1. PETER CONNOLLYG R EEC E E , AN ID RO #:~ . .. AlT A.

2. Con t en t sGreece a n d Macedonia Chapter 1 T he City States 800-360 BC 10Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4The States at War II The Phalanx 37 The Phalanx in the Field 44 Armour and Weapons 51Chapter 2 M acedon 360- 140 BC 64 Part 1 T he M acedonian Wars 64 Part 2 The New Macedonian Army 68 Part 3 The L ater Macedonian Army 75 Italy a n d T he Wester n Med iter ranean Chapter 1 T he Rise of Rome 800-275 BC 86Part 1 T he Struggle for Italy 87 Part 2 The Italian Military Systems 91 Chapter 2 Rome 275-140 B C 129 Part 1 T he Roman Army 160 BC 129 Part 2 T he Great Wars 143 The Ro man E m p ire Chapter 1 T h e Empire 140 BC-AD 200 210Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4Conq uest of the World 210 Army Organisation (D r Brian D obson) 213 Equipment 228 T h e Army in the Field 239Chapter 2 The Later EmpireAD200-450 249Pa rt 1 T he M obile Army (D r Roger T omlin) 249 Part 2 Equipment 259 Appendix 1 War at Sea 262 Appendix 2 Fortifications and Siege W arfare 274 Appendix 3 Roman Military Costume 304 Bibliography 314 Index 316 3. GREECE AN D MACEDO:--IAThe City States 800-360 DC)..,.'...)-~,},rc...,,, -/.' 4. T H E C ITY STAT ES 800-360 Be T HE STATES AT WA RInt roductio D Soon aftfi 1200 Be the great Bronu_ Age crvilisauon which had f1ourishC'd in Greece for several ceerunes ...-ent into a rapid decline and tinally collapsed. Barbarou s uibn poured southwards obliterating the last re mnants of th e xt ycenaean culture, and a dark age descended on G reece. T his book is a surve y of t he militar y system. th at emerged from this dark age. An au empt is made to t race t h~ developm~ nt of militar y organisation, tact ics and ar mament in Greece and Italy from t he 8t h cent ur y Be, when ci"ili.ation once more began to eme rge in Gree , unt il the onsct of the second dark age when t he Roman em pire in the West collapsed. Both Greece and Rome had to face the supreme tnl. With G reece it WI$ .....hCII the Penian. in.-a.de:ntury , ...hile Rome faced a similar cruci al situation whe n the gratest of the ancienl generals, Hannibal, invaded I taly 260 yea" later. Both t hese wan are examined in considereble detail to show how the t wo military syste ms rose to t he situaILon. .toll of Rome's or ganisation and equipmen t was borrowed from the nation. with whom she came into confl ict: the Etruscans, Samnites, Celts, Canna ginians and, of course, the Gree ks , T he contr ibutic ns c f each of the . e sta tes will be examined in tu rn . Alread r by t he late M ycenaea n period in the 13th and t 2th cent uries Be central European influences were bei ng fel t in t he Aegean world. T his continued in the succeeding centuries and. b> the time that Homer 's epic poems of t he .i.ycenaean era, the l/iad and the Odyruy, w ere commiued 10 " Titing, pra.;ticall> nothi ng of the ancient weaponry survived. For t his reason , unless there is adeat derivation from theearlier period, the Bronze Age ...i ll be ignored. O ur knowledge of the 8t h and l1 h centuries is very sparse b ut, by t he 6th, we have a conti nuous written history. T he hislory of the 6t h and 5t h cen rune s is dom inated first by t he rise of Persia and later by the bl uer war betwee n Sparta and At hens. T he period is very well docume nted by IWO great wnrers-c- Hero dot us, who ",as alive at the time of the Pen ian invasion of Gt'eece, and T bucydides, the greatest of the ancie nt historians, who "'as actuallyinv olved in ue .... r betwee n Spana and Athens, T o t hese one mu st add Xenophon, who " Tore alVUIld t he beginning of mc 4th century Be. Xenophon's writ ings arc not in the same class as Herod OllIS or Thucydid es but he was a soldier and served for man) }'e an with the Spanan. He is t hus an incom parable sou rce of infor m at ion about t he Spart an military system. The~ e literary sources ar e supple_ mented b y a mass of archaeological evidence. An er a battle it was custom ary for the victor to dedicate some armou r in a sanct uary such as Olympia. In time t hese shrines became .0 clutte re d wit h armou r that it became neceasar}' to t hro...' out the older pieces. At O lym pia some were dumped in t he 5treams and dis used " "ells. whib t other pio;es ~re used to reinforce t he banks of the stadium. In rece nt years some of this armour has been recovered during exca'at KlIIS.The S tates a t WarWhen t he M ycenaean states fell soon after t 200 IIC, hotdes of savage tribesmen, G reek speaking but from the mountaimlU' north ....e.tern region , moved down into sout hern G reece. T he most formid abl e of t hese invaders were the Dori ans. M any of t he origina l inhabitants fled fro m G r eece and settle d along the west coast of Asia M inor (Turkey ) in Ihe area t hat became kno",'n as Ionia. T he invasions and subsequenl m igrations came 10 an end about 1000 BC. This ....as followed by a period of settlement. Finally, order began to ret.um . The little states ,.'hich emerge.goras "'as thrown out, he appealed to his personal friend Cleomenes for assista nce. Clcomenes, wit h a small bod y of rel ainers , agai n invaded Attica, and so great was t he aura of Span a tha I he took the city wit hout a blo w and gar risoned t he Acro rcn. When the Athenians discovere d t he paltry size of Cleomenes' party, t hey besieged the Acropolis and Clecmenes, in the face of starvation, .... a. forced to sur render, Fear ing repri s.ls, t he Athenians felt ob liged to release the king and his retainers. Enr aged at his humiliat ion Cleome nn re lurned to Spana and mobilised t he entir e Peloponnesian League against Athens. Accompanied b y t he rr 5. G R EE C E A:-JD MACE DON IAother king Dema ratus, he led his arm~ to"'ards the borders of A ttica. In the non h T hel:>l:s and C hakis, Alhens ' ~'OlTlmcrcial ri"al, se ized the o p portunity to stri ke at Ihcir enem y and alw mobilised . hUI I:>I:fo"" the assault CQUld be launched d isse nsion broke out in t he Peloponnestan ranks , !o.1any of the allied Slates refuse took their &ide and the army broke u p_ T he Athenians could ha rdly have bl:lie,'ed tneir good fo n une and had the presence of mind 10 ClI.pitalise o n th" situalio n. T hey marched notl h and in lhe same day defeated bot h t he Tbebans and t he C halc,di ans, redu cing the lat ter to the st alUs nf a colony . Th~ bl:s continued the ,,'ar and " 'as latn jo ine d by' anot her of Athens' cumm ~rcia l ri" al s. t he island of Acgma. [t was d uring this war that Athem emerged as a mili ta ry power . Her st ruggl" wit h Aegina forced her to bui ld a na",- which , in a few short ye ars , was to be come t he strungesr in Greece . T he ri se o f I' ",. ia Mean",hile, evems in Asia ",ere begin ning to have an elf~1 on Greece . AI the end of the 7th century lie the g reat em pi re of Ass yria ha d fallen and , by t he midd le of t he suc e.. I n ~-I6 the Lyd ian empire fell and t he G reat King Darius overran Asia M inor (furtey ). One by' One l he Gr=k cities along the eea" fell to t he Persi ans. Some. in deSf"' nll ion , t ook 10 the sea . lne P"""""ans, like l he kg"ndal} Aene a> . crossed the Aegean and t he Adriatic and fi na lly' settled al rhe colony of Alalia in ' Corsica . How,,'er Ihey were moved on by the F.lru.ca ns in ~35 and ult imalely joined the colon y' of !o. iassilia (.br~ sc illes) on the southern coast of France In ~ tO, whe n all the islands along t he co.ast of A.ia . hoor were in Persian hands. Dariu s in'aded E urope . Pushing u p t he west coast of the Blac k Sea, he cro>;,cd t he Danu be and imade d Scythia, Next T hraee was o verru n and .-tacedo niu forced to submit. Only 'I'hessaly now , x,d hel ween t he Greek states and Persia. In 500 the Greek slate, in Asia , I m" r, led by Mil" IU' , revolte d and looked for help from t he wes t . Athens and Eretr ia on the wes t CQ;lSt uf Huboe a se nt expe ditionaryfo rces to Ionia which res ulted in t he saet inll end bur ning of Sardis, capi tal of t he Persian san ap~. T he Persians rUl h l essl~' put down the "" '011 .li lerlli> was overt hrown and its pnpu lark>ll ooId into d a,'ery, By -194 the revcn " -as over and the Pers,ans prepat'N for a pumnve o f"'dition against GINa . An embassy was se nt (0 G reece demanding eart h and water, the traditional symbols of suhm ission. All hough practically all t he Greek states refused , " .::gina. which ha d t rad ing links wnh t he eaSl , su bm itted . Aegi na lies in the Saronic gulf " nly te n kilometres olf the An ic coaSi and cont rols access to At he n. ' harbouMi. W ith t he Isla n d under Persia n contro l Al hens woul d be: strangled . Aegina was a mem hcr of the Pcloponne sian League and Athens appealed to he r old enemy C le" me nes , The Spartan king to"k up t he Atheni an cause hur nnce aKain he Ca rne int o co nfl ict with his co llealo:ue Dema rat us. The enmit y which had smouldered between the I WO ' ince the abortive at tempr to invad e All iea some t 7 years he f"re now bursl into flame , Cjeomenes laid charges of illegit imacy against his colleague and Dema ratus " 'as depmcd. T he fonner king fled GR'eCe and toot ..,fuge wil h the l' eMilans . Cleomenes, freed of his partner, forcibly ..,turned A'gina 10 its former loy'allies and pa tched u p an alliaOCe ,,-ith Athens agai m l the t hreatened lOva,ion . T he PeMiians om"iously in_ lended only a lim iled puniti"e o peration agalOst At hens and l':.-etria which had aid ed t he loman eevon. I n 490 the P ersia'" launched a seaborne anack . E etria was sacked and the r llcct moved dow n 10 t he ba~' of .' laratoon ..,ady for 1he sIri ke agains t Athens. The Al henians scm a ru nner 10 Sparta and marched QU I 10 meet the inva ders. W hat ha ppened at Uarathon isconfused and t he tru th will pro ba b ly ne'"er be known . The S partans delayed their march be cause they were ecl ebn ting a resli val and ar rived 100 late fo r t he batt leo T o t he ir ast onishment they di scovered lhal the At he nians bad decisive ly defeated Ihe Persia ns and dr iven t hem Out of Attica. The defeat at Maratho n serve d onl y 10 in itat e t he Persia ns. All knew fha t t he matl el WIS unsettled, but it was te n years hefore a """ontJ arternpr " as matJe" [nt he meamime Athens was a ble to build u p he r lleel u nt il it ",as eq uai lOr he combmed fleels of all tbe ot her Greek stales. X"hen it became obvious t ha t the Persi.an in" sion was imm ine nt. a C)f1g"'ss was as5Cm bled at the i.thmus of U>rlnlh 10 try 10 'el tl e fhe imCTnal d ifrere ncn of the G reet Slates SO t ha t they oould present a united front. In l~ sprmg of 480 BC lhe Persian t ing Xe n:es, accompanied b)" D~ mar alUt, the deposed king of Spar1a. crossed the He llespont. H it vase army advanced on (irec' ne " er as hig as he claimed. He kne..... l ru. t l he fleet at A phetse did not grea tl y outnumber the Greeks, so he has u ied 10 reduce il to a more real istic size by wreding a large pan of it in the storm. He cal mly ....TCI."k. anulher zoo galle>'s only a rouple of da~', later . COISt.The ba ilie for Thermo p ylae It was well int" August when Xerxc-s reacbed the plain of Lamia, He hope d lhat when his ann)' .....as assemhled . its sheer size would cause the Greeks in the pass to Iosc hean and dcs,," their polIS . The Great K ing waited for fou r da ys, probabl y anucipanng the arrival of the lIeel . W he n Ihe)' did not show up, and rhe G rl:s remained obSlinatel)' loo!!ed in t he pass, he ral her flamboyantly orde red for....ard his Medes and Cjssians (who wele , im ilarly ar med . but the lat ter wo re turbans) , wil h o rde .. to 'brinll: t hem hack alive', The M cdes launched a ,eric, of cha rges whic h failed to make any im_ pr~sion on Ihe G reek s. W hen Xerxes law lhal t ile Greeks were holding firm. he .ounded the recall and scm forward hi, pe rsonal bod yguard, t he Imm ort als, led hy their com ma nder H ydarne . Ten" 11. GREECE ....!';I).iACEDO~IAthou sa nd " ra"k troops " f the g reate$t ar m y that the ,,'mid had ever seen mUl'hed out w do the ir kin !!'. hiddinl!' ' ) '0 tho'" wlm wat"hed from the Pcrs ian l-amp a, they moved fo r"o ard, il m us t Ita"e seemed imp"", iblc that they could fail. ...., tM I mmonals ad"aill-cd. the Sparta rrs p",,,,,d th rough 1M "-all 10 m1 t hem , For all Ihe aura that sUJ'To u nJcd t he Immort al.tbeycould achieve not Itin.o: agamSlthe heavily armed Spa rl aos, III t he wntincd ' pace of t he !Xl"' t heir numbe r. were of no ad'amage and. hoeeause thei r spears were .llOrler t itan thoIsm 12. THE CITY STATES 800-360 Be THE STATES A T WARob'iously been a bandoned as the G reeks only learned whar hud ha ppe ned fro m a deserter Th is post had ['robably bcen withdraw n after the t hree warch ships at rhe i, land had bee n captured. T be de serte r who informed the Greeks was a man calle d Seyll ias. rhe greatest diver of his day. II e had escaped by swimmingl he Euboca nch anncl. T he Greeks imme diardy ,em a fast sh ip dow" t hro ug h t he Euripus to in[ot m the 53 Athenian ship s which had been hdd back in anticipation of the Persi an move. F ifteen Per>lan ships had be en delayed at their anchorage farther up the ,0051 and did nol set out {() j", n rhe mai n fleet at ipherae unt il lon g afrer t he other ships had left. T hese late comers did not reach thc channel betw een Skiathos and the mainland unril late 111 the afte rnoon , W lhe ir view we,t wa, blind ed by t he hetl glare of t he sett ing sun . T hey failed to ,ee tht ir com pani on s in the shadows at Platania Bay bU I did ,ee the G reek 'e"eb shining in lhe evemn g sun 10 t he south- west. .' li on a"c ~U!ag" "' PI..""" Bay at Ihe Southern lip of t he Magne,i an p ,o m o ~ t "'y . About 30 qal reys we re Moc hed here. The ,emai~de r w ere , tru ~Q o u1 a 'o~g smalle r bys to the west as far as O llzu ~ 8,y'9 13. GR EECE AND M AC EDON IAenem y vessels and damaged or sunk several mo r e, Herodo{u~ does not state the Greek losses hu t se veral of their ,hips must have be en sunk . T hat night a violent s:e from t he battle into the Pers ian ancho rages and it hecarne entangled in the ,hip" whic h were only half beache d , Alt ho ugh t he fleet at Aphetae suffere d con'iderahly , t he ir troub les wer e as nothin>: compared with the plight of th eir companio n, tr ying to round t he southern end of Euhoea . They ....ere caught by Ihe fu ll fo rce of the storm and das hed on 10 the rock y Coa~t at the SOUl h end of the island. Herodotus , tates that t he follow ing morning the 53 At henian sh ips which had be en left to watch the southern end ofEu hoea saile d into Anemisium hring_ ing the news of the total destruction of t he PelSian detachment . T h is is impossible and clearly a day has Ix..,n loS!. I n all likel ihood no t hing happened on t his day' as both sides re paired their sto rm damage. It w(mld be t he following morning, t he ni net eenth, that theAlhenian sh ips arrived bringing tbe new~ of t he shipw reck . L ate that afternoon t he reinforced Grttk lIeet o nce more rowed OUI into the channeL Thi, time , probably because of t he haze, t hey managed to cross the channel unobserved and swooped upon t he C ilician galley's which were st ill at thei r moori ngs, destro yed some of the ,hip" and then with drew into t he dusk It i, poss ible that t he Cilician squadro n was moore d in Olizon Rayand that the Greek Beet was able to sail unohserved past Cape Griba , roun d the we' tern head lan d and into t he hav to attack the Cilician squad ron before it co uld be manned , T his is feasible as they would have been approaching out of the setting ,un. The en d of T hc rm op r la c M ea nwhi le, at Thcrmopyla c the second day's figh ting had com e to an end. D ay afler day Leon idas had sellt messengers ,oulh ple ading fo r reinforceme nt s but it was no w clear t ha t none were coming. The Spa rtans were o n their o wn and their code of honour express ly forbadj; t hem to de, ert t heir posts. Xerxes andhis advi'e rs had pro ba bly bee n aware si nc soon after their arrival t hat the re e was a route ove r the mountai n whIch could be used to o utflank the Spartans in Ihe pass. T he Call id rom us mountain is laced wit h paths va ryin g from st eep and narrow goat tracks to fairly wide paths. T he tro u ble wa , that the mountain was de m el y fores ted and it wou ld he impossible to find o ne's way across without a guide. T oday, whe n a g reat d cal of deforestation has taken place, it is st ill easy to lose one's way u p thcre, even in daylight . At last the Persians found a local pe~sant nam ed Ephialtes who informed them that t here was indeed a ro ut e know n as t he Anopa ea path, and that fo r a price he wou ld lead them across. ThaI night, as soon a, it was dark , H yda rnes led the Im mort als o ut of camp and, wit h Ephialtes showing t he way, hegan t he ascent oftbe mountain. Be low T h~ v,ew a clOSS the Euooe an ch a on", hom lhe Athe n '8n DoM ion at Pevk; B8y. The Pe";80 ancho'age to the fight of cent,e DO the oppoS ite 'ide of the , ,,ait i' as deafly v i s i bl~ as it to Ihe Gree k,w " 14. TH E CIT Y STATES 800-360 lie T HE STATES AT WARAll night long t he Pers ians toi led up the winding pat h until, at last, as t he sky began to grey m the east , the grou nd levelled off and t hey entered a smal! plain . T hey were plodd ing along beneath oak trees. Last year's leave, lay thick "n the ground and ru stled he ne ath the ir feet. Ahead of thcm there was a movemem and vokes hroke the sile nce , then they saw Greek hopl ite s ha,t ily donning t hcir armour . lI ydarnes asked who these men were, ad ding in consternation, ' Are they S partans? ' T hese were in fact t he t ,000 P bocia'" whom l.c'Onida , had detailed t o cover t he m"untain path , H av mg est ablished their identity, Hydame, arrayed his men for batt le and showered the Ph""ians with arrows. T he Phocians, f"rgett ing their m is_ sion, be came convinced th at they were the Immo na ls' prime larget, wilhdrew to Ihe top of the hill and t here prepared !() ' ell their lives dearly. W il h t he mute d ear the Persians ig nored Ihe l' hocians on the hill and pushe d on over the moumam. The ro Ul e taken by t he ImmonaJs ha' provoked a great deal of debate . Inrec ent yea r, P ritchett has made a ve ry de ta iled ' lUd y of t he , it e and has suggest ed a route wh ich se ems to satisfy most of the criteria. He rodotus claim' thal H yda rnes look with him t he men he comm anded, i ,e. Ihe 10 ,000 I mmo r tals. There seems no reason to dou ht t his. If the route were a narrow goat t rack wh ere the men co uld o nly m arc h in single fi le, t hen the co lumn would ha ve str etched ou t for ten kilo metres or m ore. T his i, unacceptable , and Pritchett conclud es thai one m ust be looking fo r a broad path wh ere the so ld ier' could march three o r fo ur ah reaSL There is one po int in Herodotus ' topography which is easy to identify : ' It begi", at the river Asopus wh ich flows th rough the tavine.' T he site of t he Asopus gorge can hard ly he in q ues tion . l ie continu es t hat the Persians crossed the Asopm before start ing the asce nt. Thi, m ndu sively pla~es t hem On t he eas t side of the go rge. T here is a very easy rout e u p the hill,ide axmt o ne kilo metre east of t he Asopu s gorge , T his is both the short est and the easiest route u p t he mountain sid e fro m t he Lamian plai n , l t lead, by wa y " f t he Chalkomataspring to the village of Elcut he rochori, where the re are t he rema in' of an ancient fo rt covering t he begin ning of t he route. Thi~ proves th at t he path was in use in anc ient ll mes. Herodotus de scribe' Ihe Pen ' an, as m arching all night with the m"untain , of the Ocracans on Ihe r ight and those of t he Traehinian, on thcir left. O n me face of it t his i, im possible 10 reco nn le with any oft he suggested ro Uies over t he mou ntains, pa rticularly if t he Pe"ians crossed the Asopus before they started the a,cent , fm Trae his and ,'-Iount Oeta are hoth wes t of t he Asopu, gorge. However, since T her mopy lae itself was in t he terr ito ry of Tr actus and J IountOcta mus l surcly be included amongst t he mo untains of the Oetaeans, one mu st conclu de t hat the mountains of Trac his include d t he northern pa rt ofthe Call id romus range . T his is admitted ly d um ,y hut there ""em , to be no ot her explanat ion, especially as Herodo tus say s t he P ers ians march ed 'all nig ht ' hetwee n these mount ain s. [f this is t he r ightcxplana lion , l hen the march woul d be in a southerl y d irecti on along the west , ide of !1ount Callidromu" Herodotus also de' cr ihe' t he ro ute as pa" ing along the ha ckxme of t he m{)un~ lain . Thi, is an accurat e de script io n of t he ro ute from E lcuthcrochori across the Ncvrcpohs pla in to t he pass between t he Liathitsa and C allid rom us pcab. Thi , ro ute follows the plateau iu' t hel" w the ridge of the moun tain on the south side .The Ph"cians,a ccord ingto H erodm us, were statio ned in a posit ion from which t hey could defend t he route over the m (mnta ins and the route 10 thei r own count r y. Thi, can he no ot hn place than the Ken opolis plain , w hich lies about Iwo kilometres from t he su mm it of the pass , Here the re is a sm all lake which today drie' out in the summer h ul may not have in ancient t ime' There i, also a spring wh ich would give an ample su ppl y of dr inking wate r for the 1 ,000 hopliles. The pat h from P hoeis joinslhe Anopaea route at t his point; if t he P hocians had taken up their positio'" any neare r t he pa" , they would have Le ft The plain of Nevropolis juS! 0 ~e ' ouln of ,he l i.t hitsa C" II ,dromus pat . Its P'Us i' ion .ttheiunction of the "'ute to the pass oM the route 10 Ph"" i, ma 'e 11 1he most l,ke1v " Ie for th e Phocian po. it>on 15. {~ RE ECEAND M AC EI) O NI A 16. Till , CI TY STXI ES S OO - , ~Q ~.; ". I'un henn",." ~n~' r"ul,' o,cr lh., L ia,hlt>;l-C"lhd , n", u, r a" w"uld h~"e I" g" Ihl> "~, . Ik'i h Jlu ,n ~ndl'rildl"lr arc agreed lh~1 Ih,' 1'1.. ",i"n< up Ih,.." '00 ur .I".. ' ",,,"n " 'n "n . ' Jlm I j~ t hi l >~ '" the ",,"h "I rill' r"lh. ~nJ Ihi, """IJ "en,"nl" lil 11.-"..I" IU' d.......rif'l ",,,. T h" I'.,'-" Ian, ", lJ hm'" r...""h" d Ill. lop of ,lie r>a" ..1:'< 1 I hr,... li...a [r"m ,k-erl"l', wh.. , am, ,,, ,l uli ng 'ht nig hl. anJ Ih,'n I" ,,,, I,,,,,,,'m , l' "k'-.l On rh" hci~ h l ' "h" ,a n J "wn ' 0 lllf"UT' hr m )U" a ll,1' da wn T h, ,'''Ill malllkr, imlll,dr ~I "h' hdd J ,oun, ,1 .1>" , W~ f' f,, ' ,, " hdr~wing ,,'hik Ih,'~ ' till haJ a ,'han ,'" . 1..,,, niJ a, . ,,'I1,'n h" , a,, thar t heir h,'an, ''1'" tI,'1 in iI, ,em lhem on t heir way , ..h " SI''''Io,." 0 " . ,,om"an" 0(*"~:1.:> .,"C L '"",,,,,, .c"""CJ"".nc.. ,,..,,1 ,. . ,~ o ve pAy J ... " r!,' h.:l< >r~ Ihe' Ji~,t 1 1~ "Jnl: ~rn,'" Ih" " f lh. rl",un lam [he I',,_i.,n, ~1~ rl C,t l h" d ~ '~-':I1l. 1....." .1,,1,," .~" lh"l Ih,' .. n"ra~a I'~r h , 'a111" d. .w n 111'" 1h" P"'~ ~ I . 1pcni T h,' ,ill; "I rh i, 1 '11 h." h~~n "'l "hli> h~d Wilh ,,>It'" .I ,g , " ~ "I' ~~ ,m in1' Oil,' , id ~~ )ll ltin~ " 1 u p 111" hill, id" blI III ,'; " ','r,' ,ll' i""n ba ck , .-1 tir" til c ( ;n:,,'" d..r,",kd the; m, d ",', ',,11 their ""'rJ,. but "' h"n t h,'" br" k,' th,', ,ll l~,k. " thctr """i bn " wi 'h Ih" Ir li,t, ~n d 1.elh T h"" i< ',,!,lu on unril lh~ ",..... """rwh d ",,'d by lh" ha il ,,1 mI> . ik>, 11 ",,,Id,,, all " 01' ,nil. Ikr,,,t" lu, n...-""l- a ",ll" "f '"'' 'I'.m an, " 'h" at I h~ lim" ,,1 rh,' 1a'1 >l a",. ","" h'lll~ III u' ilh "l'lnhalmi".1l :II',: ni. Th,' fir-I. nam,' J EU"1"', "Il k ar:llllg Ih~1 Itt.. I-'"r,ian' haJ ,T,,,,,,,.lror,i" 'J 17. G REECE AND ,.iACEDON IAt he mountaill~, called for his armour and , though he could not !>Ce, ordered his IIdoilO Ind him into t he thic: of the batde. The 5oen,c " . . wn 21. GRE ECE AN D MACEDO N I Ati mes Ihis m un bave M.: O ao island. Ik n , ""o this i~Land and I ~ mainland t bere wou ld beve been a sballo'" chan",,] ".~", the water was not dp enoug h for gal"'ys [0 navigate. Thi. small island would made an excd lem point 0 0 ro which t he G ree ks could lock t heir left wing without fear of missile all ac k from the P enian infant ry o n the mainland o r of hc ioll out fl anked. T heir inferio rity in n umhers made it all the more im portant fo r t he G reeh t o avoid bein g ou tflanked , For this rea, On t he Corint hian Iteet of 40 ships was despalChed to prevent the Eg vpuans enteri ng t he W C$t end of the channel. T h ere can be no t ru th in Herodot us' S1ateme nt_almos t cert ainly laken from a biased Athe nian source -c- rhar t he Corint hians fled befOl e l he battle . This also undermi"". Ille argume nn of t """" ",'ho ...-ould ~ t ile bailie ana fart her u p tile channe l in front o f the island of Agios Grorgjos ,,-jth no 1od::ing point for t he n g hl ...-jog. This wou ld hi,e allowed Ihe P ersian ship'" to break t hrough t ile r ight ",-jng at will. T ile G reek fleet wo uld have been d rawn u p in front of t hei r anchorages wilh t heha,.,Peloponnes ian I1t of 49 ships occupyiog the Iefl ..i ng and Inling o n t he i.let. It is also inc:onsi5'l em to att emp t 10 reconci le Ae",hylus' figure of 3 10 for lhe GTttI: fleet wit h H erodOlus' 380 by suggesling l hat the missing 10 ships fOTmed Ihe Cori nt hian squadron which left before t he ban le. This wJern Daphne ). The lh'rd .ite o n t he A" ,pu, was found while t'xp re"I,' I"o" ing for S''IIl 1..0 kilomelres fanher "'nt. m'er anJ charged ur II.: hillside in Th i, ""uld hll.'e been the route 10 ' to . .... thc nia n fori al (i ,-phloca' iro at Ihe Ihe ditl. Allowi ng f(>r a deplh of eight , south end "f Ihe pa., pro"es ..onclu- l he h"l'litc. alo ne would have Sl retched , ,"'dj' tha t it wa, in usc in Ihe 4l h cen- fo r about 1iv~ kilometrc,,;, The lightIUT j' ac. n,oth I'a,,~" were oceupieJ by armed Imop' wou ld plOhahl y have heen Ihe At hcm'lIl I(eneral Cha hria, in 379 , slrat~Il ,ea lly plal-ed " n t he wing, and l ie him'Il' u':""l'ied Ihe ( iy phto",m rn alonl( Ihe va, iou, spurs t h"t jU lted out pa" hut Ihe Spa rta ns F rced the ir wa y m to th ~ pla in, T he o b", uu, ,i le tor the o o... cr Ihc route th rough !'lal'l"a, i ,e. ri gh t wing, m ad" up of the S panan,. Ham m" nJ' ~ , lcgara wad, would hc t WO kilometre, we.1of m"d ern If Pritc hett i. eorren in his idem i_ Da phne Wilh Iheir 35.000 lIeI"" e"verti ~a t i"n of ancienl Ervi hrac . ju,t wesl (>f inl: Ihe 'upply mule 10 Ihe eas!- The Ihphne. Ihen t he G reeks wo uld have resl or the h,'phle. would have be en ' learned' of the I'~ ",ian posili"ns tirsl "Irel"h,'d out pa.. an,'len! E rylh rae a, hand. k ll' from here one g.. 1S a pd""r. far "sl he l'lIlll ridgc lhat jutsoul inw Ihe > armc vie..... of Ihe whole Persia n line, In 1'1"", Iwo and a half k ilomet re~ wesl of flk:l Ihi, view can be seen from any Daphne. "'ilh a . tr(>ng connngem of po int "Ionl( lhe 1:>;o$C of the hills aU tile lig hl-armoo u op litC'> f",m ren k,lomel rC'! farther ".."t. E,'en if .Iegar;,l. "'er" I"km g a terrible healing Ik rodulUs' .talement i!; dJSreg,u a tlank a!tack. espec'iallv a, . kgarians and ....reak Ihe force of It>., Ihey t hen proceeded 10 move westwa rd . ea"al r~' ch arges. Allain anJ again lhe 3l1:ain, ()ne must therefo re conclu de t hai seltI' """ ."".. to t"oe t_ _ PMS. The """". _ _1"'Sl.".g '" "'" da. ~ren t'- the wrong loo-~ I "..,..~ , " ' _. "",,-.,....... carne 1r'ot...tr>en nea ""a:ed a n'llht lOt t.... So1_ to ""O"'t n Sl' ". 01 "'" fact ""',,...,. _e l v _ I .wav. .-...: '0 !ry ro' lhe _ _ ,.... Sr>t__ nr;l 'he 01'* G,,,,, ~, el P,. .....__ 33&, Pl A 'A f ABelow The t>Bn l.t elO ot PI_,... >@en from ' '''' norlh " de 0' lr>f A",pus look,ng ,0u'h nS! M od~, n PI_' Na con t>/! SMn a, the foot ot Mo uN C,th .. ,on on "," ,igo.' Anci. ot Plat.e o " OU ld ha.. bn n just in fro'" 01 " Modern E"" hraa " ,n ,he centro ..,'h , he Gy p ~ ,oca" ,a paS! t>en,nO'nd ,ne m,oo he, d' N". I,n l. ' 0 ,~ e "On, D. ph"" con IU" toe >@en a~ ,he '.!rn. nO ~de T~,. w" I"" Ii,,, G'ee k The '>O pic ked men, the flower of the Persi an a rmy_ The.e m en fo ught valia ntly chargin g the Laccda emoni an. and many a Spa rta n reU before them But the nee of lhe battle was inexorab le. Gradually the Spartan hoplitt'S Clt their ...a) th ro ugh the 1,000. Fina ll y .{ardonius himself ns struc k from his horse . So long .. he ..as a li ve the Persiantood Iheir ground. but when the ntIL"S spread through the n. nks lhal Mardonius ...as dead and the majority of his bodyguard wi th him. the army began to falter and gtve gro und. Soon their line broke and they turned in Dight. rushing head long fo r their camp wit h Its wooden wall ' ac r"~s the river, :'h en they saw the Persians fl eeing lhe other A, lan s also look to thei r hee ls, Only the Ilocotians. perh aps because of th eir age-old e nmity with At hens . co nunued the fight They she....ed great bravery and all 300 of lheir Sacred Band fell ' n the ballic. but at 1 3S1 they too bro l:e an d ned across the r iver to Thebe-.. The Persian rerrear ....as covered by the cavalry ",,-ho l:ept b()m(Jt,.,we'e J3 A mOo'" COtT1P05'e " og l ploch8 .""",m . ",h~ "" n l ~ l:O< ' IP'111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 34. T HE CITY S TA TE S H 360 Be oo'rm: PHAL A N Xhcpluc s who were t he cream of t hearmy, They were selected from t he men who were in Ihe prime of life . Ea~ h yea r Ihree men were ~ho,en by the epho",; Ihey we re ~alled hipp"gret"'. T heir jo b was 10 ,eket 100 men each 10 make u p lhe hippei,. T hese ml'n ser ved on lhe right wing of lhe army and made up the kings bod yguard. It is f'O"ih le t haI only those who had son s we re elig ible for lhis unit, tor the Spart ans looked down on any man who had nO! done his dUl y and produced Ihe neX I generation of hoplites, T his wo uld a~eount fM Herodotus' rem "r k at the battlcofThc rmopy lae about the S partan troops who had ""'S. Sp" r t a i n H er od o t u s' d "y It se ms lil< ely that the S pa rl an army e wem lhrough IWO reo rga nisalio n", OHe at lhe time of Xe no phon at t he begi nning of t he 4lh cemur y,and one per h"p, 50 years ear lier . Pract ically nothing i, known oft he army be for e t hi, ea rl ier reorgan" at, on , Howeve r, fro m od d remarh about loch,,; and the " bsence of the word "lOra from H erodolUs' account , cou pled with t he con'tam tradilio n in the an cient so urces t hat the re were five fochm III t he Spa rt an ar my, it does not see m unreasonable to suggest that at the be ginning of t he 5t h cem ury the Sparran army m ay h. ve be organen ised in five supe r loehaeiriuu . Behind t h,'Be low A va ,e pa ,n1 ing s ho w, ng a do nkey w i1l1 a wood_ lramOd pa c , From Atnen" c .475 Be M"s.um of F,ne Arls, Bos to nl e ft Bronl e lig"" n" of a pacl ~ o n k ev T~e P" , hleld ontO it' leat her COWL The , eene comes ir om " 5th -ce ntu ry "'. ," fo und at the G ree k colo ny of Paeslum > sout he rn Ita ly Paestum 0 MuseumAbove A S~ar,",) ho pllt. (c . 500 Bel w e. ring a Co" ntn ian hoimet, w h>ch ho pu lls ~ow n W UNO' h is face oofore goi ng ,no ba tt le. I,nen c""a,; and "nee ~over;ng greaves Ho is .r~ with a lo ng ,pear and a ,word w hi~h wou lO on ly no rma lly be u , od if ,,,e spea, i. ~ ro ken In 'M rig idly reg ulateoldio'S Allhough lhe l' w e re a rmeg in the same way a, ot he r Glooh Spanan M pl,te, WO re a ~ iS1 i ~ct >"" ,carlel cloa k w hic h belabasis,;.~ .;~~.. .',...... ~" ..' . I n orde r to protect themselves on all sides thc y formed up in an ope n 'quare. This format ion is oftell mentioned in t he anc ient sources . Nlcias used it durinjl his fatefu l ret rea t from Syracuse, but only X enophon has taken the t rouble to describe it. The arm y is divide d into four parts : two div isions marching in colum n form the flanks and the other two parts marching in phala nx form t he front and rear of t he squa re, All t he light armed, t he baggage and non-combatants are in the centre , Each iodw, is d rawn up so that it can march either ill file whe re the road is narrow or severa l abreast in open count ry. T his shows the praclical use of drill. This exerci,e allowed whole lochoi to fall bac k when necessary so that t he 'Quare cou ld contract or c"pand .Above An "'m y odva nc.ng th roug h a dofj l~ vnde r no, mal cond,tion,. The ba ggage 1ur inl: the da)' cavalry uut pos, s were se t u p on ,-,-un , manding hills, At mghl Ihese o utpost s ,,'ere taken o,'er by t he uiri l"" . ~o dou bt befo re Ihe int rod uction of ca.-alry l he~' performed t his duty in the davum e 100, Thc reason t ha t ca" alr)' are used is becaU,"" 1M,' Can bring informalM more m quid t.ly. Ol he r ""0111' posts were also "'I up at nighl command ing rhe a pproaches to lhe camp, The o nly detailed aeL nt l ha l ""c 'OU "",'Cof a n arm~' on the mar"h is Xcnophon'. rel reat of the 10.000. In Ihis account , in which the ar my is ba sicall y ' Spart an, in spil e of Ihe consr am t hreat of an ene my altack, no artern pt waS made to fort ify a cam p, T he)' relied o n somes to kee p the enemy al hay . h was 01'1 1 when a lo ng-ter m occu pat ion was 1.' 'ntended Ihal a di tch and palisad e were cn' lru'-1 ed . ' II i. amusing 10 note Ihat Ihe S parlans feared a sla"e re"o lt so much Ihal il " 'as conside re d more imporl ant 10 guald t he armS Ihan t he I"'rimeter of the cam p. T he cam p had nO sanila!1' arrangemenls and il ,,'as ms isted o nl}' l ha l ~ldiers relieve Ihemselves at a suffK:iem distance SO "" not 10 o!fend l he ir comrades , Ea.:h mora enca mped ~ a unil with sl riahlI... r-n 46. T HE CI T Y STATE S K oo- j 60 lie AR MOU R A... D WEA I'O:'liS .overla p ,,'hich lIua rdcd his uncovered sidc. One of the g reat problems of t he phalanx " lIS this tendency to close u p towards lhe ri ght. Afrcr lhe end of rhe 61h cen tury , probably as a res ult of l he Persian invasions and the increase in , he use of Iighl- armcd rroops anncd wi rh mi5!Jiles, a kllher curtai n was sometimes au a.:hcd 10 rhe bouom of rhe shie ld ro prolecr rhc ..-llI"f'i ""nlu ry 1 The ,nside of th. ,hleld shOWi ng Inc armband. wh,en wou ld have l>een Iin-ed WIth hrde, the hand g" o ar>l1 and ha!dQ" o 4 ReconslruC1>on of lhe nandg"p a!d "''' SP'I(Mo'ng lhe 01 ""OOd u sed to !'ll l he 10m""pSl3 47. GR EECE AND M ACEDO N I Amaking a copy of l~ Yal ican sh~ld and Ining it OI.It. The sbarp curve bay [wo iron spikes on Ihe from plate which passed through eorrespack plate ( S) . A sem i-circular bronze pla te ca lled a mitTa (Ihis term is probably wrong but used for co nven ience) could be suspended from a belt to CO"er l he abdomen . All hough lhere ar e rome Greek examples of these, mos r come from Crete. Exam ples have been found 10 Thntcc " ; Ih la'tT 'enions of the bell cuirass sho..;ng lha l lhe } "~ re: used ' logel her. In t he second half of the 6th cent ury the bell cuirass ded ined in popularilY and was su perseded by rhe linen corse_ let as rhe basic hoplile hody armou r. Howe.-er, Ihe b ronze cuirass continued in m e and gradually evolved into [he e1eganf m uscled cuirass . Alt hough il never enjoyed t he same popularilY as the bell corselel, probal>l)' because u wu so expensive 10 ma ke, itlasted unt il l he end oft he Roman era 1,000 years laler, and bttame parr of [he uniform of seniol officers. T he new cuirass came in IWO In"'S, eil her shore, fi nishing at the wais. , Or long 10 cover the abdomen. The mu sded cuila," was usually joined al the sides , and sometimes al l he shooldel'S, ,,'irh hin ges, one balf of the hinge being anached to the fronl plale and one to the back. There "'ere usuall y six of t hese hiniles- Iwo on each side an d one on each shoulder. I n order 10 pUilhe cu irass on, th e hinge pi ns were remo.-ed from one side (us ually rhe right) and from the shoulders. The corselet was then opened out as with the previous IYpes , When fi lled t he fronl and back plates would be drawn 10gerber and the hi nge pins in ser ted on the r ighl side and [he shoulders. On eil her side ot t he hin ge was a ring whi ch was us ed to p ull the fro nt and back plates logel her. A fragmem of a coilass in the British , t useum (9:' has a d ear impre:1ISion of a buckle nexl 10 the nngshowing that a strap and buckle werr used 10 r ull t he IWO sides together. Some of lhese conelCis h&'e no hi nges and were held toge-ther wit h rings and straps onl~ . Some 4Ih -cen IUr ~' cuir~es haw a Iefl- hand hi nge "" rending fro m the ar mpil 10 th e hip. Since ir would be impssihle to inserl lhe pin in such a hinge when th e cuirass was being worn, one mUSI assume rhar t he lefr side was juineJ before il was pUI on, Although t he developmenl of t he mu scled cuira' s can be t raced on Greek va""s, Ihe archaeological finds are ma inly Italian. In ,he 4fh cent u ry the full-length mU'l to go b~' .ult a n darlll guardsT he full-length ],o.... er leg guard or g~a" e only came into general use in the 1th century. ,,' t first it cO'ered the lo,..-er leg only from belo,..- the h ee to t he ankle, hut was late r extended to cover the knee . The n n- and 6lh-culationofthe later t ypes i, generally less sty lised than th e late 6th-cen tur y ty pe shown here, The Greek greave was pulled open and clipped on to th e leg, but in ILaly lhe}' w'ere often st ra pped on to t he leg. Several Italian examples ha"e been fou nd with rings for straps. . Iany exam ples of ankle guard. ha" e bec.n found ....hich co"ered not jun the ankles but atso the heels. These are the anklets that Homer is so fond of describing. T hey " ",", tied on. There ar e also a fe.... examples of foot guar ds ....hic h were fi tted to the sandals, These were made either m one piece or hinged at rhe toes to allow more mOvem em, Although thigh guards are shown in sCMioitl T - . o r lIlrd ... ,tl'l the .....armaoc"""...noCfl ..d'spIave ptOngS 01. l he fron l Thogll guard. 611'1 ~ 9 f oot ~tury. It is Ikr>ged at tile loes and _ "'.. _ Iaoed ro _.-S- I f """ Olymp", orv""" a t.luseum. 9 from RuYl). s""' tern ' ...... Bnl"" Mu_mleft Broont flgu"'''' 01 a S(lirtan "'lniar. c. S2S Be HI i. "",." r-.g """'r ",m gultclland 'l'Iig hQua-d. 1>eS.de-s!>al1Cu"..... Co,m"'..n helme, and gr_A_eo N,l ona! _1OIoIl0Cll Muse"",.ss 53. GR EECE A:'D M ACEDO N IAvery daborard~' de 01 & lal. S'Cl IV II ~9, No . ',6t h-oen,u,,! Co"nth.an hOlme was 1".,0' Iplrl pons11 011" . - 7 rt.e ..-.,.,., "' ..... G'ee. """"'" &nd 5 T_ Ia", I,l..,...,_ (!Vl>e II I bforve .......,.,. lrom ..... :hN. e t 200 BC 1M ' he _Ie d a .om..... >Word from Italy I Eart,o GC-3btwd 0/ G,... . 'We "".,,, bone .ntav tl...., the CamPO"a1ar>o d. e".mplI "".".,.os, e 500 BC (hoet. I,l """"m 8 Iron "",,",""lid of G_ k "'" . fr...., me C&mp, who had rema ined in "o n[TOI of the Moced"ni on ",,...,.. ion. in G 'e J),,,,,n , a..umc d p"weL I n thc sou, h a re juvcnoled S paTI a undcr its king Cleomen et had begun to makc in road. into ,he poolse.. i,,", of lhe Ach:ocan league , Co ntu'}' i.. avowed aim. the leaguc turncd tn Maced nn for assista nce an d fonncd an . lI iance ....ith Anti/tOn,.. I>OOUn agains' S patU . A[ thc ""nlc of Sellasi. the Spartan. ....q' '[Uoo put '........J. 1tu, -~ u, p....-. f'OOJI' tuUOU!W:>q' ""... '.ll .u:>q~ u. 'l""-OW "'ll. ' .'~"1" U! .'1ll1J~,,. Dq' 4,," ' >q,:>:KI, ~.=I' ",'" "" punoJ >q 1I>q.. . ",,,,UOOPUV JOuOI.nl"uoo "'l' "",,, "' 4.1. '~'o>:I l' 1I 0Jl u. 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'tJ!f'U,;m ,u ,f, J" "" "4' 1"~lldo"" ' ! ''' ' !I" W " ' ""I ' W X!, O' " ! p'p!,!P'q Ploo." '!X~l 'I'"' 11''1' "" s" o" " " ,'1 lU"~U" II" JO P~W'OJ" I ""'l .I1'11!qoJd ' ,n lq' I"d 'd:x>p l'lll>;> ' ;>so, ' '1' 'J~," '!'I ',ll ,(tt ." ~ ..) .I' " " ,. ,apll""'I'o' ""I '" ' '''I 4' !'I'" 11.111.10 1I0W pliO 91 'of " P hlS= ""';HI , f f III "[O""'~ JO -" . n I. xU.[1''1d SIll dn "'' '1'' " 'pu.""1V "'l l "' 'u.,,.,,,,,, , noJ " 'u, IPL" p '.4' 1l1l'w,l')~ ," on"'l.II"d .(q p;>)OfIb .. '''In. ..... '1"' '1.'' '",,~, .10) _Ir,....... 'Ut!tJ01"'I1""!lI0 .. UOOll~U ','1"'" p~I'" lllln 1l1l''''.-9~~ JO """"sr,., ~ -xW r-.I!) ~'1' p;>ldOVO >U ~ ...... :>JOw OIl p.....,!"' llllq "-'" Oil" ~l I'll. ""W '""'I I II'", "" " JqI JO """IWnll "'ll "' p>"'!Jl' ...., :U 001 .ute.,.,. "'lJ. 'ull""'","" 00 -"'l U'''''= J1'P (I"""du IJ1t!-llY .. '''''!."oo pooll "OI ."lK"" ." 'X~ 1111'."= ,no I~ U"'l." .~ " "'l ' u .""" .. '''OJ "'. " "'lJ. " I!I [~W""U ~'1' JO '-"" ~O .I.'tp o "-u..-. 0, p;>:>JOJ ~J"" "'''1''1'''' :>.1...... ,''''''I.""'1',,,t'll,Ii", ""'''!"'"II''''1''""!"'"'1('-w"',.,no, ",,,,.,,,,.-,,,, "". ,,,tw.'u-""""....'"........' .op''''l''0< ca,.lry. Th..i. job was probahly 10 vro,e:-ct II>< phoolanx. It see"" likely IN' 'I>O!d< ""II ' =roJ~nt>< dn P~W1OJ ~""'I I'lno." .'~'l.L ''1~'~ U:>W Sl l JO' "'' ~" '1 P~WJoJ""!.'"u,~,''''I ",~"-" ,,I""!""" ''I' ',n,,,,,,,,d~p,V 'n ~mp"'"," '1'1 4' J>PU~X"IV p"uod "" - woo., " 04 " ,;JI""'~ V'>J~ ~ ~'1 ,1. ~ U t 'l'! WJ '~'Jo.l "~I",n ~JO," ."'1' In,! '".w Ut JO "'I' m -'~'1P'l." ~lq ' I'l"'w '"'" A JI""" ' u"!l"""'l.!. "'I ' .1 0 ~~''''I' "'l l ' '' ''1'1''d 01 ~mrJO:'v I,,,,,, ~'""'1 ' ' B 1''''''' oq PI""" 00, ....[1""""1.1 "'l' ''''I' ""'ld -u" ""'l"lUJOJ pod ",!,- puow",p "'1.1. ":>lI Hf 1n. '!B " q 1'' ''.....1'""'''''Id JO...-r ..-l' U' "",, ,'"'1'UOO'>:UilOJ P""lWO'l' B UI dn U."' ll' no" ""'!~. :>ttl. " S"Vl"= """'I"'''.''"'I"" I '"'''' " "'.'1'~! I"",,"",~_ ......8J0JUI~J 'r"v u, ' "~-' ""l ' 'I ' J" 1'''' ~4"V 'O l l >q "nw ...q , ,,un 10:1 'p'WJoJ "'l u"" ~lil'""" " 4"'1" UJO.I.I ""n lly , ,,",, In . , " to .1[""" 'pu:>W -""""'-' 0r.> ... ' .. "'I' J 1 ' n. " I"" ([ "ll p~"oll"oW A ",.., J1W 00' " "'II ~ ," "''II,r. 'PI ~ ~." pU" " ' Iu o,' u,,, u~dw'D J" ,u 'lJp"n h" 1 O ." '''4 ' 1''''' ' '" '"'I' J,' p",solllln< ""''I '"11'1 '0.1 '1' 4p u~w wo"'I'"lnlbJ '0 " pu~ "I' I. A "'I ' ..... 4""'3 .("'1' ) "",-,pen t>< IOUOII.u ~1 ''1:11:> O,U[ p;>pI.Up n." ...' Ymu'"r;>. """" '"'I' 4 'UJO.l.l "." "Jp 0'.," uo" npuo(' 0]q1JIf'{ "'II J"J .w~" ''''l '''U~ " nl "'0," "'4' l"'l l UO"".'uo.' ,.u'"J. 'J>,"O" I .Uo).."'j d . 0' un "''')~ ,n",I""(] ''''-'' ,m;lruo, eae ll,"~ing '0 on.ora,'0of Alexander'. lroope"" " ,," fou nd in T he a rm y in .h" fie ld Ihe T igris. T he .hig h pun,"",i..,n w.o In re. pe1' a shield. de. cri bed hI' Xenophon 50 yea" earlier ' cled cavalt y troops . In ,hi, r..pecI Ihe .Iacedoni. n, cui.." (see p . 56) truly h"" e !>een in U ~ wcre far . hu.l or the G ..ek, . Pri,chet'. in Mac ed onia , ' here i. u nfon un.t ely no in hi. ar,ide 0" 'mu,". l uo'e, many ..am pl.. wher e "rmie. . nd d ~! her w"' Ie," than hve kilometres away , Sc'ou" in Ihe ",me of intelligence ,e eker> " _ m to have CXlme into use only 'e about Ihe time of Xenophon , but even so t hey seem to have been litt le used in Greece , Although Alcxandn, and pre_ 'umably Philip, mad e g(~>d use of Ihe, e scouts , late r armies seem 10 h.,'e f. llen back into the old ways and Ihe Koman republican .rm ie, were no bf hlh armie, Se~ Ihe descriplion on p, 'OS'T he army in ba ttle Alexander normall y dr~w up hi, army with the phalanx in the c'entre, the "ronge", c'a-al ry, includ ing lhe Com panions, on lhe ril';ht and lhe wcake" on lhe left , T he hy pa,p iSlS were p laced at ,he right end of the phalanx, The ri~ht ,,-ing "-as fun her reinfor ced by lhe . rchers and agr"" ,," . Tbe whole line would usually be drawn up ohliquely Wilh the right wing ad" .nced .n d the lefl held hac'k The firsl au"c k wou ld alway, c'Ome from lhe advanre d right win~ with Alexa nd~r him,e1f at lhe head of lhe Compan;o" "a,'a lry Tbi, was Ale,"nder', vers ion of the Th ~han 1acl i ~_ I t was ad. pled espe cially for use a.o;ainst lh e fa" - tn()' ing, lighl_ armed Persian tr"'-,p, _ Se ~ the plan of lhe hallie of Ga ugamela d i, pla;'cd on p . X2 , Arcian i, i" d ine d t" unde restimate lhe imp,,"ance of the phalanx in Alexanders b"tt les an d to lreal the 'truggle inlhe ""m re as a , id~ s h()w_ Only whe n tbe phalanx is in tr"u hle and Alc~ an de r manages ", relicve it docs Arri an report its aetivilies, T his musl be bo, h , th C_"'ury ' M m.d. ;" th_ ,.m. >oulh lM an "o , hop 4 Horse, we O''"9 ,"cO, " ' ;O''' 'VO ,Md.. 'M"" on a pa,ntrn9 "om Ihe K ."ol" tomb on B 'g.", (, "" ont Th" c_j Uwriting a life " f Alexan der and wi,he, 10 c~m "e ntr.le on the hero of his story, In fact lhe cav.lry is only lhe sledgeha mmer which ; ha llers the cohe';o" " f the Persian f", ,,~s_ It i; the pha lanx wh i~h rou" win Ihe batt k _ A k ~a nder may be lhe most successfu l commander of all lim~ but he can bardly b~J only pan of hi, army_ ThcrduClion of ekphan ... A' ' he h..' tle (;augamda [he Pe";an arm)' W.' rei"f"rc'ed hy IS rlephan,.. T hi. "' ''' ' he hr" , ime 'hal European, had ""m,' up ogaimt w ar de pham . 1" I"d ia lhe . .."ed""i,,,, had '0 lace up ' 0 200 elephon" al 'he halli e of tM H)'da'J"" s , They ,,-.,r-e li ned up a[ Jom i"",,o l. in fr"n[ "f tM whole ann)'. T heir printcd in .i.Re warfare (or ."", h it"'- a' learing d,,",n palisades. '0>-.....,.,n tM anImal. wcre filled ",;,h lieh[.onnrd ",",!". A[ I ~ bank or Gazo ( J IJ -.:) [he ..... a u"il of 50 j.,'diJ"oI[ "If .. he ..... in Eg>'r [. ,uprl i", ..-" re hard I" ,..,.". by and it " 'n no( long hef..re the Afrie...n elephant " 'a, bei ng u",d, Ii'" h)' 'he Egyp[ ian> and laler bl' , h. Conhagini an,. l>ol;-hiu in hi' een , ho,,'n thaI there was a ,pe" in k" own as th" !" rest d eph.nt wh ich was com mOn in Nort h Afri"a in l'olyb ill" J ay bm is now e" in~t there, T hi, specic, measure, about 2.35m at , he shoulder, wherea, lh e In dian mea,ure, iU>t under 3m and 'h e ifri~a n bush type bout 3.5m, Du ring hi, ac,",unt of ,he battle or Ib phia , l'olyb ius give, a vi,'id de",ription of d ephants Ii gh' ing cach " lher. They me t he ad on wi,h lu, b i nt erlod~d , Ea ~h pu, hed with all its weight, tr yin g to com pel the ot her to give grotlllJ . F inally ,he Stru nger would force the weaker one ' , tr unk to one side m d then gore hi m in t hc exposed ~ a n k Alt ho ug h the I ndians who oppm;ed , l e xan d~ r did no t " , e lowers on thcir elephan ts, thc Indian d ~ p hant was large enotlgh to he fi ttcd with onc , TO""e" ,",ern fir" to have ""en u;cd b y Pyuhm when he in' -a ded It aly. T hc l'ort h ,>'fri _ can forc", ty pe wa, ral h~r '00 sma ll to carr y a tower , and ecrtainly lh c , ,,,,, haginia", never see m to have u' cJ them . However, at R"phia Ptolemy', dc-no' "'pham, cena in ly carricd ' hem . T hi, ,m ailer elep hant with its , ad dle back wou ld us"a lly h,,'e ""en r id den like a hor, e. I II 2 1H Be lhe d ep han t reached the height of its fame when Hannibal crossed ,he Alp, at the head of an ar m y which iJd uM J 37 elep h"n l< . How cver lh c heyday nf thc elephant was pa" and they fd l out of f,,'our. T he tater Macedon ia", seld om o,od ele phants and cert. inly the y played no signific"", part in the ir cam paign, . ' I 'hi, wa, pro bably bee'au" of the diffi "ulty of obt aining lh em,''''InThe Later Macedonian Army S lo" of ou r know kdgc of ' hc ph" lanx and of lId leni" i" war fare in genera l "omc, from ,he I",er Hdle nistj " period ( 0, n o-,6 HB ~ ) . Ou r principa l so",ce j, l'" ly him, the mo" rdi abk of all the ""eien! historians on mi li' ary matt crs He gi,' e' m" ny descr ir ,ions of batt les in whi c'h the ,lacedon ian l)'P~ of phalanx was used, and at one po int c,'en de _ , cri bes lh e basic structure and fun" tion()fl he pha lanx , However , he nc,'er goe, fun her . H e wro t~ a separate tre ati", on thi s sub ject whic'h i. n() longer ."tant, and pm bably for thi, rea, on did Ilct elaborate on ,he sllbject in hi, hi" or y Arr ian in hi, AT)' T~a ic" "onfi, m, thc existence of thi, wor k b ut ~iw s no de tails, It is un fon unate tha' l'o lybiu' no,'cr m~n, ioIlS the title of e,'en onc " f the , uhordinalc officers of th e phal. nx . which wo uld gi,'e U> a fO Olhol d whe n ex.mi ning the wr iring, of t h ~ later tac"Clan' By th, ' " ,'en 'ur}' He Ile llenist ic " 'arfare wa, virt ually J c" d and the stu d" of .Iacedonian taW ", had bc""",e a branch (}f ph iloso phy, Fro m thi, pcr ioJ ,,",lme, the wor k of A,ciepiodotus . I n hi, treati, " he givc, all "CCOUnt of the sm",tu re, dr ill and tactic, of an idealised phalanx . H e gi"C, a com p lct e bre akJown of a phalanx of 16, 384 men. which i, com posed of ',024 files. each no ~"JIllno'iorL ~ .-h". ""ield> N,n up in PlUll""" , occoon, o f ,h. baltl~ of Sell ..;. and again In blS OCeoun' of ,be b."le of Pydna On bo'h occasions ,hey ",~m be pon of ,h. phllon... I .. ould th.refore len,a 'ively '"u eo' 'ba' Philip', pbalanx "'as mad~ up or two S.ono' IToog '''''''Ii~i called tho wbi" and b,azen shield. , eoch co n, b Ung nf five ,hil i~ ,,'hi .. ~ . oo o'0'0'0.. r m o ur .. " d w eg poo s As ha' bee n me n ti n ne d he for c, ,h eMacedonlan pbalang'" " ... armed ,.i,b I lon ~ p"(~ tr..ri". ) ,."hicb ~i;Ji" , oaY' in hi. d a~ mu.u,ed I~ cubits (c , 63m) Thi a lelllb I. noI quI'" .., OU'fIl:COIl' IS ..,me eOm me01l 'o B ...,uld IU",,". In th~ Mid d le AJ~a the Swiaa u>cd pi ke. S.sm long. lod pIke. liP 10 S.7sm in lcn g'b at~ ptUe"-ed in . be Sew ."""""00C$ ollhe T........ ol London. Pol~biu, . I II~ . lhat Ib~ .. . i,, ~ ~... -'ri&h1N II ,lit- hun end (presumably this ......... tha' il hod a beny ""od. !k!beo eocs on 10 explain how it ..... bdd. Tbe (ron, hand (lcft) 111">1'" ,lit- ",riss.. aboo, 4 onolaru formed up wi, h locked ,bl.ld, again" Po tu. ' elcphanl< in IndiaTh~ pik.. .-ere comt pil:e blOk. The hopli'~ . ....o,d remlioed in usu1,. P.... . - """"">e,-" "" prong 01 poke ... ""'" ,... '''''''' 01 veo-".....".0 _ p,,;,... ..., .-loM .........., .._ _._ _-, _-... ....... 1210&_,_____......... n.._01 ....",........ _...-'8_ ",..,... .... .,..,. ..,....01,... ..... ' - . _ ..,...."" to bo""""'" 01"'11"'-"..._ ' " " " . - T....,., _ _..... ."" _ _._. .,...." _ ....... llOc>YI ", _ f>--7", long " .._. . . . . "'OJI'"ann end " " ' . _ l>,-,, 72. ....I AC E D O N 360- ' 40 IIsc thc-rn and .....ud the rily on the hiU, . It waU ' urible .... bood for Rome and she lotI ber dominant pooi';on in . he u tin L laler Falerii ioined in and tho< fono...~na l"ar ,be ....., of the E.ruso:an fcdenllion aI... 'ook up armr.. .- pilil... ...-or er,.ued in ...-hich ""'h ';..1.. """ri1es.1}" ma...ac oed pri""""", F inall)', in 35'. Ihe I.ugu. launch.d an all-out offen'ive . nd brought T. rq uinii and Falerii to Ihe ir knce' . It w"' ditlicuh for th. l:t ru scan, to mak e concert e'crcd , I f lhe)' defect ed. R""",', arm!' in Apulia " ""Id ht "'" ,,11 A. ,h;; pe;r a.-ailable fo'Cn again.. ,he in" ad ing Samni,,,,, a"d tl>u'ing Ihem , T hey had C"me '0 near 'Ik",'itllll . hi" (:..rt""". Pe-rupa and Arrezzo ".en: for"" far . ht had onl)' had . 0 f."" he. enemi... individually . SI.,n,i In .65, R"man ooIonin " -.::re plan'cd ,n ,he ......rt land of E,ru l'ia an.d irs da~~ of grra'ncs. "'err ",'cr. Thc hallie of Sen,inum nor only mark cd . ht en d of 'be SOmnil'" but ai, the bcgi n n i n~ 1' Ihe Roma n em pirc Ihe Cel,s , ulfered the w""t during thc yea.. " f expon,;"n northward. , In Z~4 . a. pan of ,ha, (lcncral "",,'e m..." t>f ,be ( :':I,ic "'hieh ..... "" crth"",' . he king.Jom of Thrace ond pl unge .b ....,donio in.o chaos. lhe 'k.......,., , be 'lame tr ibe " 'h ieh had ucked Romc a hundred )'' '''' befo.." m,w('d f ' hei r ' erti'or!' on 'hc ... d.iarie ,..,." north " f Ane"'llll, ~ro."ed the Apcnnine; and ra ided Etru .ia, The Rom an a, my whid, nl .,~he d nort h It' deal wilh the in" ade" . utTt.e d a noohd a.~ he. "",i.;.", Rom hi< Ios>e>. , "", a ' l')'ntue ..,....." . h:ome .be pto'erbiol n p....oion fo. an """rn pe n>l~e gaIn . Thc follo..., n& yca. Rome de.pa lched 40.000 'H"'J>'I aKainsl , he in,..dor. T h i. timc I)'rrhm "a' ,upf",rTcd hy , he ' " " II" ,,,, 1t. Ii,Itl" T he ",c~",d h.mle la,"ed for lW day, hUl it< re,,,11 wa; O nlu~h 'he ",me a' ,he h"l. Dq>r""sed hj' his I",,,,,, . Ihe king ~n:,.",d ''''cr 10 S idh' help I hc G = ks 'herr altlinsl Ih e Canbagin ian. , Fearing 'h.... he CarThagi man. had arrange.! a hamall bn:-a>lrUle f.-..uncm of an emt>.>.>c>J 1:ka'C fOtlnd in lhe Gro" a G",micia al Vrii. bu, as fa, as the aUlhue k""".. Ihi, i, the nIl' example from ""mraJ Italj'. Shields, ...."'II "etC all of lhe """'1101 handgri p '''pc, "v ied from la'le hody.....- mmh al Caerc .bow. tha' ,hey ""ere a obard beound ,.;ctho:r wi'h bronze wi..... The chare of thi. ocahbard " . nlkk 0( bronze, and indeed "".."..1 "'her .....mp.... of bronze chaPM Mkmging ' 0 antennae . ,,-ords h",.., bn found Thew a 'OdcrJ scabbard. " 'C'' proboobl)' .....ercd "';Ih Iea'her . 'l1>e 'OP of ,t.. scahberoJ 0( both . ... ord. anoJ Jaa' """",, , A f... examples in bulle and bron han .urvived. The b.... ak in lhe de 'i"e de.ign iun I>;o, onr can oJ... include: a b" tStb ........ 'ury ac hrlrno;, from 10' """",, ,n thi, gruoup . A uni'luc namplr from Fnmo ncar A""""" "'" tube made from pla'~ bronzr ' 4' The """,t common form of body armouT ..... t hr o.rnall rectangular bronzr r'0ral(7and S). ~ may ha... been a>Cd on thr baci< .. wd l .. thr """'t. Se,'eral . ""mpko hav. been found ,..rying frmn ,~ '0 Hcm in depth . Hundred, of ro und pm,.",,,,",,c_"'""La,."""8 Br""", _ '''01"orn8ably e x i ",~ d ,i n~~ tit< ll ro nu Age . T hi ,h~ lar~ o" a! body .hield " 'ith a ndl..... h.pc:d 1>0.."" It,I rIIVola:oenl'O. ....... ""'", __1 T"- l,oot '" ,t>a _kl. """"" no,,,- ..,..,,,,,Ofto 000. w"~'~ ".." .t>o-vo ont_ ".' " 10 ho ldon ".. ".non ' '''''''''09 """,,WO C _I. 'ho hoo d"I", Do,,,,'"p... 87. T il E R ISE 0 1" II.O ME 800 - 27S Be TH E HA LlA:" . U LlT A R Y S Y S T E MSknm',n .. floe ~I"''''. ",h"'h "as u,..d h~' I h~ legionari. ond accordina '0 D ionl, illo both sling"" and ia.."hTteIon)..i... accoun, 10 , hat of Li,")', It i. likely , ha, tM ",,-"Ond. lhird and fou "h d a,,,,, foughl on lhc lA'mg;~' lhe allie, had !>efo..., the Sc",'ia n rdonn" Howe"er , L j , ) , im plin lhat 'he)' formed l he "","Ond . ,hird and fOllnh li n.." .nd certainly al " ,me I'e d"nc with a ph.lan~ in lh e from line, Thlo " n' urin of the phalanx , al lea". rnu" ha"e been di,'idcM" ,"c"'co, I,.-a,,_ Bo' oww.";,,, (;gur., ,hown on,ot C" ' O" "tv'"C >00 BC Th i. rr.ditlona L On the other h. nd they might h. ve been u,ed in , ing le comba" such a. that , hown n scu lpture of tW (} hoplites frum !'akri i Vetere, . T hese are armed entirely in the Greck fa, hion except , h. t one wield, a , hort cu rved dagger. );'hate'e r may be the rea,on fOT the inclu,io n of t hese weapoll> , ' hey ,"on_ l ......1M " >eVm. 9 S och' ol H,u,c.n ...moo' .nd ThO .,""'"", ~"""",,,,.d 1c. n boll 01.,., '1 12. 13 r"" _ _ 01 of 1100 'UN"",,,ord 11 Vdl,,,,,,,n ' wo,d I,,,,,, Eo,.12 [ I,u, c, n , w",d 1,,,,,, AI.....n C"..,O . U S"'" " ~ ' _d (IAICo"). B"" .h Mo_m 91. AI"' I JOhO 11 0 p01J~ d snn I" p u naJ .IIUOWWO" 0' 1" ' I , d ,ll n.~ 'N . 41 WOJJ P H" ~ P hlq"q Ol d ~ U !l "o .", [" !S",,,, 0 'Ill , " l~ w I ' 4 J" IV JO ,dhl ~ pnn .In ' ' ''' ' OUJO ,(q AIUICW p >< n U1 p" Ul"W>J 4'14A , d.1 1 ' p , d" I1'" ' 41 .' q p " p, ,,o d n, " I" l" [d - W" ) u "Q p " ~ ,d" OS lp ' Idp , ' 14 ' .'m Ju 'J 1'" ' 41 All '00 'd uo p , ,, no' lp " " , !d V "4" J O "dA I lOU" r " 41 JO UI~ 'J!d V ' 'I ' p"d"ll "~< q l!-'tl s l "w l ' ~ ;'~I ..",, ~, 1101:lA1.1 :) '" qUlOl AJ nI U' , ' -~I t ~ ~, UI SP 1] ~' ~~ J . 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