Globalization as a Two-Way Street: Multidirectional Flow of Transnational Feminism in Post-Conflict RwandaKate yrneCom!re"ensi#e $%erciseCarleton Colle&e'e!artment of Sociolo&y ( )nt"ro!olo&yMeera Se"&al* Faculty )d#isor February +,t"* +-./ABSTRACT:0#er t"e course of t"e !ast few decades* &ender e1uality "as mo#ed to t"e forefront of &lobal concerns2 Recent sc"olars "a#e articulated t"e ine%tricable lin3 between de#elo!ment and &ender e1uality* !lacin& de#elo!in& nations in t"e Global Sout" at t"e forefront of &ender e1uality efforts2 ased on a 1ualitati#e feminist content analysis of non-&o#ernment or&anization 45G06 websites informed by a 1uantitati#e !ractice* t"is !a!er illuminates ma7or t"emes emer&in& from &ender e1uality literature !roduced by t"eseor&anizations and "ow t"eir #oices enter into transnational feminist dialo&ue2 T"is com!re"ensi#e e%ercise em!"asizes t"at local Rwandan or&anizations are not !assi#e reci!ients of western r"etoric on &ender e1uality* but are acti#e a&ents t"emsel#es contributin& to t"e multidirectional &lobalization !rocess2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:8 would li3e to t"an3 t"e 'e!artment of Sociolo&y and )nt"ro!olo&y for e%!andin& my #iew of t"e world and c"allen&in& me to constantly 1uestion my obser#ations2 )dditionally* 8 would li3e to t"an3 t"e followin& !eo!le w"o "el!ed me underta3e t"is !ro7ect:Meera Se"&al* my com!s ad#isor* for "er e%tensi#e 3nowled&e in t"e field of women9s studies and transnational feminism* wit"out w"ic" 8 would not "a#e been able to conduct my researc"2 Pamela Feldman-Sa#elsber& for encoura&in& and e%!andin& my interest in )frican studies and introducin& me tot"e field of women9s studies wit"in an )frican conte%t2 Carleton Colle&e* for c"allen&in& me eac" and e#ery day to stri#e to be a better student and citizen2 My fellow ma7ors* friends* and family for !ro#idin& me wit" ad#ice and encoura&ement to "el! me t"rou&" t"is !rocess2Finally* 8 t"an3 my !arents for instillin& a lo#e of learnin& and ma3in& countless sacrifices o#er t"e course of my academic career to ensure t"at 8 "a#e t"e o!!ortunity to !ursue my interests2 1TABLE OF CONTENTS:Introduction3Revie o! Re"ev#nt Liter#ture$$$$$$$$$$%Met&od'$$$$$()Sam!lin& Websites::::::::::::::::::::::22222:+;Website 'escri!tions::::::222::::::::::::2::::22+/Findin*'$$$$$$+,Collaboration as t"e Future of Rwanda:::::::::::::2:::22+>,:.?628n "er ar&ument* 5ewbury asserts t"at !olitics and !olicies of t"e state are !i#otal actors in t"e moldin& of et"nic relations and et"nic consciousness 4.>>,:.,62 W"ile t"e influence of colonialism im!acted et"nic tensions in Rwanda* it is im!ortant to stress t"e instances in w"ic" Rwandans used et"nic identity as an entitlement for !olitical !ower and a 7ustification for #iolence2 S"e ar&ues t"at to mo#e beyond et"nic tensions t"ey must be addressed* and ultimately transcended 4.>>,:.>62 W"ile "er t"esis is correct in assertin& t"at a truly fair &o#ernment would not only attend to t"e concerns of et"nicities* but also in7ustices of !ower and class* s"e ne&lects to mention &ender anyw"ere in "er !a!er2 y only understandin& ine1uality in a !rism of et"nicity* class and !ower "er ar&ument falls s"ort of total inclusi#eness for all Rwandans29$t"nic tensions continued to escalate followin& t"e RFP in#asionB in 'ecember of .>>-* Cutu !ro!a&anda reac"ed a new le#el of radicalism wit" t"e release of t"e FCutu Ten Commandments*G !ublis"ed in t"e !o!ular Cutu news!a!er Kan&ura 4Green +--+:;62 )t t"is !oint in time si%ty-si% !ercentof t"e Rwandan !o!ulation was literate* and t"ose w"o could read* read to ot"ers2 Kan&ura was one of t"e most influential sources at t"e time claimin& to be* Ft"e #oice t"at see3s to awa3e and &uide t"e ma7ority of !eo!leG 4Green +--+:;62 FT"e Cutu Ten CommandmentsG delineated "ow e#ery Cutu must act and belie#e* ser#in& as a unifyin& front for Cutus to "ide be"ind as t"ey furt"ered t"eir anti-Tutsi a&enda2 T"is creed outlined certain sti!ulations t"at &ood Cutus must ad"ere to: !articularly t"e dissolution of all !ersonal and business relations wit" Tutsis2 8t called for t"e dismantlement of Tutsi in#ol#ement in t"e Rwandan &o#ernment military and states c"illin&ly* FT"e a"utu s"ould sto! "a#in& mercy on t"e atutsi*G 4Smit" +--+:+.-62 T"is doctrine e%!ounded re!eatedly t"at any Cutu t"at failed to su!!ort t"ese statements w"ole"eartedly would be considered 7ust as muc" of a traitor as a Tutsi2 4Green +--+:;62 T"e release of t"e document was clearly a #e"ement t"reat a&ainst t"e Tutsi* incitin& #iolence as a means by w"ic" to maintain Cutu !urity2)lt"ou&" !rint media was widely distributed* radio was t"e most im!ortant means t"rou&" w"ic"Rwandans obtained t"eir information2 8n urban areas* a!!ro%imately =,2? !ercent of "ouse"olds owned radios* w"ile rou&"ly +> !ercent of "omes in rural areas "ad radios before t"e &enocide 4Green +--+:;62 8t is difficult to estimate t"e number of radios or citizens wit" access to !ro&rammin& durin& t"e &enocide because t"e &o#ernment distributed free radios in certain re&ions before t"e start of t"e &enocide* and t"ose w"o did not own radios often listened wit" t"eir nei&"bors or in communal s!aces* most notably bars 4Green +--+:;62108n .>>.* t"ere was only one radio station controlled by t"e &o#ernment and President Cabiyarimana broadcastin& in Rwanda2 T"e station !rimarily aired !olitical announcements* alt"ou&" astime drew closer to t"e &enocide t"is information was increasin&ly falsified* wit" no inde!endent resources accessible to citizens 4Green +--+:;62 Radio-Tele#ision Dibre des Mille Collines 4RTMD6* t"e most infamous Rwandan radio station run by Cutu e%tremists* be&an broadcastin& in Iuly of .>>;2 RTMD was an essential com!onent in t"e establis"ment of t"e Akazu* a &rou! of 3ey !layers instrumental in orc"estratin& t"e massi#e &enocide in )!ril of t"e followin& year 4Jo3es +--?:,-?62T"e RTMD was e%tremely well concei#ed by t"e Cutu elite of Rwanda and t"ey didnAt 7ust createa radio stationB t"ey birt"ed the station of t"e time2 T"ey desi&ned t"e entire conce!t of t"e station to a!!eal to t"e ordinary Rwandan citizenB by !layin& !o!ular and contem!orary music unli3e Radio Rwanda2 T"is station brou&"t t"e #oice of t"e e#eryday Rwandan to t"e airwa#es2 0ne man was 1uoted as statin&* t"at it sounded li3e F) con#ersation amon& Rwandans w"o 3new eac" ot"er well and were rela%in& o#er some banana beer or a bottle of Primus in a bar*G 4Ci&iro .>>.62 RTDM broadcasted t"e #oice of t"e !eo!le* t"ey inter#iewed citizens on t"e street and as3 about o!inions on #arious to!ics* and t"is !o!ulistic a!!eal was incredibly difficult to lobby a&ainst 4'es For&es +--?:/,620n )!ril >/* t"e air!lane carryin& Rwandan President Cabyarimana was s"ot down2 T"e e#ents t"at trans!ired were a culmination of t"e fermentin& Cutu discontent* a racialized !olitical framewor3 drawin& on collecti#e fears of o!!ressi#e Tutsi control* and t"e res!onses of t"e RTMD tal3 radio !ersonalities 4Jo3es +--?:,-?62 T"e station was an instrumental or&anizin& force in bot" orc"estratin& a &enocidal !lan and incitin& Rwandan citizens to !artici!ate in t"e #iolence 4Jo3es +--?:,-?62 From t"is !oint on* RTMD was t"e coordinatin& body* F'urin& t"e &enocide* w"en 11communications and tra#el became difficult* t"e radio became for most !eo!le t"e sole source of news as well as t"e sole aut"ority for inter!retin& it9s meanin&*G 4Green +--+:/62T"ese calls for #iolence were not solely limited to et"nicity* t"e com!le% relations"i! between &ender and et"nicity were a !i#otal com!onent to t"e social construction of t"e &enocide 4Green +--+:/-=62 )lt"ou&" not t"e norm* se%ual relations"i!s between Cutus and Tutsis were not un"eard of before t"e&enocide2 ecause et"nicity was establis"ed alon& !atrilineal 3ins"i! lines* marria&es between Cutu men and Tutsi women were substantially more fre1uent t"an marria&es between Tutsi men and Cutu women 4Green +--+:=62 T"ere were social and le&al benefits for a Tutsi woman marryin& a Cutu man* t"eir c"ildren would be identified as Cutu and would be !ercei#ed by t"e lar&er community as et"nically!ure2Tutsi women were socially located betwi%t and between et"nic &rou!s and seen as dan&erous because t"ey could trans#erse t"e et"nic clea#a&e #ia marria&e 4Green +--+:=62 Conse1uently* t"e transformati#e nature of Tutsi women9s identity t"ey were strate&ically se%ually ob7ectified and demonized by t"e "ate !ro!a&anda !roduced by e%tremist Cutus2Pro!a&andists used se%ualized ima&es of Tutsi women to insti&ate et"nic "ate and conflict2 T"ese ima&es incited "atred of t"ese women and of t"eir se%uality2 T"us* bot" et"nic and &ender stereoty!es* functionin& indi#idually and 7ointly* fueled t"e se%ual #iolence committed a&ainst Tutsi women 4Green +--+::.?,62 0ften t"e c"an&e of a rulin& !arty or introduction of an entirely new &o#ernment "as t"e !ossibility to lead to c"an&es t"at benefit women2 W"en t"e new &o#ernment was establis"ed in Rwanda* t"ere were no !re#ious le&islators cou!led wit" t"e ado!tion of &ender 1uotas* women were afforded muc" more !olitical !ower and re!resentation t"an under t"e !re#ious re&ime 48zabiliza +--=:;62 T"e only mec"anism for increased female !olitical !ower t"at was not e%!licitly em!loyed by Rwanda was t"e establis"ment of a leftist mo#ement* often termed a modernist re#olution* s!ecifically outlinin& women9s em!owerment as a &oal in its infancy sta&es2 Political !arties or &rou!s see3in& to usur! !olitical control often !resent an alternate #ision of society to ma3e it more a!!ealin& for t"e !ublic* t"is ima&ined future often features more e&alitarian ri&"ts for women 4Cu&"es +-->:.?>62 W"ile armed conflict leads to structural c"an&e* and new !olitical landsca!es* ci#il war in !articular fosters ideolo&ical s"ifts because it is* F) disru!tion of social norms t"at is un!aralled in domestic !olitics*G 4Sambanis +--+:+.?62 T"e c"aotic nature of ci#il war allows women to access roles and o!!ortunities t"at were !re#iously not a#ailable or were deemed inaccessible because of restricti#e &ender norms2 For t"e first time e#er in Rwanda* women !ro#ided manual labor for t"e !"ysical reconstruction of communities2 T"ey could be seen wor3in& side by side wit" men buildin& "ouses* or insome instances* all-women teams built "ouses* c"allen&in& culturally entrenc"ed &ender stereoty!es 48zabiliza +--=::.?>62 8n many instances of conflict* women w"o were Fenemies only yesterdayG formed associations lin3in& et"nic &rou!s after t"e conflict died down* su&&estin& t"at women may be a useful coalition in !ost conflict en#ironments 4Cu&"es +-->:.?>62 W"ile all of t"ese causal mec"anisms "el! women ac"ie#e !olitical !ower durin& internal armed conflict* not all ci#il wars are e1ually conduci#e for !olitical em!owerment2 T"ree factors t"at may im!act t"e effectuality of women9s !olitical inte&ration into international !olitics -timin&* contestation* and scale 4Cu&"es +-->:.,.62 Crises t"at occur in more recent times "a#e an increased li3eli"ood of inte&ratin& female !olitical !artici!ationB FWorld !olity t"eory su&&ests t"at o#er time* models for women9s increased incor!oration into !olitics "a#e become institutionalized into t"e world system* 4Cu&"es +-->:.,.62 T"e rene&otiation of national identity and #alues durin& ci#il war o!ens c"annels* allowin& for world models to be assumed in t"e reconciliation2 Rwanda &ained its inde!endence fairly recently* in .>:.,.62 8n Rwanda9s case* a &o#ernmental war was launc"ed* leadin& to t"e re!lacement of t"e antecedent &o#ernment and t"e ratification of a new constitution s!ecifically articulatin& t"e inclusion of women in all le#els of !olitics2 Dastly* t"e size of t"e conflict may affect t"e scale of c"an&econcei#ed in t"e rebuildin& !eriod 4Cu&"es +-->:.,.62 Dar&er scale conflicts are more li3ely to !roduce &reater military acti#ityB !olitical mobilization* ideolo&ical s"ifts* and c"an&es in t"e &o#ernment- t"e 17!aramount com!onents affectin& women9s incor!oration2 T"e size and se#erity of t"e Rwandan &enocide created drastic ideolo&ical and !olitical transitions* allowin& sustained female !olitical in#ol#ement two decades after t"e conflict2 W"ile internal forces "a#e si&nificant im!acts on female !olitical incor!oration* it would be im!ossible to e%amine t"ese !rocesses wit"out includin& t"e interactions wit"in t"e lar&er community2 To be e%!licit about w"at 8 meant in my researc" w"en 8 refer to &lobalization* 8 selected my wor3in& definition from t"e $ncyclo!edia of )merican Forei&n Policy2 Globalization is* Ft"e !rocess of inte&ratin& nations and !eo!les- !olitically* economically* and culturally into a lar&er community*G 4Keiler +--+:.;=62 8n recent years* t"e term &lobalization "as a!!eared e#eryw"ere from news articles about C"inese business !lans to reality tele#ision2 T"ese fre1uent and e%!ansi#e a!!lications of t"e conce!t of &lobalization falsely intimate t"at it is a relati#ely new t"eory* only a to!-down !rocess "a!!enin& to !eo!le rat"er t"an also a &rassroots o!eration in#ol#in& t"e acti#e en&a&ement of &rou!s and indi#iduals* and t"at t"ere9s not"in& in"erently &endered about it2 Myra Mar% Ferree c"allen&es t"e assum!tions in t"e o!enin& c"a!ter of "er boo3* FGlobal FeminismG 4+--=- durin& atime w"en refu&ees were most li3ely to be de!icted as males esca!in& t"e communist So#iet @nion 4Io"nson +-..:.-.=62 Contem!orary re!resentations of refu&ees di#er&e si&nificantly from t"is initial model* !redominantly of )frican women and c"ildren unmista3ably featured in front of a bac3dro! of !o#erty* #iolence* and absolute desolation2 8n t"e decades between t"e establis"ment of t"e @5CR and today* t"e refu&ee "as e#ol#ed from a "eroic !olitical man* to a nameless !o#erty-stric3en woman in a de!oliticized "orde 4Io"nson +-..:.-.