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Greek mythology Bust of Zeus, Otricoli (Sala Rotonda, Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican). Greek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and signif- icance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself. [1] Greek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large col- lection of narratives, and implicitly in Greek representa- tional arts, such as vase-paintings and votive gifts. Greek myth attempts to explain the origins of the world, and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines and mythological creatures. These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral- poetic tradition; today the Greek myths are known pri- marily from Greek literature. The oldest known Greek literary sources, Homer’s epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the ori- gin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias. Archaeological findings provide a principal source of detail about Greek mythology, with gods and heroes featured prominently in the decoration of many arti- facts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth cen- tury BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the ex- isting literary evidence. [2] Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and rele- vance in the themes. [3] 1 Sources Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900–800 BC onward. [4] In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, some- times mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots. [5] 1.1 Literary sources Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiq- uity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the po- ets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. [6] Apollodorus of Athens 1

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Greek mythologyBust ofZeus, Otricoli (SalaRotonda, MuseoPio-Clementino,Vatican).Greek mythology is the body of myths and teachings thatbelong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods andheroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and signif-icance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a partof the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars referto and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on thereligious and political institutions of Ancient Greece andits civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature ofmyth-making itself.[1]Greek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large col-lection of narratives, and implicitly in Greek representa-tional arts, such as vase-paintings and votive gifts. Greekmyth attempts to explain the origins of the world, anddetails the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods,goddesses, heroes, heroines and mythological creatures.These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition; today the Greek myths are known pri-marily from Greek literature. The oldest known Greekliterary sources, Homers epic poems Iliad and Odyssey,focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath. Two poemsby Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony andthe Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis ofthe world, the succession of divine rulers, the successionof human ages, the origin of human woes, and the ori-gin of sacricial practices. Myths are also preserved inthe Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of theEpic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragediansof the fth century BC, in writings of scholars and poetsof the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of theRoman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias.Archaeological ndingsprovideaprincipal sourceofdetail about Greekmythology, withgodsandheroesfeaturedprominentlyinthedecorationofmanyarti-facts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth cen-tury BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well asthe adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic,Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and variousother mythological scenes appear, supplementing the ex-isting literary evidence.[2] Greek mythology has had anextensive inuence on the culture, arts, and literature ofWestern civilization and remains part of Western heritageand language. Poets and artists from ancient times to thepresent have derived inspiration from Greek mythologyand have discovered contemporary signicance and rele-vance in the themes.[3]1 SourcesGreek mythology is known today primarily from Greekliterature and representations on visual media dating fromthe Geometric period from c. 900800 BC onward.[4] Infact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, some-times mutuallysupportiveandsometimes inconict;however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus ofdata is a strong indication that many elements of Greekmythology have strong factual and historical roots.[5]1.1 Literary sourcesMythical narration plays an important role in nearly everygenre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only generalmythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiq-uity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This workattempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the po-ets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greekmythology and heroic legends.[6] Apollodorus of Athens12 1 SOURCESlived from c. 180125 BC and wrote on many of thesetopics. His writings may have formed the basis for thecollection;however the Library discusses events thatoccurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus.Prometheus (1868 by Gustave Moreau). The myth ofPrometheusrst wasattestedbyHesiodandthenconstitutedthebasisforatragictrilogyofplays, possiblybyAeschylus,consistingofPrometheus Bound,Prometheus Unbound, andPrometheus Pyrphoros.Among the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epicpoems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completedthe epic cycle, but these later and lesser poems noware lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name,the Homeric Hymns have no direct connection withHomer. They are choral hymns from the earlier part ofthe so-called Lyric age.[7] Hesiod, a possible contempo-rary with Homer, oers in his Theogony (Origin of theGods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths,dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of thegods, Titans, and Giants; as well as elaborate genealo-gies,folktales,and etiological myths. HesiodsWorksand Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also in-cludes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the FiveAges.The poet gives advice on the best way to succeedin a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by itsgods.[2]Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, buttheir treatment became gradually less narrative andmore allusive. Greeklyric poets including Pindar,Bacchylides, Simonides, and bucolic poets such asTheocritus and Bion, relate individual mythologicalincidents.[8]Additionally, mythwascentral toclassi-cal Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus,Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots frommyths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Manyof the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and hischildren,Oedipus,Jason,Medea,etc.) took on theirclassic form in these tragedies. The comic playwrightAristophanesalsousedmyths, inTheBirdsandTheFrogs.[9]Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geogra-phers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout theGreek world and noted the stories they heard, suppliednumerous local myths and legends,often giving little-known alternative versions.[8]Herodotus in particular,searched the various traditions presented him and foundthe historical or mythological roots in the confrontationbetween Greece and the East.[10] Herodotus attempted toreconcile origins and the blending of diering culturalconcepts.The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was pri-marily composed as a literary rather than cultic exer-cise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details thatwould otherwise be lost. This category includes the worksof:1. The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus,Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary.2. The Greek poets of the Late Antique period:Nonnus,Antoninus Liberalis,and Quintus Smyr-naeus.3. The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period:Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius.Prose writers from the same periods who make refer-ence to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, andHeliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sourcesare theFabulae andAstronomica of the Roman writerstyled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratusthe Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descrip-tions of Callistratus.Finally,a number of Byzantine Greek writers provideimportant details of myth, much derived from earliernow lost Greek works. These preservers of myth includeArnobius, Hesychius, the author of the Suda, John Tzet-zes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from aChristian moralizing perspective.[11]31.2 Archaeological sourcesThe Roman poet Virgil, here depicted in the fth-centurymanuscript, the Vergilius Romanus, preserved details of Greekmythology in many of his writings.The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the Ger-man amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in thenineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civ-ilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir ArthurEvans in the twentieth century, helped to explain manyexisting questions about Homers epics and provided ar-chaeological evidence for many of the mythological de-tails about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidenceabout myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sitesis entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an an-cient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainlandGreece) was used mainly to record inventories, althoughcertain names of gods and heroes have been tentativelyidentied.[2]Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BCdepict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the ad-ventures of Heracles.[2] These visual representations ofmyths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greekmyths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources:of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only theCerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literarytext.[12]Secondly, visual sourcessometimesrepresentmyths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any ex-tant literary source. In some cases, the rst known rep-resentation of a myth in geometric art predates its rstknown representation in late archaic poetry, by severalcenturies.[4] In the Archaic (c. 750c. 500 BC), Clas-sical (c. 480323 BC), and Hellenistic (323146 BC)periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenesappear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.[2]2 Survey of mythic historyGreek mythology has changed over time to accommo-date the evolution of their culture, of which mythology,both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an in-dex of the changes. In Greek mythologys surviving liter-ary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressivechanges, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertsonhas argued.[13]The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were anagricultural people who, using Animism, assigned a spiritto every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spiritsassumed human forms and entered the local mythology asgods.[14] When tribes fromthe north of the Balkan Penin-sula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon ofgods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and vi-olent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural worldfused with those of the more powerful invaders or elsefaded into insignicance.[15]After the middle of the Archaic period, myths about re-lationships between male gods and male heroes becamemore and more frequent, indicating the parallel devel-opment of pedagogic pederasty (eros paidikos, ), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC.By the end of the fth century BC, poets had assigned atleast one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sex-ual companion, to every important god except Ares andto many legendary gures.[16] Previously existing myths,such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then werecast in a pederastic light.[17] Alexandrian poets at rst,then more generally literary mythographers in the earlyRoman Empire, often readapted stories of Greek mytho-logical characters in this fashion.The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cyclesand, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythologicalchronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase inthe development of the world and of humans.[18] Whileself-contradictions in these stories make an absolute time-line impossible, an approximate chronology may be dis-cerned. The resulting mythological history of the worldmay be divided into three or four broader periods:1. Themyths oforigin or ageofgods (Theogonies,birthsofgods): myths about the origins of theworld, the gods, and the human race.2. The age whengods andmortals mingledfreely:stories of the early interactions between gods,demigods, and mortals.3. The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activ-ity was more limited. The last and greatest of theheroic legends is the story of the Trojan War andafter (which is regarded by some researchers as aseparate fourth period).[19]While the age of gods often has been of more interestto contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of4 2 SURVEY OF MYTHIC HISTORYthe archaic and classical eras had a clear preference forthe age of heroes, establishing a chronology and recordof human accomplishments after the questions of howthe world came into being were explained. For example,the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focusedTheogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popular-ity. Under the inuence of Homer the hero cult leadsto a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the sep-aration of the realm of the gods from the realm of thedead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian.[20] Inthe Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme ofFour Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze,and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of thegods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos,the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. The presenceof evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when allof the best of human capabilities, save hope, had beenspilled out of her overturned jar.[21] In Metamorphoses,Ovid follows Hesiods concept of the four ages.[22]2.1 Origins of the world and the godsSee also: Greek primordial gods and Family tree of theGreek godsMyths of origin or "creation myths" represent an at-Amor Vincit Omnia (Love Conquers All), a depiction of thegod of love, Eros. By Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, circa16011602.tempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in hu-man language.[23] The most widely accepted version atthe time, although a philosophical account of the begin-ning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. Hebegins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of thevoid emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primarydivine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus),and the Erebus.[24] Without male assistance, Gaia gavebirth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her.Fromthat union were born rst the Titanssix males: Coeus,Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and sixfemales: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, andTethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus de-creed no more Titans were to be born. They were fol-lowed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires orHundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tar-tarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus (thewily, youngest and most terrible of Gaias children[24]),was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He didthis, and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort, and the other Titans becamehis court.A motif of father-against-son conict was repeated whenCronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronushad betrayed his father, he feared that his ospring woulddothesame, andsoeachtimeRheagavebirth, hesnatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this andtricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in ababys blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was fullgrown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused himto vomit, throwing up Rheas other children and the stone,which had been sitting in Cronuss stomach all along.Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship ofthe gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whomZeus freed fromTartarus), Zeus and his siblings were vic-torious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down toimprisonment in Tartarus.[25]Atticblack-guredamphoradepictingAthenabeingrebornfrom the head of Zeus, who had swallowed her mother, Metis,the goddess of childbirth. Eileithyia, on the right assists, circa550525 BC (Muse du Louvre, Paris).Zeuswasplaguedbythesameconcernand, aftera2.1 Origins of the world and the gods 5prophecy that the ospring of his rst wife, Metis, wouldgive birth to a god greater than heZeus swallowedher.[26]Shewasalreadypregnant withAthena, how-ever, and she burst forth from his headfully-grown anddressed for war.[27]The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered thetheogonies to be the prototypical poetic genrethe pro-totypical mythosand imputed almost magical powers toit. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archety-pal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas andstorms in Apollonius Argonautica, and to move the stonyhearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades.When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn toHermes, the rst thing he does is sing about the birthof the gods.[28] Hesiods Theogony is not only the fullestsurviving account of the gods, but also the fullest sur-viving account of the archaic poets function, with itslong preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony alsowas the subject of many lost poems, including those at-tributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, andother legendary seers,which were used in private rit-ual purications and mystery-rites. There are indicationsthat Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphictheogony.[29] A silence would have been expected aboutreligious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of theculture would not have been reported by members of thesociety while the beliefs were held. After they ceased tobecome religious beliefs, few would have known the ritesand rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspectsthat were quite public.Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that wereinterpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many di-verse myths and tales. A few fragments of these workssurvive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers andrecently unearthed papyrus scraps.One of these scraps,the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fthcentury BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheuswas in existence.[30]The rst philosophical cosmologists reacted against, orsometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions thathad existed in the Greek world for some time.Some ofthese popular conceptions can be gleaned fromthe poetryof Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed asa at disk aoat on the river of Oceanus and overlookedby a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. TheSun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer andsailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun,earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed inprayers and called to witness oaths. Natural ssures werepopularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean houseof Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead.[31] In-uences from other cultures always aorded new themes.2.1.1 Greek pantheonSee also: Ancient Greek religion, Twelve Olympians,Family Tree of the Greek Gods and List of MycenaeangodsAccording to Classical-era mythology, after the over-Zeus, disguised as a swan, seduces Leda, the Queen of Sparta. Asixteenth century copy of the lost original by Michelangelo.throwoftheTitans, thenewpantheonofgods andgoddesses was conrmed. Among the principal Greekgods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympusunder the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their num-ber to twelve seems to have been a comparatively mod-ern idea.)[32]Besides the Olympians,the Greeks wor-shipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-godPan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled insprings), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids(who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. Inaddition, there were the dark powers of the underworld,such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guiltyof crimes against blood-relatives.[33] In order to honor theAncient Greek pantheon, poets composed the HomericHymns (a group of thirty-three songs).[34] Gregory Nagyregards the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes(compared with Theogony), each of which invokes onegod.[35]The gods of Greek mythology are described as having es-sentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to WalterBurkert, the dening characteristic of Greek anthropo-morphism is that the Greek gods are persons, not ab-stractions, ideas or concepts.[36] Regardless of their un-derlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fan-tastic abilities; most signicantly,the gods are not af-fected by disease, and can be wounded only under highlyunusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immor-tality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; thisimmortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured bythe constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the di-vine blood was renewed in their veins.[37]Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pur-sues diering interests, has a certain area of expertise,and is governed by a unique personality; however, these6 2 SURVEY OF MYTHIC HISTORYdescriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic localvariants, which do not always agree with one another.When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer orcult, they are referred to by a combination of their nameandepithets, that identifythembythesedistinctionsfromothermanifestationsofthemselves(e.g., ApolloMusagetes is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses"). Alter-natively the epithet may identify a particular and local-ized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be alreadyancient during the classical epoch of Greece.Most gods were associated with specic aspects of life.For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love andbeauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler ofthe underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom andcourage.[38] Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, re-vealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions,while others, such as Hestia (literally hearth) and Helios(literally sun), were little more than personications.The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated toa limited number of gods, who were the focus of largepan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individ-ual regions and villages to devote their own cults to mi-nor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-knowngods with unusual local rites and associated strange mythswith them that were unknown elsewhere. During theheroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supple-mented that of the gods.2.2 Age of gods and mortalsBridging the age when gods lived alone and the age whendivine interference in human aairs was limited was atransitional age in which gods and mortals moved to-gether. These were the early days of the world when thegroups mingled more freely than they did later. Most ofthese tales were later told by Ovids Metamorphoses andthey are often divided into two thematic groups: tales oflove, and tales of punishment.[39]Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rapeof a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic o-spring. The stories generally suggest that relationshipsbetween gods and mortals are something to avoid; evenconsenting relationships rarely have happy endings.[40] Ina few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man,as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddesslies with Anchises to produce Aeneas.[41]The second type (tales of punishment) involves the ap-propriation or invention of some important cultural ar-tifact, aswhenPrometheusstealsrefromthegods,when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus ta-ble and gives it to his own subjectsrevealing to themthe secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon in-vents sacrice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and theMysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents theaulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo.IanMorris considers Prometheus adventures as a place be-Dionysus with satyrs. Interior of a cup painted by the BrygosPainter, Cabinet des Mdailles.tween the history of the gods and that of man.[42] Ananonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third cen-tury, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the kingof Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new godcame too late, resulting in horric penalties that extendedinto the afterlife.[43] The story of the arrival of Dionysusto establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of anAeschylean trilogy.[44] In another tragedy, Euripides TheBacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished byDionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied onhis Maenads, the female worshippers of the god.[45]Demeter and Metanira in a detail on an Apulian red-gure hy-dria, circa 340 BC (Altes Museum, Berlin).In another story, based on an old folktale-motif,[46] andechoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for herdaughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an oldwoman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcomefrom Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift toCeleus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to2.3 Heroic age 7make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable tocomplete the ritual because his mother Metanira walkedin and sawher son in the re and screamed in fright, whichangered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals donot understand the concept and ritual.[47]2.3 Heroic ageThe age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroicage.[48] The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles ofstories clustered around particular heroes or events andestablished the family relationships between the heroesof dierent stories; they thus arranged the stories in se-quence. According to Ken Dowden, There is even a sagaeect:We can follow the fates of some families in suc-cessive generations.[18]After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitutethe sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths andprayers which are addressed to them.[20] In contrast to theage of gods, during the heroic age the roster of heroes isnever given xed and nal form; great gods are no longerborn, but new heroes can always be raised up from thearmy of the dead. Another important dierence betweenthe hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomesthe centre of local group identity.[20]The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as thedawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are alsoascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition,the Theban Cycle and the Trojan War.[49]2.3.1 Heracles and the HeracleidaeSee also: Heracles, Heracleidae and HerculesSome scholars believe[50] that behind Heracles compli-cated mythology there was probably a real man, perhapsa chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some schol-ars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for thesuns yearly passage through the twelve constellations ofthe zodiac.[51] Others point to earlier myths from othercultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adap-tation of hero myths already well established. Tradition-ally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, grand-daughter of Perseus.[52]His fantastic solitary exploits,with their many folk-tale themes, provided much mate-rial for popular legend. He is portrayed as a sacricier,mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a vo-racious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears incomedy, while his tragic end provided much material fortragedy Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulouas a play of great signicance in examination of otherEuripidean dramas.[53] In art and literature Heracles wasrepresented as an enormously strong man of moderateheight;his characteristic weapon was the bow but fre-quently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the un-paralleled popularity of Heracles, his ght with the lionbeing depicted many hundreds of times.[54]Heracles with his baby Telephus (Louvre Museum, Paris).Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythologyand cult, and the exclamation mehercule became as fa-miliar to the Romans as Herakleis was to the Greeks.[54]In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants andtraders, although others also prayed to him for his char-acteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.[52]Heracles attained the highest social prestige through hisappointment as ocial ancestor of the Dorian kings. Thisprobably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migra-tions into the Peloponnese.Hyllus, the eponymous heroof one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and oneof the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descen-dants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto,Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These HeraclidsconqueredthePeloponnesiankingdoms of Mycenae,Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a rightto rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dom-inance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion". TheLydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of thesame rank, also became Heracleidae.[55]Other members of this earliest generation of heroes such8 2 SURVEY OF MYTHIC HISTORYas Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, havemany traits in common with Heracles. Like him, theirexploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale,as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa.Bellerophons adventures are commonplace types, simi-lar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sendinga hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme ofthis early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseusand Bellerophon.[56]2.3.2 ArgonautsFor more details on this topic, see Argonauts.The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica ofApollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director ofthe Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyageof Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleecefrom the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica,Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who re-ceives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would behis nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at thecourt of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly everymember of the next generation of heroes, as well as Hera-cles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the GoldenFleece. This generation also included Theseus, who wentto Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female hero-ine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his ownto rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and theBibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.[57]Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd centuryBC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is ear-lier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the ex-ploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may havebeen partly founded on it).[58] In ancient times the ex-pedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident inthe opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce andcolonization.[59] It was also extremely popular, forminga cycle to which a number of local legends became at-tached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught theimagination of the tragic poets.[60]2.3.3 House of Atreus and Theban CycleSee also: Theban Cycle and Seven Against ThebesIn between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was ageneration known chiey for its horric crimes. This in-cludes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Be-hind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the twoprincipal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus)lies the problem of the devolution of power and of themode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus andThyestes with their descendants played the leading role inthe tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.[61]The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especiallywith Cadmus, the citys founder, and later with the do-ings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of storiesthat lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the handsof the Seven Against Thebes and Epigoni.[62] (It is notknown whether the Seven Against Thebes gured in earlyepic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accountsseem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after therevelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequentlymarrying a second wife who becomes the mother of hischildren markedly dierent from the tale known to usthrough tragedy (e.g. Sophocles Oedipus the King) andlater mythological accounts.[63]2.3.4 Trojan War and aftermathEl Juicio de Paris by Enrique Simonet, 1904. Paris is holding thegolden apple on his right hand while surveying the goddesses ina calculative manner.For more details on this topic, see Trojan Warand Epic CycleGreek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, foughtbetween Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homersworks, such as the Iliad, the chief stories have alreadytaken shape and substance, and individual themes wereelaborated later, especially in Greek drama.The TrojanWar also elicited great interest in the Roman culture be-cause of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journeyfrom Troy led to the founding of the city that would oneday become Rome, as recounted in Virgils Aeneid (BookII of Virgils Aeneid contains the best-known accountof the sack of Troy).[64] Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the namesof Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius.[65]The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, startswith the events leading up to the war: Eris and the goldenapple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abductionof Helen, the sacrice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To re-cover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition un-der the overall command of Menelaus' brother, Agamem-non, king of Argos or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused9In The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757,Fresco, 300 x 300 cm, Villa Valmarana, Vicenza) Achilles isoutraged that Agamemnon would threaten to seize his warprize,Briseis, and he draws his sword to kill Agamemnon. The sud-den appearance of the goddess Athena, who, in this fresco, hasgrabbed Achilles by the hair, prevents the act of violence.to return Helen. TheIliad, which is set in the tenthyear of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamem-non and Achilles, who was the nest Greek warrior, andthe consequent deaths in battle of Achilles beloved com-rade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hec-tors death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies,Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, kingof the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos.[66]Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed tokill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles heelwas the only part of his body which was not invulnera-ble to damage by human weaponry. Before they couldtake Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel thewooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally,with Athenas help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despitethe warnings of Priams daughter Cassandra, the Trojanswere persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned deser-tion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an of-fering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to havethe horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At nightthe Greek eet returned, and the Greeks from the horseopened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed,Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Tro-jan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece.The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek lead-ers (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas(the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were toldin two epics, the Returns (the lost Nostoi) and HomersOdyssey.[67] The Trojan cycle also includes the adventuresof the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes andTelemachus).[66]The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and becamea main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists(e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack ofTroy); this artistic preference for themes deriving fromthe Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the AncientGreek civilization.[67] The same mythological cycle alsoinspired a series of posterior European literary writings.For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unac-quainted with Homer at rst hand, found in the Troy leg-end a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and aconvenient framework into which to t their own courtlyand chivalric ideals. 12th century authors, such as Benotde Sainte-Maure (RomandeTroie [Romance of Troy,115460]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [Onthe Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewrit-ing the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares.They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgils example:they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling somethingcompletely new.[68]Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusionin the Trojan War were:On the Trojan side:AeneasHectorParisOn the Greek side:Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)AchillesKing AgamemnonMenelausOdysseus3 Greek and Roman conceptions ofmythMythology was at the heart of everyday life in AncientGreece.[69] Greeks regarded mythology as a part of theirhistory. They used myth to explain natural phenomena,cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships.It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descentof ones leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Fewever doubted that there was truth behind the account ofthe Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According toVictor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, po-litical essayist and former Classics professor, and John10 3 GREEK AND ROMAN CONCEPTIONS OF MYTHHeath, associate professor of Classics at Santa Clara Uni-versity, the profound knowledge of the Homeric eposwas deemed by the Greeks the basis of their accultura-tion. Homer was the education of Greece (), and his poetry the Book.[70]3.1 Philosophy and mythRaphael's Plato in The School of Athens fresco (probably in thelikeness of Leonardo da Vinci). The philosopher expelled thestudy of Homer, of the tragedies and of the related mythologicaltraditions from his utopian Republic.After the rise of philosophy, history, prose andrationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of mythbecameuncertain, andmythological genealogiesgaveplace to a conception of history which tried to exclude thesupernatural (such as the Thucydidean history).[71] Whilepoets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greekhistorians and philosophers were beginning to criticizethem.[7]A few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophonwere already beginning to label the poets tales as blasphe-mous lies in the 6th century BC; Xenophanes had com-plained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods allthat is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal,commit adultery, and deceive one another.[72] This lineof thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato'sRepublic andLaws. Plato created his own allegoricalmyths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attackedthe traditional tales of the gods tricks, thefts and adul-teries as immoral, and objected to their central role inliterature.[7] Platos criticism was the rst serious chal-lenge to the Homeric mythological tradition,[70] referringto the myths as old wives chatter.[73] For his part Aris-totle criticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosoph-ical approach and underscored that Hesiod and the the-ological writers were concerned only with what seemedplausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... Butit is not worth taking seriously writers who show o inthe mythical style; as for those who do proceed by prov-ing their assertions, we must cross-examine them.[71]Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean him-self and his society from the inuence of myth; his owncharacterization for Socrates is based on the traditionalHomeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher topraise the righteous life of his teacher:[74]But perhaps someone might say: Are youthen not ashamed, Socrates, of having followedsuch a pursuit, that you are nowin danger of be-ing put to death as a result?" But I should maketo hima just reply: You do not speak well, Sir,if you think a man in whomthere is even a littlemerit ought to consider danger of life or death,and not rather regard this only, when he doesthings, whether the things he does are right orwrong and the acts of a good or a bad man. Foraccording to your argument all the demigodswould be bad who died at Troy, including theson of Thetis, who so despised danger, in com-parison with enduring any disgrace, that whenhis mother (and she was a goddess) said to him,as he was eager to slay Hector, something likethis, I believe,My son, if you avenge the deathofyourfriendPatroclusandkillHector, you yourself shall die; forstraightway, after Hector, is deathappointeduntoyou. (Hom. Il.18.96)he, when he heard this, made light of death anddanger, and feared much more to live as a cow-ard and not to avenge his friends, and said,StraightwaymayI die, after do-ing vengeance upon the wrongdoer,that I may not stay here, jeered atbeside the curved ships, a burden ofthe earth.Hanson and Heath estimate that Platos rejection of theHomerictraditionwas not favorablyreceivedbythegrassroots Greek civilization.[70] The old myths were keptalive in local cults; they continued to inuence poetry andto form the main subject of painting and sculpture.[71]More sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripi-des often played with the old traditions, mocking them,and through the voice of his characters injecting notes ofdoubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, with-out exception,from myth. Many of these plays werewritten in answer to a predecessors version of the sameor similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the mythsabout the gods and begins his critique with an objection3.3 Syncretizing trends 11similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates:the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crasslyanthropomorphic.[72]3.2 Hellenistic and Roman rationalismCicero saw himself as the defender of the established order, de-spite his personal skepticism with regard to myth and his inclina-tion towards more philosophical conceptions of divinity.During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on theprestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors asbelongingtoacertainclass. At thesametime, theskeptical turn of the Classical age became even morepronounced.[75] Greek mythographer Euhemerus estab-lished the tradition of seeking an actual historical basisfor mythical beings and events.[76] Although his originalwork (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about itfrom what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius.[77]Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even morepopular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physi-calist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Sto-icspresentedexplanationsofthegodsandheroesasphysical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalizedthem as historical gures. At the same time, the Sto-ics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moralsigni-cationsofthemythological tradition, oftenbasedonGreek etymologies.[78] Through his Epicurean message,Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears fromthe minds of his fellow-citizens.[79] Livy, too, is skep-tical about themythological traditionandclaimsthathe does not intend to pass judgement on such legends(fabulae).[80] The challenge for Romans with a strong andapologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend thattradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who re-garded religion as a human institution with great impor-tance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rig-orous study to the origins of religious cults. In his An-tiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, butAugustine's City of God indicates its general approach)Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fearsthe gods, the truly religious person venerates them asparents.[79] In his work he distinguished three kinds ofgods:1. The gods of nature: personications of phe-nomena like rain and re.2. The gods of the poets: invented by un-scrupulous bards to stir the passions.3. The gods of the city: invented by wise leg-islators to soothe and enlighten the populace.Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and alle-gorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that mythshave no place in philosophy.[81] Cicero is also generallydisdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in hissupport for the state religion and its institutions. It is dif-cult to know how far down the social scale this ratio-nalism extended.[80] Cicero asserts that no one (not evenold women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the ter-rors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or othercomposite creatures,[82] but, on the other hand, the oratorelsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulouscharacter of the people.[83] De Natura Deorumis the mostcomprehensive summary of Ciceros line of thought.[84]3.3 Syncretizing trendsSee also: Roman mythologyIn Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology wasborn through syncretization of numerous Greek and otherforeign gods. This occurred because the Romans had lit-tle mythology of their own and inheritance of the Greekmythological tradition caused the major Roman gods toadopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents.[80] Thegods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mytholog-ical overlap. In addition to the combination of the twomythological traditions, the association of the Romanswith eastern religions led to further syncretizations.[85]For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome af-ter Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiaticdivinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al werecombined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus,with conglomerated rites and compound attributes.[86]12 4 MODERN INTERPRETATIONSApollo (early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth-century Greekoriginal, Louvre Museum).Apollo might be increasingly identied in religion withHelios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths sel-dom reected such developments. The traditional literarymythology was increasingly dissociated from actual reli-gious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector ofthe emperors and of the empire remained the chief im-perial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.The surviving 2nd century collection of Orphic Hymns(second century AD) and theSaturnalia of MacrobiusAmbrosius Theodosius (fth century) are inuenced bythe theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trendsas well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classicalpoetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself thesubject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poemswere probably composed by several dierent poets, andcontain a rich set of clues about prehistoric Europeanmythology.[87] The stated purpose of theSaturnalia isto transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derivedfrom his reading, even though much of his treatment ofgods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythol-ogy and theology (which also aect the interpretationof Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical com-ments inuenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and theNeoplatonists.[78]4 Modern interpretationsFor more details on this topic, see Modern understandingof Greek mythology.The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythol-ogy is regarded by some scholars as a double reactionat the end of the eighteenth century against the tra-ditional attitude of Christian animosity, in which theChristianreinterpretationofmythasalieorfablehad been retained.[88] In Germany, by about 1795, therewasagrowinginterest inHomerandGreekmythol-ogy. In Gttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to re-vive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gott-lob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann,and laid the foundations for mythological research bothin Germany and elsewhere.[89]4.1 Comparative andpsychoanalytic ap-proachesSee also: Comparative mythologyThe development of comparative philology in the 19thcentury, togetherwithethnological discoveriesinthe20th century, established the science of myth. Sincethe Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative.Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompsonemployed the comparative approach to collect and clas-sify the themes of folklore and mythology.[90] In 1871Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, inwhich he applied the comparative method and tried to ex-plain the origin and evolution of religion.[91] Tylors pro-cedure of drawing together material culture, ritual andmyth of widely separated cultures inuenced both CarlJung and Joseph Campbell. Max Mller applied the newscience of comparative mythology to the study of myth,inwhichhedetectedthedistortedremainsofAryannature worship. Bronisaw Malinowski emphasized theways myth fullls common social functions. Claude Lvi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formalrelations and patterns in myths throughout the world.[90]4.2 Origin theories 13Max Mller is regarded as one of the founders of comparativemythology. In his Comparative Mythology (1867) Mller anal-ysed the disturbing similarity between the mythologies of sav-age races with those of the early Europeans.Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biologi-cal conception of man and a view of myth as an expres-sion of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the ba-sis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freuds conceptof dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextualrelationships for the interpretation of any individual ele-ment in a dream. This suggestion would nd an impor-tant point of rapprochment between the structuralist andpsychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freuds thought.[92]Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological ap-proach with his theory of the collective unconsciousand the archetypes (inherited archaic patterns), oftenencoded in myth, that arise out of it.[2] According to Jung,myth-forming structural elements must be present in theunconscious psyche.[93] Comparing Jungs methodologywith Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal con-cludes that to interpret a myth Campbell simply identi-es the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey,for example, would show how Odysseuss life conformsto a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers theidentication of archetypes merely the rst step in theinterpretation of a myth.[94] Karl Kernyi, one of thefounders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave uphis early views of myth, in order to apply Jungs theoriesof archetypes to Greek myth.[95]4.2 Origin theoriesSee also: Similarities between Roman, Greek and Etr-uscan mythologiesMax Mller attempted to understand an Indo-EuropeanFor Karl Kernyi mythology is a body of material contained intalesabout godsandgod-likebeings, heroicbattlesandjour-neys to the Underworldmythologem is the best Greek wordfor themtales already well-known but not amenable to furtherre-shaping.[96]religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European(or, in Mllers time, "Aryan") original manifestation.In 1891, he claimed that the most important discoverywhich has been made during the nineteenth century withrespect to the ancient history of mankind ... was thissample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus =Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr".[97] The question of Greekmythologys place in Indo-European studies has gener-ated much scholarship since Mllers time. For exam-ple, philologist Georges Dumzil draws a comparison be-tween the Greek Ouranos and the Sanskrit Varuna, al-though there is no hint that he believes them to be origi-nally connected.[98] In other cases, close parallels in char-acter and function suggest a common heritage, yet lackof linguistic evidence makes it dicult to prove, as in thecase of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythol-ogy.[99]Archaeology and mythography, on the other hand, haverevealed that the Greeks were also inspired by some ofthe civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis14 5 MOTIFS IN WESTERN ART AND LITERATUREseems to be the Greek counterpart more clearly in cultthan in myth of a Near Eastern dying god.Cybeleis rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphroditesiconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. Therearealsopossibleparallelsbetweentheearliest divinegenerations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in theEnumaElish.[100] According to Meyer Reinhold, nearEastern theogonic concepts, involving divine successionthrough violence and generational conicts for power,found their way ... into Greek mythology.[101] In ad-dition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, somescholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythol-ogy to the pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos,Thebes and Orchomenus.[102] Historians of religion werefascinated by a number of apparently ancient congura-tions of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeusand Europa, Pasipha who yields to the bull and givesbirth to the Minotaur etc.) Martin P. Nilsson concludedthat all great classical Greek myths were tied to Myce-naen centres and were anchored in prehistoric times.[103]Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography ofthe Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no conr-mation for these theories.[104]5 Motifs in Western art and litera-tureFor more details on this topic, see Greek mythology inwestern art and literature.See also: List of lms based on Greco-Roman mythologyThe widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb theBotticellis The Birth of Venus (c. 14851486, oil on canvas,Uzi, Florence) a revived Venus Pudica for a new view ofpagan Antiquityis often said to epitomize for modern viewersthe spirit of the Renaissance.[2]popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of clas-sical antiquity in the Renaissance,the poetry of Ovidbecameamajorinuenceontheimaginationofpo-ets, dramatists, musicians and artists.[105] From the earlyyears of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjectsof Greek mythology alongside more conventional Chris-tian themes.[105] Through the medium of Latin and theworks of Ovid, Greek myth inuenced medieval and Re-naissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante inItaly.[2]The Lament for Icarus by Herbert James Draper, 1898.In Northern Europe,Greek mythology never took thesame hold of the visual arts, but its eect was very ob-vious on literature. The English imagination was red byGreek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Miltonand continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridgesin the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe inGermany revived Greek drama,reworking the ancientmyths.[105]Although during the Enlightenment of the18th century reaction against Greek myth spread through-out Europe, the myths continued to provide an impor-tant sourceofrawmaterial for dramatists, includingthose who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's andMozart's operas.[106]By the end of the 18th century,Romanticisminitiated a surge of enthusiasmfor all thingsGreek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, newtrans-lations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contempo-rary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byronand Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton andLawrence Alma-Tadema).[107] Christoph Gluck, RichardStrauss, Jacques Oenbach and many others set Greekmythological themes to music.[2]American authors ofthe 19th century, such as Thomas Bulnch and NathanielHawthorne, held that the study of the classical mythswas essential to the understanding of English and Ameri-can literature.[108] In more recent times, classical themeshave been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, JeanCocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neillin America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelistssuch as James Joyce and Andr Gide.[2]156 References[1] Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology.Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.[2] Greek Mythology. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.[3] J.M. Foley, Homer Simpsons Traditional Art, 43[4] F. 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Princeton University Press.ISBN 0-691-01514-7.Albala Ken G, Johnson Claudia Durst, Johnson Ver-non E. (2000). Origin of Mythology. Understand-ing the Odyssey. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-41107-9.Algra, Keimpe (1999). The Beginnings of Cos-mology. The Cambridge Companion to Early GreekPhilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44667-8.Allen,Douglas (1978). Early Methological Ap-proaches. Structure &Creativity in Religion:Hermeneutics in Mircea Eliades Phenomenology andNew Directions. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 90-279-7594-9.Argonaut. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.Betegh, Gbor (2004). The Interpretation of thepoet. The Derveni Papyrus. Cambridge UniversityPress. ISBN 0-521-80108-7.Bonnefoy, Yves(1992). KinshipStructuresinGreek Heroic Dynasty. Greek and EgyptianMythologies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-06454-9.Bulnch, Thomas (2003). Greek Mythology andHomer. Bulnchs Greek and Roman Mythology.Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30881-0.Burkert, Walter (2002). Prehistory and the MinoanMycenaen Era. Greek Religion: Archaic and Clas-sical (translated by John Raan). Blackwell Pub-lishing. ISBN 0-631-15624-0.Burn, Lucilla (1990). Greek Myths. University ofTexas Press. ISBN 0-292-72748-8.Bushnell, Rebecca W. (2005). Helicocentric Sto-icism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo. Me-dieval A Companion to Tragedy. Blackwell Publish-ing. ISBN 1-4051-0735-9.Chance,Jane (1994). Helicocentric Stoicism inthe Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo. MedievalMythography. University Press of Florida. ISBN0-8130-1256-2.Caldwell, Richard (1990). The Psychoanalytic In-terpretation of Greek Myth. Approaches to GreekMyth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3864-9.Calimach, Andrew (2002). The Cultural Back-ground. LoversLegends: The Gay Greek Myths.Haiduk Press. ISBN 0-9714686-0-5.Cartledge, Paul A. (2002). Inventing the Past: His-tory v. Myth. TheGreeks. Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 0-19-280388-3.Cartledge, Paul A. (2004). The Spartans (translatedin Greek). Livanis. ISBN 960-14-0843-6.Cashford, Jules (2003). Introduction. The Home-ric Hymns. Penguin Classics. ISBN0-14-043782-7.Dowden, Ken (1992). Myth and Mythology. TheUses of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN0-415-06135-0.Dunlop, John (1842). Romances of Chivalry. TheHistory of Fiction. Carey and Hart. ISBN 1-149-40338-1.Edmunds, Lowell (1980). Comparative Ap-proaches. Approaches to Greek Myth. Johns Hop-kins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3864-9.Euhemerus. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.Foley, John Miles (1999). Homeric and SouthSlavic Epic. Homers Traditional Art. Penn StatePress. ISBN 0-271-01870-4.Gale, MonicaR. (1994). TheCultural Back-ground. Myth and Poetry in Lucretius. CambridgeUniversity Press. ISBN 0-521-45135-3.Greek Mythology. Encyclopdia Britannica.2002.Greek Religion. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.Grin, Jasper (1986). Greek Myth and Hesiod.The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hel-lenistic World edited by John Boardman, Jasper Grif-nandOswynMurray. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-285438-0.18 6 REFERENCESGrimal, Pierre (1986). Argonauts. TheDictio-nary of Classical Mythology. Blackwell Publishing.ISBN 0-631-20102-5.Hacklin, Joseph (1994). The Mythology of Per-sia. AsiaticMythology. Asian Educational Ser-vices. ISBN 81-206-0920-4.Hanson, Victor Davis;Heath, John (1999). WhoKilled Homer (translated in Greek by Rena Karakat-sani). Kakos. ISBN 960-352-545-6.Hard, Robin (2003). Sources of Greek Myth.The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: basedon H. J. Roses A Handbook of Greek mythology.Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-18636-6.Heracles. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.Jung Carl Gustav, Kernyi Karl (2001). Prolegom-ena. EssaysonaScienceofMythology (Reprinted.). PrincetonUniversityPress. ISBN0-691-01756-5.Jung, C.J. (2002). Troy in Latin and French Josephof Exeters Ylias and Benot de Sainte-MauresRoman de Troie"". Science of Mythology. Rout-ledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-26742-0.Kelly, Douglas (2003). 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The Hellenization of theIndo-European Poetics. Greek Mythology and Po-etics. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8048-5.Nilsson, Martin P. (1940). "The Religion of Eleu-sis". Greek Popular Religion. Columbia UniversityPress.NorthJohnA., BeardMary, PriceSimonR.F.(1998). The Religions of Imperial Rome. Clas-sical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical An-thology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31682-0.Papadopoulou, Thalia (2005). Introduction. Her-acles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge Univer-sity Press. ISBN 0-521-85126-2.Percy, William Armostrong III (1999). The Insti-tutionalization of Pederasty. Pederasty and Peda-gogy in Archaic Greece. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-252-06740-1.Poleman, HoraceI. (March1943). ReviewofOuranos-Varuna. Etude de mythologie compareeindo-europeenne by Georges Dumezil"". Journalof the American Oriental Society (American Orien-tal Society) 63 (1): 7879. JSTOR 594160.Reinhold, Meyer (October 20, 1970). The Gener-ation Gap in Antiquity. Proceedings of the Ameri-can Philosophical Society (American PhilosophicalSociety) 114 (5): 347365. JSTOR 985800.Rose, Herbert Jennings (1991). AHandbookofGreekMythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-04601-7.Segal, Robert A. (1991). A Greek Eternal Child.Mythand thePolis edited by Dora Carlisky Pozzi,John Moore Wickersham. Cornell University Press.ISBN 0-8014-2473-9.Segal, Robert A. (April 4, 1990). The RomanticAppeal of Joseph Campbell. Christian Century(Christian Century Foundation).Segal, Robert A. (1999). Jung on Mythology.Theorizing about Myth. Univof MassachusettsPress. ISBN 1-55849-191-0.Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (translated by R. B. Paul)(1852). Handbook of the religion and mythology ofthe Greeks. Francis and John Rivington.Trobe, Kala (2001). Dionysus. Invoke the Gods.Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 0-7387-0096-7.Trojan War. Encyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.Troy. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.19Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology. En-cyclopaedia The Helios. 1952.Walsh, Patrick Gerald (1998). Liberating Appear-ance in Mythic Content. The Nature of the Gods.Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282511-9.Weaver, John B. (1998).Introduction. The Plotsof Epiphany. WalterdeGruyter. ISBN3-11-018266-1.Winterbourne, Anthony(2004). SpinningandWeavingFate. Whenthe Norns Have Spoken.FairleighDickinsonUniversityPress. ISBN0-8386-4048-6.Wood, Michael (1998). The Coming of theGreeks. In Search of the Trojan War. Universityof California Press. ISBN 0-520-21599-0.7 Further readingGantz, Timothy (1993). Early Greek Myth: A Guideto Literary and Artistic Sources. Johns Hopkins Uni-versity Press. ISBN 0-8018-4410-X.Graves, Robert (1993) [1955]. TheGreekMyths(Cmb/Rep ed.). Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 0-14-017199-1.Hamilton, Edith (1998) [1942]. Mythology (Newed.). Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-34151-7.Kerenyi, Karl (1980)[1951]. The Gods oftheGreeks (Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27048-1.Kerenyi,Karl (1978) [1959]. TheHeroesoftheGreeks (Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27049-X.Luchte, James (2011). Early Greek Thought: Beforethe Dawn. Bloomsbury. ISBN 0567353311.Morford M.P.O., Lenardon L.J. (2006). ClassicalMythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530805-0.Pinsent, John (1972). Greek Mythology. Bantam.ISBN 978-0448008486.Pinsent, John (1991). Myths and Legends of AncientGreece. Library of the Worlds Myths and Legends.Peter Bedrick Books. ISBN 978-0872262508.Powell, Barry (2008). Classical Myth (6th ed.).Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-606171-7.Powell, Barry (2001). AShort Introduction to Classi-cal Myth. Prentice-Hall. ISBN978-0-13-025839-7.Ruck Carl, Staples Blaise Daniel (1994). The Worldof Classical Myth. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN0-89089-575-9.Smith, William(1870), Dictionary of Greek and Ro-man Biography and Mythology.Veyne, Paul (1988). Didthe Greeks Believe inTheirMyths? AnEssayonConstitutiveImagina-tion. (translated by Paula Wissing). University ofChicago. ISBN 0-226-85434-5.Woodward, Roger D. (editor) (2007). TheCam-bridge Companion to Greek Mythology.Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84520-3.8 External linksMedia related to Greek mythology at WikimediaCommonsGreek Myths onInOurTime at the BBC. (listennow)Library of Classical Mythology Texts translations ofworks of classical literatureLIMC-France provides databases dedicated toGraeco-Roman mythology and its iconography.Theoi Project, Guide to Greek Mythology biogra-phies of characters from myth with quotes fromoriginal sources and images from classical artMartin P. Nilsson, The Mycenaean Origin of GreekMythology, on Google books20 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses9.1 Text Greek mythology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology?oldid=673967896 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Derek Ross,Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Eclecticology, Youssefsan, Rmhermen, Seindal, Christian List, Matusz,Atorpen, Branden, William Avery, Azhyd, Panairjdde~enwiki, Ichelhof, Bth, Bignose, Olivier, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow,Llywrch, Lexor, Ixfd64, Dori, (, CesarB, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Bladesmas-ter, Darkwind, Lupinoid, Bogdangiusca, Michael Shields, Netsnipe, Dod1, John K, Raven in Orbit, Chipper~enwiki, Jengod, Emperorbma,RodC, Fraise, EALacey, Dcoetzee, Jallan, Ike9898, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Taxman, Tempshill, Jim-breed, Paul-L~enwiki, Thue, Sandman~enwiki, HarryHenryGebel, Fvw, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Raul654, Wetman, Johnleemk, Jeq, Jni,Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, Romanm, Arkuat, Sam Spade, Georg Muntingh, Mirv, Postdlf, Merovingian, AcademicChallenger, Dersonlwd, TimR, Flauto Dolce, Auric, Andrew Levine, Sunray, Hadal, UtherSRG, Benc, SoLando, Diberri, Guy Peters,GreatWhiteNortherner, David Gerard, Enochlau, Dave6, Crculver, Christopher Parham, Redge, Jao, Jyril, Akadruid, Nadavspi, Wigh-son, Lupin, Risk one, Everyking, No Guru, Curps, Wikibob, Guanaco, Tom-, Slyguy, Eequor, Bobblewik, Jastrow, Bacchiad, ChicXulub,Utcursch, Slowking Man, Spatch, Antandrus, Wareware, Lockeownzj00, Ctachme, Ravikiran r, Lesgles, Testforechozero, Andux, Jossi,Rdsmith4, Kesac, Mikko Paananen, Maximaximax, Variant, Ganymead, Pmanderson, Karl-Henner, Robin Hood~enwiki, Meatheadmerlin,Ukexpat, Davidshq, Trevor MacInnis, Mike Rosoft, D6, Haiduc, DanielCD, Uazone, Jorgeluis~enwiki, Diagonalsh, Discospinster, RichFarmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Wclark, JBradHicks, Cacycle, Cfailde, Vsmith, Narsil, MeltBanana, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Paul August,SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, JoeSmack, BACbKA, MyNameIsNotBob, Brian0918, Aranel, El C, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, ArtLaPella, RoyBoy, Hing~enwiki, Wareh, Pablo X, Bobo192, Circeus, Iceman~enwiki, John Vandenberg, Shenme, Jguk 2, SpeedyGon-sales, Sriram sh, Jojit fb, Microtony, NickSchweitzer, Cinnamon~enwiki, PWilkinson, MPerel, Sam Korn, Polylerus, Ingoman, Krellis,Pharos, Nsaa, IonNerd, Ranveig, Jumbuck, Danski14, Alansohn, Mark Dingemanse, ChristopherWillis, Arthena, CheeseDreams, Aza-Toth, Lectonar, Esrob, DreamGuy, Hohum, Snowolf, Velella, L33th4x0rguy, Sphivo, RainbowOfLight, Randy Johnston, Danthemankhan,Computerjoe, Redvers, Martian, Blaxthos, KTC, Dan100, Harvestdancer, Shimeru, Hijiri88, A D Monroe III, Marrisman3, Shawn Pick-rell, Cogito Ergo Sum, Apollomelos, Jerey O. 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Greek mythology

GREEK MYTHOLOGY The Short Course…. Principal gods of Greek mythology The principal gods of Greek mythology

Greek Mythology