grammar .doc

8/11/2019 Grammar .doc

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LANGUAGE FOCUS

CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS1. Coordinating conjunctions (Tip-FANBOYS !or" and" nor"

#ut" or" $%t" so& Addition/alternation

a) She is playing the guitar and singing.

b) You can read a book or take a bath.

Contrast

a) He is tall, but his son is short.

b) She is very rich, yet she doesn't wear expensive clothes.

Reason/result

a) I bought a new tie, for I have a ob interview to!orrow.

b) She saved !oney, so she could go to "urope.

2. Subordinating conjunctions

Simultaneous/sequential action ( when, after, before, since, as, until, as soon as, by

the ti!e,# )

a) $ary was listening to the radio while she was studying.

b) Sara has loved tennis since she was a child.

c) She had gone away by the ti!e I got ho!e.

Condition ( if, unless, as long as, on the condition that, provided%providing that )

a) &s long as you pro!ise to be back before nine, you can go out.

b) e will have fun at the beach, unless it rains.

Concession ( though, although, even though, even if, no !atter what )

a) It is true although it !ay sound strange.

b) "ven if it snows, we !ust go to school.

Reason (because, since, as, now that)

a) Since you can't answer the uestion, we'd better ask so!eone else.

b) He ate a ha!burger because he was hungry.

Purpose (so that, in order that)a) *avid took a taxi so that he could arrive in ti!e for the !eeting.

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b) +arrett enrolled in a test prep course in order that he would not fail again.

3. Corre ati!e conjunctions

Inclusion ( both#and, not only#but also, whether#or, neither#nor, either #or,#)

a) She likes to play both football and hockey.

b) He studies not only "nglish, but also Spanish.

Exclusion

a) ur !ilkshakes co!e in either chocolate or vanilla.

b) -either !y father nor I like watching the ballet.

c) It doesn't !atter to !e whether it rains or not.

". Distinction bet#een Conjunctions and Pre$ositions

Conjunctions are follo ed !" subject % !erb # $ile prepositions are follo ed !"

noun or an &ing form%

while vs. during

a) hile I was waiting at the bus stop, three buses went by in the opposite direction.

b) He was taken to the hospital during the night.

(al)though vs. despite

a) &lthough ohn is very nice to $ary, she doesn/t love hi!.

b) *espite applying for hundreds of obs, he is still out of work.

because vs. because of

a) 0ecause I was very tired, I went to bed early last night.

b) He walked slowly because of his bad leg.

'. (e) Pre$ositions

A%*or ($o lon&') s% during ( $en') for two weeks1 during the winter

%b) (completion) s% unti (continuation)

Have it done by to!orrow. 2se the car until this evening.

C%bet#een (t o) s%a+ong (more t$an t o)

between the eyes1 a!ong the crowd

*% Prepositions at t$e end of questions

ho did you co!e with3 hat is this for3 hat is it like3

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PRESENT TENSES

I. Si+$ e $resent,. -or+ation (ordinar" er!s)

S /I0#e0)ou0t1e) % /bare in*initi!e 4.. S /t1ird singu ar $erson 1e0s1e0it % % s0es 4.

2. 5ain usages

,se t$e simple present tense for routines# $a!its# or statements t$at are al a"s true%

a) 4he "arth is round.

b) I usually get up at 5677 in the !orning.

,se t$e simple present for future e(ents in sc$edules/timeta!le%

a) hat ti!e does the flight depart this afternoon.

b) hen does the train leave to!orrow3Note -$e simple present is frequentl" used it$ always, sometimes, usually, often,rarely, hardly, ever, never.

II. Present $rogressi!e

,. -or+ation a+0is0are % 36ing

2. 5ain usages8 ,se t$e present pro&ressi e for an action currentl" in pro&ress%

a) I'! eating lunch right now.

b) hat are you talking about3

,se t$e present pro&ressi e for future e ents t$at are certain to ta.e place%

a) He's co!ing back to!orrow.

b) She is getting !arried next !onth.

Present pro&ressi e er!s are frequentl" used it$ today, now, at the moment, for thetime being, currently, at right now,Not% T'%r% ar% so % )%r#s in Eng*is' +'ic' cannot #% us%d

in continuous t%ns%sA. erbs o* +enta state

.no !elie e dou!t needreali0e suppose remem!er prefer understand t$in. for&et meanreco&ni0e ima&ine ant ''''%

e%&%2 I need a book. (Not 2 I am needin& a !oo.%)

7. erbs o* e+otiona state

lo e disli.e fear mindli.e $ate en " care#'%appreciate

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e%&%2 I love her. (Not 2 I am lo in& $er%)

C. erbs o* $ossession possess $a e o n !elon'%

e%&%2 I have a house. (Not 2 I am $a in& a $ouse%)D. erbs o* e8isting states

appear exist contain consist of include#'e%&%2ater consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

(Not 2 ater is consisting of hydrogen and oxygen %)E. 9in:ing !erbs

seem sound taste* look* smell*, .e%&%24he food tastes delicious. ( Not 6 4he food is tasting delicious.) 7ut 2 I a! tasting the food (ordinar" er!)%-. erbs o* +easure+ent

ei&$ cost measure

e%&% 24his book costs 9:,777 ;-*. (Not 4his book is costing 9:,777 ;-* )She weighs


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PAST TENSESI. Si+$ e $ast,. -or+ation (ordinar" er!s)2 S % %ed0 /C22. 5ain usages 8 ,se t$e simple past tense for an action t$at as finis$ed in t$e past at a specifictime% ( it$ time expressions suc$ as )esterda); ast nig1t /#ee:; +ont1; )ear;centur) ; a #ee: /+ont1; )ear;4 ago; in ,


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-UTURE TENSESI. Si+$ e *uture

,. -or+ation S>A990?I99 % /bare in* 4 ("#ill$ is commonl" used for allsu!jects no ada"s%)2. 5ain usages8 ,se t$e simple future tense for a statement of future fact% -$is can !e2A% certain2

a) 4hey/ll be here on Saturday afternoon.b) 4he ourney will take six hours.

% uncertain2a) I think it/ll rain to!orrow.b) I/! not sure he/ll be there.

8 ,se t$e simple future tense for a sudden decision to do somet$in& (usuall" usedit$ I or ?e ) a) ait a !inute C I/ll open the door for you.b) -o one/s offered to help3 I/ll do it for youD

Note 2 Common expressions used in t$e simple future tense2 tomorro # next 6 ee. /mont$/"ear# in 6 duration

a) He will attend the se!inar to!orrow.b) 4he price will increase next year.c) 4he !eeting will end in a few !inutes.

II. -uture $rogressi!e,. -or+ation S>A990?I99 % be % 6ing2. 5ain usages

,se t$e future pro&ressi e tense for an action t$at ill !e in pro&ress at a certaintime in t$e future%a) 4hey will be watching football at 97.77 p.!. next Saturday.b) &t this ti!e to!orrow, I will be working in the "nglish *epart!ent.

,se t$e future pro&ressi e tense for an action t$at is pro&ressin& in t$e future $enanot$er action comes (usuall" used it$ "when$ )%a) 4o!orrow evening, I will be waiting for you when you co!e.b) hen you co!e, I will be cooking dinner.

III. -uture $er*ect,. -or+ation S>A990?I99 % 1a!e % $ast $artici$ e2. 5ain usage

,se t$e future perfect for an action t$at ill !e completed !efore a time or e ent int$e future%a) I/ll have read the article online before you find it in the newspaper.b) I/ll have finished work by five o/clock tonight.

I . -uture $er*ect $rogressi!e,. -or+ation S>A990?I99 % 1a!e % been % 6ing2. 5ain usage

,se t$e future perfect pro&ressi e tense to emp$asi0e an action t$at ill !e in pro&ress !efore anot$er time or e ent in t$e future%

a) e/ll have been living here for two years by next uly.b) I/ll have been sleeping for two hours by the ti!e he gets ho!e.

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AU@I9IARIES

,. Au8i iariesa) I should do !y ho!ework now.b) I can help you clean the car.

2. Se+i6au8i iaries I a! able to dance very well.

Some common semi auxiliaries2be about to

4he plane is about to take off.be a$t to

He/s apt to ask awkward uestions.be bound to

Erices are bound to go up this autu!n.be certain to

4he !atch is certain to start on ti!e.be due to

He/s due to arrive at any !o!ent.be going to

e/re going to need !ore staff here.

be iab e toThis machine is liable to break

down.be sure to

He/s sure to be waiting outside.be i:e ) to

4hey/re likely to win by several goals.

be +eant to &re you !eant to work overti!e3

be su$$osed toWere not supposed to smoke

in here.

3. Di**erences bet#een au8i iaries and ot1er !erbs

Auxiliar" er!s are follo ed !" t$e !asic form of a er!% You !ust (clean%toclean%cleans) your roo! now. Auxiliar" er!s are 89- used it$ to infiniti es%

I would like to (be able to % can) speak "nglish. Auxiliar" er!s do not a&ree it$ t$e su!ject in num!er%

ohn (can % cans) swi! very well. -o ne&ate an auxiliar" er!# add FnotG after it%

I (will not % don't will) attend the !eeting. It is possi!le to delete er! p$rases after an auxiliar" $en t$e" are repeated%a) ohn will co!e to the party and so will $arta.b) +eorge can play the guitar, but >arry can't.

". 5a:ing negati!e and interrogati!e sentences

Au8i iaries Negati!e sentences Interrogati!e sentencescanou&$t to$ad !etter $a e to

!e &oin& toused to

ould rat$er

cannotou&$t not to$ad !etter notdo/does not $a e to

!e not &oin& todid not use to

ould rat$er not

Can "ou :;9u&$t "ou to :;

*o "ou $a e to :;Are "ou &oin& to :;*id "ou use to :;


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( ould% ill) you like to have so!e coffee3

ACTI E OICE AND PASSI E OICE

I. Acti!e !s Passi!e Sentences

,. -or+u a

Acti!e Su!ject 6 >er! 6 9!ject

Passi!e Su!ject 6 e 6 PP 6 Preposition 6 !" 9!ject (a&ent)

+%Use o* "by % nouna!e01as % PP >a!e01as % been % PPe%&%2She has finished her ho!ework. Her ho!ework has been finished by her.

+%4% Present perfect continuous2 /a)%,'as #%%n 0 ing /a)%,'as #%%n #%ing e%&%24hey have been building this house for : !onths. 4his house has been being built for : !onths %

+%5% Past simple tense2 %ed0 /C2 ?as0#ere % PPe%&%2She helped !e last night. I was helped by her last night.

+%7% Past continuous2 ?as0#ere % %ing ?as0#ere % being % PPe%&%2She was doing her housework at .77 last night.

Her housework was being done at .77 last night.+%=% Past perfect2 >ad % PP >ad % been % PPe%&%2She had finished her housework before A.77 last night.

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Her housework had been finished before A.77 last night.

+%?% Past perfect continuous2 >ad % been % %ing >ad % been % being % PPe%&%24hey had been teasing !e for hours when you ca!e. I had been being teased for hours when you ca!e.

+%@% uture simple2S1a 0#i % /bare in* S1a 0#i % be % PP

e%&%24he police will catch hi! soon. He will be caught by the police soon.

+%1B% uture continuous2 S1a 0#i % be % %ing S1a 0#i % be % being % PPe%&%24hey will be doing the test at A.77 a.!. to!orrow. 4he test will be being done at A.77 a.!. to!orrow.

+%11% uture perfect2 S1a 0#i % 1a!e % PP S'a**,+i** 'a)% #%%n e%&%24hey will have finished the test before 976:7 to!orrow. 4he test will have been finished before 976:7 to!orrow.+%1+% uture perfect continuous2 S1a 0#i 1a!e been % %ing

S1a 0#i 1a!e been being % PPe%&%2She will have been looking after hi! for three years by next *ece!ber. He will have been being looked after for three years by next *ece!ber.

III. 5oda erbsActi!e !oice Subject % 5oda erb % Ordinar) erb % Object

Passi!e !oice Subject 5oda erb % 7e % PP b) Object /agent

e%&%2She can do this exercise. 4his exercise can be done by her.

I . enera (e) PointsA% 9nl" transiti e er!s ma" !e c$an&ed to passi e forms%

4he ship has been disappeared. (incorrect)

4he ship has disappeared. (correct) "nglish is spoken here. (correct)

% >er!s li.e make, tell, and ask are follo ed !" a to6in*initi!e in passi e sentences%4he boys were !ade to work very hard.4he girls were asked to stop laughing.

C% Perceptual er!s li.e see, observe, and hear are follo ed !" eit$er a to6in*initi!e(for repeated or $a!itual actions) or an &ing form (for an action in pro&ress) in

passi e sentences%4he geese were observed to fly south every autu!n. (habitual)4he geese were seen swi!!ing in the pond. (action in progress)

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*% Complex er!s t$at consist of er! 6 preposition are treated as one unit $en !ein&c$an&ed to passi e%

4hey laughed at hi!. & He was laughed at (by the!). -obody has slept in this roo!. & 4his roo! has not been slept in (by anybody).

E% esides# t$e prepositions at and with ma" also !e used in passi e sentences%At 2 !e alarmed at# !e surprised at# '?it1 2 !e pleased it$# !e satisfied it$# !e co ered it$# !e (pre)occupied it$# '

At or ?it1 2 !e deli&$ted at/ it$# !e dis&usted at/ it$# '

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NE ATION AND IN ERSIONI. Negation

,. Use Bno as an adjecti!e %

a) I have no e uip!ent for !ountain cli!bing.

b) 4here are no bottles of uice in the fridge.

2. Use Bnot as an ad!erb %

BNot can !e used after auxiliaries and !efore main er!s%

a) She does not gather enough berries.

b) You should not walk on the grass.

c) I do not find this !ovie very interesting.

d) She is not working in the garden.

3. Put a negati!e #ord be*ore non6*inite !erbs to6in*initi!es; gerunds; and

$artici$ es.

a) e decided not to study Jrench.

b) I en oy not waking up early in the !orning.

c) In order not to park downtown, he took a bus.

". Ne!er not e!er

a) He never parks his car on the street.

b) 4hey can never pick enough apples.

-$e position of "never$ c$an&es t$e meanin& of t$e sentence%

a) e decided never to cli!b $t. "verest.

b) e never decided to cli!b $t. "verest.

c) I en oy never waking up early in the !orning.

d) I never en oy waking up early in the !orning.

'. Redundanc) in Negation

A oid dou!le ne&ati es%

a) I did not find no treasure. (Incorrect) (no & any)

b) I found no treasure. (?orrect)

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*o not use a ne&ati e ord alon& it$ an" ad er!s of ne&ati e suc$ as

hardly seldo! rarely scarcely barely never a) e could not hardly walk through the crowd. (Incorrect) 'mit "not$

b) e could hardly walk through the crowd. (?orrect)

II. In!ersion

In ersion in ol es placin& an auxiliar" !efore t$e su!ject of a sentence%

,. In ersion is o!li&ator" $en e place a ne&ati e ad er! or ad er!ial p$rase !efore

t$e su!ject of a sentence%

a) He is never happy. K -ever is he happy.

b) He can hardly do it. K Hardly can he do it.

-$e follo in& is a list of ne&ati e ad er!s# ad er!ial p$rases# and ad er!ial clausest$at are commonl" used in En&lis$2

Negati!e ad!erbs

never seldo! little hardly scarcely barely

Negati!e ad!erbia $1rases

at no ti!e by no !eans under no circu!stances

in no way on no account not only

2. In ersion is also o!li&ator" in t$e "so such that$ structure# as in2

a) He is so nice that I like hi!.

B So nice is he that I like hi!.

b) She did such a good ob that she won our praise.

B Such a good ob did she do that she won our praise.

3. -$e follo in& s$ort responses also in ol e t$e use of in ersion%

In a ne&ati e sentence# e use t$e conjunction nor or t$e ne&ati e ad er! neither #as in2

He can/t sing, nor can I.

B He can/t sing, and neither can I.

B He can/t sing, and I can/t, either.

In a positi e sentence# e use t$e ad er! so# as in2

She is beautiful, and so are you.

B She is beautiful, and you are, too.

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ERUNDS AND IN-INITI ES

I. erunds / 6ingerunds are deri ed from er! forms $ic$ end in Din&% -$e" are called er!al

nouns !ecause t$e" act li.e nouns%

,. -or+ase er! 6 in&

(> in&)$ope D $opin&stud" D stud"in&

die D d"in&stop D stoppin&

pla" D pla"in& prefer D preferrin&

2. Use2se an ing for! after the following verbsadmit a oid consider discussenjo" feel li.e finis$ &i e upmind postpone su&&est

4hey finished eating.

$a or structures followed by ;Ling !e accustomed to !e/ !ecome used to can t $elp can t standloo. for ard to o!ject to

I/! looking forward to hearing fro! you.

II. In*initi!esInfiniti es are er! forms t$at s$o no person or tense% -$e" usuall" refer to actions

and e ents in a more &eneral a"% asicall"# infiniti es $ic$ are used it$ t$e mar.er toare called full infiniti es or to infiniti es%


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I forgot turning the light off. (B I actually turned it off. I forgot that I had done that.)

A REE5ENT

I. Subject6 erb Agree+entSin&ular su!jects must &o it$ sin&ular er!sH plural su!jects must &o it$ plural er!s%

4hey want to develop a new ventilation syste!. She wants to get a ob in !arketing.

Note 2

1% odifiers do not affect t$e num!er of t$e er!% 4he teacher, along with his students, wants to play soccer.

+% Expressions of ti+e #distance #$rice # and #eig1t need a sin&ular er!% 4en dollars is too !uch for a lunch.

3% In case of fractions or t$eir equi alents# t$e noun in t$e of phrase determines t$e

num!er of t$e er!% 4woLthirds of the land has been sold. 4woLthirds of the students in that class are !ale.

4% -$e num!er of t$e er! is determined !" $at is next to it in sentences it$ either

/ or !, or neither / nor !.

"ither he or his pupils are going to help us. "ither his pupils or he is going to help us.

II. Deter+iner and Noun Agree+entodifiers and nouns modified !" t$em a&ree in num!er%

Noun 5odi*iers E8a+$ es

Sin&ular a/an# e er"# eac$#

anot$er

every% each employee is another problem was

muc$# less# (a) little !uch competition is little information was

Pluralman"# se eral# (a)

fe # ot$er# a ariet" of

!any% several students are

a variety of skills are

few employees were

other employees were

Eit$er

some# an"# no# most

(of)# a lot of

so!e students are

!ost problems are

so!e information is

!ost of the e0uipment

is

Note 2 E er"/ Anot$er 6 num!er (J1) 6 plural noun

every day%!ile every two days%!iles another week%!ile another two weeks%!ilesanother !an% another five !en another dollar% another fifty dollars

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NOUNS AND PRONOUNS,. Countab e nouns /co++on nouns; co ecti!e nouns Use a an *or singu ar*or+s and add s es *or $ ura *or+s.

e have an orange cat. >ook at the cars on the street.

2. Uncountab e nouns /+ateria nouns; $ro$er nouns; abstract nounscannot be used #it1 a an or as a $ ura *or+.

4he horse needs food and water. I need ten sheets of paper.

3. T1e *o o#ing are uncountab e nouns furniture, luggage, baggage, news,information, mail, advice,

e bought a lot of furniture for our new house. How !any pieces of baggage do you have3

1. 2ouns can act as subjects, complements, and objects. $ichael works for a co!puter co!pany. >ucy is a travel agent. "veryone is looking for the lost child.

'. Persona $ronouns

Possessi e

adjecti e

9!jecti e

pronoun

Possessi e

pronoun

Reflexi e/emp$atic pronoun

1st person Sin&ular pluralIe

m"our

meus

mineours

m"self oursel es

+nd person Sin&ular plural

"ou"ou

"our "our

"ou"ou

"ours"ours

"ourself "oursel es

3rd person

Sin&ular Sin&ular Sin&ular Sin&ular

$es$eit

t$e"

$is$er its

t$eir

$im$er it

t$em

$is$ersits

t$eirs

$imself $erself itself

t$emsel es

. Ot1er $ronouns(1) Eit$er/ 8eit$er and ot$(eit$er) A or (!ot$) A and neit$er A nor not onl" A !ut (also) not A !ut not onl" A !ut ' as ell

e accept applications either by fax or !ail. 2either eating nor drinking is allowed in the warehouse %

(+) Anot$er/ ot$ers/ t$e ot$er/ t$e ot$ers One 0 T1e ot1er ,sed $en t$ere are t o t$in&s/people# etc%

f the two pens, one is red, and the other is white. One 0 Anot1er 0 T1e ot1er ,sed $en t$ere are t$ree t$in&s/people# etc%

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He has three brothers: one is a doctor, another is a professor, andthe other is a singer.

One 0 Anot1er 0 T1e ot1ers ,sed $en t$ere are more t$an t$ree t$in&s/people# etc% e have five dogs6 one is fro! Scotland, another is fro! +er!any, and the

others are fro! Spain.

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RE9ATI E C9AUSES

I. Re ati!e Pronouns

1%#ho, which, that

#ho is used $en t$e antecedent is a person# $ile which is used $en t$e antecedentis not a person% Ko e er# that as a relati e pronoun can replace eit$er who or which #

and it is preferred especiall" after all, everything, nothing, the only #, and superlati es%

4he wo!an is a singer. She lives next door. (B 4he wo!an who%that lives next

door is a singer.)

+% 8otice t$at #1ic1 can refer to t$e entire precedin& clause%

ohn didn/t pass the test, which (- 4 that or what) disappointed his father.

3% Possessi e of t$e relati e pronouns

Possessi e can !e expressed !" whose, $et$er or not t$e antecedent is a person%


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ADJECTI ES AND AD ER7S,. Adjecti!es

adj 6 t$at I'! glad that you ca!e. It's i!portant that we work together.

adj 6 to e are happy to be here. I was shocked to see hi!.

adj 6 > in&us"# foolis$# ort$# ort$ $ile# '

She was foolish lending hi! a lot of !oney. adj 6 prep 6> in&

She is good at playing tennis. I'! tired of listening to this !usic.

Superlati e form 6 to She was the last to arrive. He's the oldest athlete to win a gold !edal.

Adjecti al suffixes

a!le considera!le relia!le ic realistic specific

i e effecti e impressi e ous famous spacious

ful successful respectful ant/ ent si&nificant con enient

al exceptional intentional ate pri ate moderate

" necessar" ris." l" costl" timel"

2. Ad!erbs Ad er!s can modif" er!s# adjecti es# ot$er ad er!s and clauses%

She speaks "nglish fluently and correctly. You are entirely wrong. He worked really hard. I nearly fell over his feet. 2nluckily, she did not pass her graduation exa!.

Ad er!s of frequenc" ( always, usually, fre uently, generally, often,occasionally, so!eti!es, seldo!, rarely, hardly, never,#) come after an auxiliar"

er! and !efore a main er!% She can rarely drive to work in less than an hour. You should always brush your teeth after eating.

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Note + 'nly partial negation occurs when "not$ is used with all, both, every,whole, entirely, always, necessarily, or completely.

I couldn't solve all the proble!s. So!e of the! were too difficult. You don't necessarily have to attend the !eeting.

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CO5PARISONSI. Regu ar co+$arison1%


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CONDITIONA9S

I. Patterns

Presentcondition2

actual If 6 S 6 >(simple present)# S 6 > (simple present) If you heat water to 977 7?, it boils .

-"pe 12 Pro!a!le If 6 S 6 >(simple present)#6 S 6s$all/ ill/can/must/ma"' 6 !ase er!6 Imperati e (*o/*on t 6 !ase er!)

If you stay , I will stay, too.

-"pe +2 ,nreal at t$e present or in t$efuture

If 6 S 6 > 6 ed/> C+/ ere (simple past tense)#S 6 s$ould/ ould/could/mi&$t' 6 !ase er!

If you stayed , I would stay , too.

-"pe 32 ,nreal in t$e past If 6 S 6 $ad 6 P%P (past participle)#S 6 s$ould/ ould/could/mi&$t $a e 6 P%P%

If you had stayed , I would have stayed , too.

II. 5eanings F Usages

1% Present condition2 al a"s true If oil is !ixed with water, it floats. B hen oil is !ixed with water, it floats.

+% -"pe 12 statin& a future e ent If you co!plete this course, you will get a great ob. If you are not studious, you will not pass the exa!inations.

B 2nless you are studious, you will not pass the exa!inations.

3% -"pe +2 contrastin& it$ a present e ent If I were a billionaire, I would travel around the world.

B ere I a billionaire, I would travel around the world.4% -"pe 32 contrastin& it$ a past e ent

If we had known the proble!, we could have done so!ething.B Had we known the proble!, we could have done so!ething.

5% S$ould 6 S 6 > (!are inf%)2 in place of FIfG in 0ero# first and second t"pes of

conditional sentences If he co!es, please call !e.

B Should he co!e, please call !e.

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