graduate studies in the social sciences

Graduate Studies in the Social SciencesAuthor(s): H. F. AngusSource: The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science / Revue canadienned'Economique et de Science politique, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Aug., 1949), pp. 299-309Published by: Wiley on behalf of Canadian Economics AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/138091 .

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THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF

ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Volume XIV AUGUST, 1949 Number 3

GRADUATE STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE CANADIAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, JUNE 10, 1949

C ANADIAN universities have not been as enterprising as their American neighbours in seeking out new ways of serving the community; but they

have deviated far enough from the straight and narrow path of academic scholarship to develop a sense of guilt for which atonement may be offered by devoting a part of their resources to the promotion of graduate studies.1

In the United States we find a desperate effort being made to save the M.A. degree from the fate which has befallen the B.A. degree, by applying truly heroic remedies, such as insistence on serious qualifications for admission to candidacy, on "graduate standards of attainment," on "proper use of spoken and written English," on "a reading knowledge of at least one foreign language . . . as indispensable background and not merely as a tool for research."2 A candidate should have obtained "an average grade which places him in at least the first third of his class" and "due attention should be paid to those qualities known as personality and, in particular, to moral character."

A sense of guilt may be a very potent force, but it requires rationalization. Various reasons have been assigned for promoting graduate studies in Canada. Professor Brebner contends that an increased output of scholars, retained in Canada, could be employed in "the creation of Canadian culture."3 In so doing they would solve what Professor Brebner considers ought to be "the most urgent problem for Canadian post-war planners," namely "how to make Canada so cordial and attractive a place" that Canadians "who excel in any field" will be content to live and work there.4 It is nearly fifty years since American universities set about the task of meeting "needs for the satisfaction of which approximately 300 out of a total of some 500 advanced students at the time considered it necessary to go abroad."5 Canadians have continued

'Note the title of Professor J. B. Brebner's survey: Scholarship for Canada: The Function of Graduate Studies (Ottawa, 1945).

2"'The Master's Degrees," Report of the Committee on Graduate Work of the Association of American Universities, Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the Forty-sixth Annual Conference, 1945.

'Ibid., p. 88. 4.bid., p. 5. 5Ernest V. Hollis, Toward Improving Ph.D. Programs (Washington, 1945).

299



300 The Canadian Jouirnal of Economics and Political Science

to pursue graduate studies in other countries, but it is possible to argue that young Caniadians cannot rely as much as in the past on the opportunities offered for advanced work at British and American universities.

I am bound to admit quite frankly that I do not find either of these arguments convincing. The plain fact is that if I were called on to advise a young Canadian, qualified to undertake a course of advanced study, I should urge him, if at all possible, to seek admission to some of the great universities of the world, and that, if I were considering an appointment in Canada, I should consider a period of study abroad a better preparation for it than a similar period of study in Canada. If we are to be realistic, we should think of Canadian graduate courses as designed less for the elite than for those students who, for various reasons, are unable to make the most of their forma- tive years in broadening their outlook by travel as well as by study. The present situation may lead us to over-estimate the numbers of these students since the restrictions on foreign study imposed by the policies of the Depart- ment of Veterans' Affairs and the Foreign Exchange Control Board are not likely to continue indefinitely. The generous hospitality which American universities have extended to our best graduate students, and the opportunities which they offer for subsidiary employment in teaching, show, on the other hand, no signs of abating.

Yet I feel very strongly that we should promote graduate study in Canada, while frankly recognizing its limitations. The main reason is that it will strengthen our universities and enable them to do a better job. The teaching staff of our universities should be exposed to the critical appraisal of graduate as well as of undergraduate students. The intellectual life of our universities should be enriched by the presence of students whose training has proceeded beyond the B.A. degree and has not been confined in narrowly professional channels. And opportunities for advanced study should be made available to qualified candidates who are not able to study in other countries. Finally, if we send students abroad, we should be prepared to repay our debt in kind and to receive students from abroad. We can well afford this gesture of self- respect, and we could make our graduate schools more interesting by attracting foreign students to them.

II

The promotion of graduate study may present no great difficulty in some of our older institutions, but some of the younger universities must do their work (if they decide to attempt it at all) within very narrow limitations. Even in offering the Master's degree they do not always find it easy to dis- tinguish its requirements clearly and to avoid the repetition of an undergraduate year.6 They may, on quite inadequate resources, be making a desperate effort to meet demands for professional qualifications which have been carelessly defined in terms of an M.A. degree without determining what this degree should guarantee.

6Cf. "The Master's Degrees," p. 122, "A Bachelor undertaking a second curriculum which is largely of undergraduate character should not be permitted to register for a Master's degree.... He should be awarded a second baccalaureate degree."



Graduate Studies in the Social Sciences 301

It is the departments concerned with some of the natural sciences which are likely to take the lead in offering a Ph.D. degree.7 One of the ironies of university finance is that these departments which, at the undergraduate level, are among the most costly in the university may be very nearly self-supporting at the graduate level. The reason is that they attract financial assistance from industry. Perhaps we may say that Canada's post-war planners have deviated from the Brebner line and are making Canada safe for technology rather than for scholarship.

There is a real danger that, in many Canadian universities, work leading to the Ph.D. degree will be restricted for many years to come to the natural sciences, pure or applied, and that their most distinguished students will be engaged either in this work or in strictly professional courses such as medicine and law. The result would be a calamity for the cultural life of these universities and, at one remove, for the cultural life of the communities they serve. In the universities the humanities and social sciences would drop out of the curriculum at the M.A. level and a great part of their teaching would be directed to giving a smattering of useful knowledge to students destined for the professional courses. They would be exposed to the constant temptation of planning honours courses involving premature specialization and, therefore, designed as terminal courses rather than as a broad base on which to build.8

If we are to take seriously the self-criticism of American graduate schools, a school which received students in the natural sciences alone would be a most uncomfortable spiritual home for these scientists. Even those academic witnesses who are squeamish about associating themselves with the old- fashioned idea that a man is an end in himself agree that "the scope [of graduate practice] should include the fullest possible education"9 on the ground that "most Ph.D.'s are placed where human relationships count."'" The practical suggestions for improvement are revealing. They fall into two main groups: "emphasis on cultural courses with or without accompanying first hand experiences," and "emphasis on specifically human relationships."" Even the second of these two groups includes the suggestion that "it would be very beneficial if they [graduate students in Chemistry] could be brought into contact with graduate students who are working in totally different subjects."'" Graduates in active service seem to have "rated their graduate experience very high on the side of intellectual stimulus and discipline, but not more than average or lower with respect to cultural factors and matters of human relations." l

7For instance, at the University of British Columbia, Physics and the life sciences (Bi- ology, Botany, Zoology, and Forestry).

8"Even if [a graduate student] proposed to continue in his original field he might reasonably be held subject to . . . special requirements if his earlier programs had been planned as terminal courses rather than on a broad basis as the foundation for later specialization."- Hollis, Toward Improving Ph.D. Programs, p. 176. Opinions differ widely as to what bases deserve to be called broad.

91bid., p. 124. "1Ibid., p. 124. 0Ibid., p. 123. "lIbid. 13Ibid., p. 170. I am not clear what other experiences determine the "average."



302 The Canadian Journial of Economics and Political Science

Dr. Hollis, who has been quoted above, goes so far himself as to suggest "that every major field of study use a seminar or other means to point up the social philosophy and broader purposes that should guide creative workers in the area.''l4 Recent students had been at one with their academic and lay employers in emphasizing their need for a broader outlook, something not easy to ensure even in a large and well-organized graduate school, and something which must be almost inconceivable in a school confined to the natural sciences.

III

I cannot speak for the humanities,'" just as I cannot speak for the older Canadian universities, though part of what I am going to say may apply mutatis mutandis. My immediate purpose is to enquire what can be done in the western Canadian universities to promote advanced graduate work in the social sciences. My task would be a pleasant one, though not easy, if like Professor Brebner, I could call on Canadian post-war planners to play the part of deus ex machina by providing the necessary financial support for worthy enterprises. It is a drab business to consider whether the western universities with their existing and prospective resources can attract graduate students in the social sciences, in fairness to these students. What is the best that can be done and, in the circumstances, is it worth doing?

It is some consolation that, like the poor, we can display some negative virtues without any cost at all, since we are not beset by the temptations to which some wealthier institutions have succumbed. Of the sins which we are physically impotent to commit, over-specialization is the most deadly. Our inadequate library equipment and our scanty and relatively unspecialized staff alike preclude it. If, as most candidates and employers appear to agree, "the dissertation (or thesis) should continue to be the heart of doctoral training,"'6 we are in no danger whatever of encouraging or even of permitting students to choose recondite subjects of research, which we have no one on our staff competent to supervise. Albeit well-disguised, this is a blessing for us and for our prospective students. A highly specialized piece of work may, indeed, qualify as an addition to the stock of human knowledge, but it is very likely to be an addition of infinitesimal importance made without regard to any rational order of priority. The intellectual training involved could have been obtained in other ways. And, in the social sciences, the investigation of a practical problem involving some interplay of various disciplines may provide even better intellectual training, particularly from the point of view of the prospective employers who are expected to retain our brilliant graduates in Canada. It is significant that, when Professor Brebner concludes his study with examples of the "endless tasks at hand for scholarship" in Canada, they are all investigations of this character.'7

4Ibid., p. 190. "5See The Humanities in Canada, by Watson Kirkconnell and A. S. P. Woodhouse (Ottawa,

1947), chaps. VI and VII for a full discussion of the problems. 16Hollis, Toward Improving Ph.D. Programs, p. 193. '7Brebner, Scholarship for Canada, p. 89. Two examples concern the natural sciences.

The others are: the most efficient national structure for Canadian industry and finance; how



Graduate Studies ix the Social Sciences 303

Closely allied to the sin of over-specialization is the sin of presuming omni- competence. Some large graduate schools seem to feel it a duty to accept any subject for a thesis, even if no one on their staff knows much about it. In particular, Canadians at American institutions are sometimes encouraged to write on Canadian problems with which none of the supervising staff are familiar. It is the achievement of the student and not of the institution if such a study provides him with training and results in something worthy of publication.

A third sin from which impotence protects us is deadly. It consists in weakening undergraduate instruction in order to make the teaching time of the most qualified instructors available for graduate instruction and in order to enable graduate students to earn money as instructors. It can be very tempting to skim the milk and exhibit the cream, but the consumer who pays for the milk is likely to feel that he has been cheated. The limited resources of western universities in Canada would preclude the possibility of transferring the whole of a teacher's time from undergraduate to graduate instruction and a partial transfer might well lead to an improvement of the quality of his work with undergraduates.

It may be easier for a young than for an old institution to avoid being a necessary heir to the damnosa hereditas of the past. It is true that some members of its staff will think that the type of training that has made them what they are has demonstrated its superiority and that every obstacle which they have overcome should be placed in the way of those who follow. But in a young university this academic narcissism may be offset by the delights of posing as a reformer.

Many paths are open to the reformer and much discussion may precede the choice of reforms. As an example, however, we may take the proposals made by Dr. Hollis in his report to the American Council on Education in 1945.18 These have the incidental advantage of pointing to a course of action which might well be within the competence of newer graduate schools.

Dr. Hollis considers that "an advanced graduate school" (meaning presumably a graduate school offering the Ph.D. degree) should be "an undifferentiated professional school." It should train its students for their future occupations and, in so doing, it should "operate as an integrated whole rather than as a congeries of more or less autonomous departments and divisions."'9

The first task of a graduate school (says Dr. Hollis) is to "articulate doctoral programs with previous undergraduate and graduate work."20 As its own and other universities cannot be expected to frame their courses leading to lower degrees to suit its precise requirements, it should accept promising candidates, whatever their preparation may have been, and then see that they complete their qualifications by taking work additional to that prescribed for

effective Dominion-provincial relations might be achieved; what political parties in Canada represent; what has happened to the churches and religion, literature and the arts; whether or not a Canadian province could make a quasi-treaty with an American state.

l8Hollis, Toward Improving Ph.D. Programs. 19Ibid., P. 172. "0Ibid., p. 173.



304 The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science

the doctor's degree. "No degree in itself should be considered as sufficient for admission to the next level of training."'"

Its second task is to decide on what courses to offer. The older graduate schools have begun with the liberal arts and the older natural sciences, and these departments have decided on the propriety of offering the Ph.D. degree for semi-professional or vocational courses. The newer Canadian universities are in a different position. The departments most likely to be adequately equipped and adequately staffed for offering Ph.D. courses are those concerned with the natural sciences and it is perhaps to be anticipated that the control of the graduate school will pass into their hands. It will then be for them to judge of the ability of the departments concerned with the humanities and the social sciences to participate in the work of the school without lowering its standing. But until a wide variety of departments can offer graduate courses it is almost meaningless to talk of a school operating as an integrated unit.

It should, however, be possible to approach this ideal by describing the fields of study in which the Ph.D. degree can be obtained in terms far wider than those used to describe teaching departments as they are at present organized for administrative purposes. To some extent this can be done in the natural sciences; for example, the life sciences can be conveniently grouped. To an even greater extent it could be done in the social sciences, provided that the courses of training are arranged to meet the vocational and other requirements of the students.

What western Canadian universities may be driven to do by stern necessity is almost exactly what Dr. Hollis is urging on old-established American universities as a matter of educational reform. "The doctoral training of a good teacher or research worker should . . . be a group project; it transcends depart- mental lines to a greater extent than is commonly recognized in graduate practice."22 In support of this opinion, Dr. Hollis cites the evidence of academic and non-academic employers of doctoral graduates and the state- ments of those graduates themselves. They "were largely of one mind when they asked for more breadth and integration in the presentation of fundamental knowledge, and for more emphasis on the development of the human qualities essential to working effectively with others."23

Dr. Hollis seems at times a little pessimistic about his ability to persuade highly specialized scholars to co-operate in turning out scholars trained on lines different from their own. It is encouraging to western Canadian universities that he should think that co-operation can be advantageously prac- tised at the Master's level; and that it is in conference with the future employers of the prospective graduates that the incentive to broader training can be found.24

It is not for a moment suggested that the younger universities are in as good a position as the older institutions to "qualify doctoral candidates for rich personal and social living within the framework of their chosen occupations."25 On the contrary, it has been emphasized that the best students

2"Ibid., p. 176. 24Ibid., pp. 187-8. 22Ibid., P. 184. 25Ibid., p. 189. 2lIbid.




will be advised to pursue their studies at larger universities at home or, better still, abroad. What is suggested is that if the newer universities do promote graduate studies in the social sciences in order to round out their intellectual life they will, of necessity if not from choice, be pioneering in paths recom- mended by reformers. Pioneering means experimentation, and it may be a service to Canadian education if the experiment can be conducted on so small a scale that it cannot contaminate the older universities.

As an example of useful experimentation we may take the educational problem which arises from the early specialization involved in an Honours course leading to the B.A. degree. In the language of Dr. Hollis such a course is "terminal."26 Early specialization is encouraged in various ways. It is the usual basis for recommending students for scholarships and teaching fellowships and, indeed, for employment in the government service. Even the D.V.A. gives a special value to Honours courses. A very wide choice of courses at the undergraduate level is made available in each discipline-sometimes far wider than is required for the Honours course itself. The result is that many students concentrate their undergraduate work in a single discipline when they might be wiser to lay a broad foundation for future work. It is the graduate school which will be faced with the problem of belated strengthening of inadequate foundations. The cheapest solution of this problem lies in requiring the student to attend classes designed for undergraduates. But it is not a good solution. It is tiresome for the student. It does not require him to exert himself greatly. It does not associate him with others at his own intellectual level. A common sense reform would be to offer the counterpart of some of the undergraduate courses in the social sciences at an adult level, employing methods of instruction which will maintain the interest of the student and enhance his intellectual self-respect. A course in economics or political science designed for graduate students in history could be a very different thing from a course intended for students many of whom have never read and hope never to be obliged to read an historical work. Inversely, lectures or seminar instruction in history designed for students who have taken a B.A. degree with Honours in Economics, Political Science, or Sociology could be on a very different level from that appropriate to students whose knowledge of these subjects had been picked up in the course of their historical reading.

It is obvious that, if the candidate's course work is to be less specialized, it can be distributed among teachers in several disciplines, no one of whom need necessarily have made some small subdivision of a discipline his life work. This consideration brings the course work nearer to the competence of the staffs available in the western universities. The crucial test of the ability of the university to offer adequate training lies in the thesis. "Most candidates and employers agree with the graduate faculties in the judgment that the dissertation should continue to be the heart of doctoral training."27 But what type of thesis should be required? Should the candidate be driven to the study of "some obscure author or insignificant development that nobodv else

26See ante note 21. 27Hollis, Toward Improving Ph.D. Programs, p. 193.



306 The Canadian Jofrnal of Economics anld Political Science

has thought worthy of attention?" Or can "richer and more lasting education . . . result from a research project that focuses attention on securing command of a variety of research methods and skill in the critical appraisal of the scholarly work of others?" Employers are said to prefer the second of these alternatives.28 It is fortunately the one for which the newer universities are compelled to elect.

It must be freely admitted that the candidate's range of choice of thesis topics in the social sciences will be severely limited and that many promising candidates will go elsewhere in order to be able to write on the subject of their choice. It would be fatal for the younger universities to undertake the supervision of projects for which they are not equipped. Before a candidate is accepted it should be established that he will gladly write on one of the topics within the range of competence of the teaching staff and for which the library's resources are reasonably adequate.

IV A young university, with its name to make in graduate work, should adhere

strictly to the principle that no thesis should be accepted which its staff is not well able to supervise. By so doing it will ensure a standard of performance somewhat above the minimum of the older universities, many of which dis- regard this simple rule. In some instances inferiority in the quality of super- visor may be offset by the geographical advantage of being close to the subject of study. This is obvious enough in the case of the application of the natural sciences. Within limits it is true of the social sciences as well. Some social problems are strictly regional or can best be investigated in regions in which they present themselves with special urgency.

Frequently, no doubt, it is difficult to strike a balance between the advan- tages of superior equipment and specialized staff on the one hand and the accessibility of raw material for field work on the other. Endowments for the study of aborigines are not made by the aborigines themselves, or even by those immediately concerned with dispossessing or exploiting them. It is not from the criminal classes that endowments for their study and the improvement of their social prospects can be obtained. Those who practise racial intolerance are not ready to finance an investigation of this form of human behaviour. Those who have grown rich by the depletion of natural resources may, indeed, be willing to promote the study of conservation in the fields of economics, politics, and law as well as in technical methods, but they are not likely to be enthusiastic about a detached study of what might be termed the economics of depletion, that is, the way in which people should live if their incomes are derived from a wasting asset which no type of conservation can perpetuate.

It may be coincidental if the members of a university staff in regions where these problems exist and can most conveniently be studied are themselves conscious of the problems and competent to investigate them. If, however, some element of planning can be introduced, a university may put itself in a position to offer opportunities for advanced graduate work in these fields,

28Ibid.




under adequate supervision. If it does so, a by-product of its activity will be to round out the intellectual life of its graduate school and to offer to students in the natural sciences some contact with those whose work in the social sciences is likely to be of immediate interest to them. Between this intellectual life and the rich and satisfying life which American reformers envisage for graduate students in general there will of necessity be a wide gap. It is a gap which must be closed some day, but it can be closed only as the culture of the community develops and as its ambitions become increasingly cultural. To wait for this development would be to postpone the very steps needed to make it possible.

An example may make this abstract judgment more convincing. On March 5, 1949 the students of the University of British Columbia held what they called "Open House." The speakers included the principal members of the Executive Council of British Columbia and the leader of the Opposition and were thus authentic spokesmen for all three major political parties. Nothing could have been more cordial than the terms in which they spoke of the university and its work. But a non-Canadian observer might well have been astonished that nothing whatever was said about any function of the university not directly related to economic and material achievements, which were treated as conclusive evidence of social progress. One speaker even went so far as to congratulate the young men and women who had reached maturity in an era in which they could participate inter alia in the perfecting of the atomic bomb. The social sciences and the humanities came off rather badly: although it might have been suggested that they were concerned with the use likely to be made of that potent instrument or even with the principles which ought to determine its use or its abandonment. The oversight was probably quite unintentional and therefore all the more significant. Indeed, no one seems to have found it incongruous that the speeches were followed by the opening of an anthropological museum devoted to the culture of Indians who had not emerged from the stone age and by whose primitive standards the atomic bomb might have been thought diabolical.

The application of this anecdote to the graduate school lies in the suggestion that physicists should not live in an atmosphere innocent of the relation of their work to modern social science and to the philosophical standards of the humanists. Happily they have not done so in the past and it is perhaps because their training in older institutions has been carried out in a more suitable environment that nuclear physicists as a class have shown themselves highly conscious of the social implications of their work.

V

It is not suggested that social scientists should be trained merely as sparring partners for the more socially desirable natural scientists. They have important vocational careers before them, and it is fair enough to insist, as Dr. Hollis does,29 that they must be prepared for these careers. His prime

29Ibid., p. 105 et passim.



308 The Canadian Journal of Economtics and Political Science

example is that, if it can be established that a high proportion of the men and women receiving a certain type of training are destined for university teaching and administration, they should be taught how to teach and how to ad- minister.30 But with one application of this principle of vocational preparation, I am in complete (and perhaps highly prejudiced) disagreement. Un- less accommodation is limited, as in a medical school, I do not think that any candidate should be refused admission on grounds of personality which render his future employment problematical.

Philosophically this disagreement concerns an important issue. Gen- erally much the same practical consequences follow from the old-fashioned doctrine that man should be educated because he is an end in himself and from the reformed doctrine that man is worth training because of the services which he may perform for society. But a test case is provided by a man whose personality precludes his useful employment in the career for which his proposed education will qualify him. The chance of his being of some use (perhaps even of great cultural value) to society is never entirely precluded, how-

ever odious his personality may be, but presumably a shrewd university administrator may think him a bad risk.

The point is not purely academic. For a graduate school to screen its candidates in this way would be to create a class of intelligent people to whom the highest education was denied, just as immigrants likely to become a public charge are excluded from Canada. If American universities were to be in- duced by Dr. Hollis to close the doors of their graduate schools to crack-pots, Canadian schools would find themselves overcrowded with applicants and then might, in self-defence, have to exclude or impose a quota on these oddities. It would be another matter to exclude their own misfits.

Even if Canadian post-war planners are less successful than Professor Brebner thinks they ought to be in enabling Canada to absorb economically and assimilate a steadily increasing number of highly educated men and women, some of whom will have studied abroad while others will have been trained in Canadian universities, there are nevertheless a substantial number of posts in sight for which graduate students may compete. They should clearly not be confined to the province in which they are trained and it is to be hoped that the barriers which the legal profession has erected to the free move- ment of professional men in search of employment will not have their counterpart in the case of graduate students. But any province, which wishes its own rising generation to play a part in the life of Canada at a level corres- sponding to the abilities of its members, will have to enable its university to provide graduate instruction, for the same reasons for which the universities themselves were established in the western provinces a generation or more ago.

It must be freely admitted that those who dislike the idea that the term "university" should constantly enlarge its scope may dislike the growth of "undifferentiated professional schools" at the graduate level nearly as much as they dislike the vulgarization of the Bachelor's degree. But there are

30Ibid, p. 95. The best example is the Ph.D. in English, 97 per cent of the recipients of

which teach.




happily more conservatively minded people who are willing to adhere to the old English custom of changing the function of an institution without changing its name. There is an important social function to be performed and there is an institution which is capable of performing it. The problem in semantics can be left in abeyance, at least until the humanities are ready to join with their fellow teachers in making bricks with a minimum of straw.

H. F. ANGUS The University of British Columbia.



graduate studies in the social sciences

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