics, medicine and agriculture.

During the current scenario nanotechnology motivates progress in all sphere of life, hence

biosynthetic route of nanoparticles synthesis will emerge as safer and best alternative to

conventional methods. Though various biological entities have been exploited for the

production of nanoparticles, the use of plants for the facile robust synthesis of nanoparticles

is a tremendous. Thus the present review envisions the importance of plant mediated

nanoparticles productions by conferring the various literatures reported by far. With the huge

plant diversity much more plant species are in way to be exploited and reported in future era

towards rapid and single step protocol with green principle.

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