global partnership management journal...the global partnership management journal (gpmj) is...

The Global Partnership Management Journal (GPMJ) is committed to the publication of original papers ranging from empirical scholarly research to theoretical or speculative articles, all on a variety of topics under the category of business management with a global context.In addition to the global management focus, however, the GPMJ seeks submissions for publication with a decidedly social science application or approach; that is, writing on global management predominately connected with the subfields of the social science, and management fields such as:• business education • business ethics• communication studies• economics• entrepreneurship• ethnic and ethnographic studies• financial and risk management• globalization and globalization studies• history

The GPMJ, while desiring to publish works which may have an important impact on the field of management, also encourages new approaches, ideas and perspectives on well-established theories and existing research.

JournalGlobal Partnership Management

Management * Business* International Communication * Civilization

Vol. II No 1-2/2011 ISSN 2082-5188

• geopolitics and international relations• human resource management• human values and belief systems• intercultural studies• organizational behavior and theory• psychology• sociology• strategic management• tourism and service management

3 / EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP IMPLEMENTATION – Rudolf Bätscher, Johannes Ermatinger

11 / EVOLUTE APPROACH AND CPW APPROACH – Michel Le Chapellier, Pierre Henri Dejean

16 / KEY ASPECTS OF THE PROJECT MANAGER’S PERSONAL AND SOCIAL COMPETENCES – Kirsi Liikamaa

22 / THE CHANGES AND COMPETENCES DEVELOPMENT OF POZNAN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY STUDENTS AND GRADUATES IN A PERSPECTIVE OF THE LABOR MARKET – RESEARCH ANALYSIS IN A FRAME OF KNOWLEDGE FOR ECONOMY PROJECT – Hanna Włodarkiewicz-Klimek, Weronika Migas, Joanna Kałkowska, Stefan Trzcieliński

32 / USING SOCIAL MEDIA IN DEVELOPING PROACTIVE SAFETY CULTURE Elina Mäkinen, Pasi L. Porkka, Hannu Vanharanta, Sari Tappura, Antti Piirto

40 / SOCIAL FORECASTING –TOOL FOR CORPORATE PLANNING AND APPLICATION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY IN INDIA – K. Prabhakar

48 / BASICS OF ONTOLOGY-BASED ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT EVALUATION Jarno Einolander, Hannu Vanharanta

56/ THE COLLABORATION MODEL BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND BUSINESS CONCERNING CREATION BOTH THE STUDENTS AS WELL AS GRADUATES QUALIFICATIONS AND COMPETENCES – Hanna Włodarkiewicz-Klimek, Daria Nadolna, Weronika Migas, Joanna Kałkowska

63/ LEADERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABILITY – AN ACTION RESEARCH APPROACH ED. MARSHALL, J., COLEMAN, G. AND REASON, P. GREENLEAF PUBLISHING APRIL 2011 – Philippa Collins

Style Guide for Authors

ARTICLES

BOOK REVIEW

CHAIR OF EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr Peter Odrakiewicz, Adjunct Prof.HR Ambassador for PolandAcademy of Management, USA

CO-CHAIR

Prof. Dr Philippa Collins Scotland

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. Dr Jan AlpenbergTyndale University College, TorontoProf. Dr Helena DesivilyaMax Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel Prof. Dr Jussi KantolaInstitute for Design of Complex Systems, KoreaProf. Dr Liora KatzensteinThe Institue for the Study of Entrepreneurship & Management of Innovation

Prof. Dr Hamid H. KazeroonyWalden University, USAProf. Dr Sławomir MagalaRotterdam School of Management Erasmus University

Prof. Dr hab. Wojciech NasierowskiUniveristy of New BrunswickDr Hubert Paluch, Adjunct Prof.Gniezno College of Humanities and Management MILENIUM William Strnad, Assistant Prof.Poznan University College of Business Dr Adam Sułkowski, Assoc. Prof.University of Massachusetts DartmouthProf. Dr Charles WankelSt. John’s UniversityProf. Dr Hannu VanharantaTampere University of Technology

EDITOR - CONTACTDr Peter [email protected]@gmail.comwww.globalpmicanada.org

EDITORIAL OFFICEAddress: Global Partnership Management Instituteul. Wierzbięcice 5/1661-569 Poznań, Poland

phone: +48 501 443 014fax: +48 61 830 42 12

ORGANIZING OFFICEKrystyna Horemska, MSc

Prof. Dr Paul WongTyndale University College, TorontoProf. Dr Nilay YajnikNMIMS UniversityProf. Dr hab. Agata Stachowicz-Stanusch Silesian Technical UniversityProf. Dr Nuria ManzeboUniversity of GironaProf. Dr Memo DirikerSalisbury UniversityProf. Dr Carol SawyerUniversity of La VerneProf. Dr Wayne (Buck) BuchananDefi ance CollegeProf. Dr Dorothy MpabangaUniversity of Botswana Dr Krzysztof Malczewski, Poznan University of TechnologyAdjunct Prof. IT and Innovative Technologies Co-Chair GPMI PolandProf. Dr Werner FeesGeorg-Simon-Ohm-Hochschule NürnbergUniversity of Applied SciencesProf. Dr hab. Magdalena WyrwickaPoznan University of Technology

PUBLISHED BYGlobal Partnership Management Institute

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Copyright© GPMI Poznań, 2011ISSN 2082-5188nakład: 100 egzemplarzy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Rudolf Bätscher, Johannes Ermatinger – Effective Leadership Implementation ...........................................3

Michel Le Chapellier, Pierre Henri Dejean – Evolute Approach and CPW Approach...................................11

Kirsi Liikamaa – Key Aspects of the Project Manager’s Personal and Social Competences......................16

Hanna Włodarkiewicz-Klimek, Weronika Migas, Joanna Kałkowska, Stefan Trzcieliński – The Changes and Competences Development of Poznan University of Technology Students and Graduates in a Perspective of the Labor Market – Research Analysis in a Frame of Knowledge for Economy Project..................................................................................................23

Elina Mäkinen, Pasi L. Porkka, Hannu Vanharanta, Sari Tappura, Antti PiirtoUsing Social Media in Developing Proactive Safety Culture.........................................................................32

K. Prabhakar – Social Forecasting –Tool for Corporate Planning and Application to Information Technology Industry in India.................................................................................................40

Jarno Einolander, Hannu Vanharanta – Basics of Ontology-Based Organizational Commitment Evaluation...................................................................................................................................48

Hanna Włodarkiewicz-Klimek, Daria Nadolna, Weronika Migas, Joanna Kałkowska – The Collaboration Model Between University and Business Concerning Creation Both the Students as well as Graduates Qualifi cations and Competences..................................................56

Philippa Collins – Leadership for Sustainability – An Action Research ApproachEd. Marshall, J., Coleman, G. and Reason, P. Greenleaf Publishing April 2011ISBN 978-1-906093-59-4...................................................................................................................................63

/ 3RUDOLF BÄTSCHER, JOHANNES ERMATINGER

Effective Leadership Implementation

RUDOLF BÄTSCHER Managing Partner GCN Consulting

Winterthur / Switzerland

JOHANNES ERMATINGERManaging Partner rbu Consulting

Niederteufen / Switzerland

Leadership - the ability to motivate toward a common goal - has to be effective and put into practice in order to be considered as successful. Otherwise scarce resources are wasted - a violation of economic principles.A practical framework for effective leadership implementation is delivered by the St.Gall Management Model (SGMM) which origins date back to the last century. The SGMM is an integrated and holistic approach to management. It refl ects a system-oriented managerial thinking and acting. And it is application-focused. The normative, strategic and operational level form a consistent management entity. All these attributes favor effectiveness, leadership an implementation in managing organizations. Much emphasis is put on the normative- and meaning-based dimensions of management. Finding answers to key questions as “Why are we doing this or that business? What is the sense of what we are doing?” is crucial for strategic and operational legitimating.Based on the systemic approach of the SGMM, initiatives for more effective leadership implementation in management often come from outside. Management consultants play a key role in these initiatives. Their main tasks usually are tasks of change. In such change-processes they assume leadership functions. Professional management consultants transfer the spirit of effective leadership implementation into the organizations. So that fi nally they are not needed any more.Such a transfer can also be done by a result-oriented management training. The company’s key topics, issues and challenges are the starting point in such a management training, following the philosophy “my company is my case study”. Under the supervision of experienced coaches, trainers and members of the top management in companies in Poland, participants work within the framework of the SGMM on their questions. “Leadership-jobs” will help to implement management concepts or change projects which are elaborated within the management training.On Thursday, April 7, 2011, 6pm, more information is given by the authors at a networking event organized by the Polish Swiss Chamber of Commerce at the Polonia Hotel in Warsaw.

Keywords: Leadership, Effectiveness, Implementation, St.Gall Management Model, Holistic Management Approach, Management Consulting, Management Training

What about leadership - why leadership matters?

We probably all agree that leadership is a critical management skill, especially in today’s diverse and

complex business setting. However, what is leadership and why does it matter?

Leadership can be understood as the ability to motivate a person, a group of people or an organiza-tion toward a common goal. Every person, no matter

4 / GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP MANAGEMENT JOURNAL, Vol. II, No 1-2/2011

whether top-management executive or employee with-out any leading function, has within him- or herself leadership skills - sometimes in a more, sometimes in a less distinctive way. Sometimes even unknown, as sort of a “blind” spot.

Nevertheless, the perception of leadership almost always is linked to a person, a leader, a man or a woman who has a vision and a mission, who has a drive and a commitment to realize visions and missions - and the skills to make it happen. And to really get it done.

However, leadership should better be seen and understood as an ability and a capability instead of being linked to a certain person. Because everybody has certain dreams, is aware - more or less - of visions and missions, has passions for certain ideas, develops a drive and a strength to move his or her vision forward into reality - despite all the obstacles, despite all the people saying it can’t be done, it’s too costly, we tried that before in vain. And everybody has characteristic traits within him- or herself as positive thinking, for-ward looking, motivational abilities or respect for other people. No matter if this is in business fi elds, hobbies, personal activities or social involvements.

Therefore, leadership is about enabling people to do their best and becoming the best, inspiring people throughout an organization to do the right things and to improve it all the time. In this sense everybody in an organization, from the top management to supervi-sors, workers and employees on the lowest level of a hierarchy, front line workers in a factory as well as clerical assistants in an offi ce, have leadership abilities and capabilities.

Consequence is that an organization, to be suc-cessful in the long term, to create sustainable values, to survive the tough winds of the business in the 21st century, has to invest in leadership, has to invest in topics as the core values of leadership, entrepreneurial spirit and in acting with commitment.

What about Effectiveness - why effectiveness matters?

Effectiveness means the capability of producing an effect, a result. In management, effectiveness relates to getting the right things done1, producing or achieving the intended, expected, desired results.

Unfortunately, most business executives spend much of their time on short-term questions. They get stuck with overspending time about cost and pricing, with scheduling and selling, with quality control and customer service, with purchasing and delivering. Furthermore, an immense array of tools and techniques available to the modern manager, deal with today’s busi-ness. So this leads us to the assumption, that they fi nally

are concerned only about effi ciency, about doing things right. No time and energy is left for asking themselves and working on questions as “What are the right things to be done”? Or “What direction our business will go in the long term”? Or “Why do we do what we do”? Or “What is the meaning of what we do”?

Once more as shown under the title “What about leadership - why leadership matters?”: Effectiveness is more than just a comparison of actual performance with targeted performance - in the sense of: If a com-pany established a target sales plan of 100 units at the beginning of the year and the company sells only 80 units, the salespeople are considered as ineffective.

Effectiveness is an attitude, a way of thinking and acting. Basically, there are two ways of achieving effectiveness. One way is by doing, giving and get-ting feedback, by acting and monitoring the success or failure of the act. The second is by talking about ideas, digesting them, rethinking them, re-discussing them in an ongoing process, simulating different situ-ations - often within a group of mostly diverse people. Core issues are bundled around the questions about the sense of acting, about the why of acting, about the what of acting.

The value of choosing the second way, a kind of simulation of present and future realities, is that it provides a broader and deeper view. We all tend to get locked into our own ways of thinking about everyday problems, challenges and solutions. To step back, to refl ect about the sense, about the why and the what enforces the capability of producing the intended and expected results. And the more divers the framework of this stepping back is, the stronger the perception of effectiveness will be. Finally, such an understanding of effectiveness enhances the likelihood of success not only in the short, but mainly in the long term.

Consequence is that an organization has to invest in effectiveness, too - has to invest in developing effectiveness-awareness and -abilities of all the per-sons working there.

What about Implementation - why implementation matters?

Implementation is about realization, is getting things done, is establishment, is execution, is trans-forming intentions into action. That sounds simple and clear. However, implementation skills are not easily mastered.

In fact, most managers fi nd implementation the most diffi cult aspect of their job - much more dif-fi cult than analytical or conceptual work. Writing an implementation plan is easy. Putting it into practice much harder - especially if a muddling through must


be avoided. Studies show that about 75% of projects fail, due to bad or wrong implementation

The reason behind this diffi culty is change. Imple-mentation always means change, has the effect that people, groups or whole organizations have to change from one situation to another situation, from one state to another state, from a passive position to an active one, from one place to another place. These changes mean leaving the “comfort zone”. And they cost en-ergy. Lethargies, conveniences, passiveness, waiting positions have to be overcome. Implementing means developing a solid, sound, customer-oriented entre-preneurship, aimed at leadership and effectiveness. The application of change management principles as involvement and support, adequate communication and shared understanding, facilitating and empower-ment is essential for successful implementation.

Finally, implementation is just another topic in which organizations, being successful in the long term, have to invest in human resources, in the abilities to put ideas into practice. This is the most important investment-fi eld because result-oriented human re-sources with a spirit of leadership is the main asset of an organization.

A framework for effective leadership implementation: St. Gall Management Model (SGMM)2

The SGMM is - since several decades - the answer to the quest for an integrated and holistic approach to

management, to creating, forming, constructing, con-trolling and developing organizations - private fi rms and public administrations as well. The SGMM refl ects the roles of management, the social and economic real-ity, the impacts and responsibilities of entrepreneurial and administrative activities. The SGMM, on the other hand, supports the understanding of complex manage-ment challenges in a structured way, without losing sight for coherencies of numerous infl uence factors. The SGMM serves also as a framework of reference for a variety of management concepts, means, tools and techniques - as for effective leadership implemen-tation in our case.

The origins of the SGMM date back to the last century, initiated by Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Hans Ulrich. Hans Ulrich was convinced of a management science and management practice, that understands an organization as embedded in a multitude of environ-mental spheres. The basic assumption was that such a framework (“letter case for the meaningful”) allows to structure the multitude of challenges for a successful, sustainable and responsible management in an appro-priately complex, but nevertheless holistic way.

The base for this assumption are the system theory and cybernetics. In 19683 Hans Ulrich outlined the fundament for a system-oriented and holistic approach to management. On this basis the fi rst version of the SGMM4 was published in 1972 together with Prof. Dr. Walter Krieg.

Fig. 1: Overview of the corporation model, translated from Ulrich / Krieg, 1972


The main concern of the SGMM, even several decades ago, can be summarized as:

Call for a holistic, system-oriented managerial 1. thinking and acting in the face of complexity-handling as main management challenge.Call for an applicability-focused approach of 2. management science as well as in manage-ment-practice.The normative, strategic and operational level 3. of management is an entity which has to be consistent and coherent.Structures follow strategies, skills follow strat-4. egies and structures.

In the 80ths and 90ths the overall idea of an in-tegrated management approach was shaped under the lead von Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Knut Bleicher5 towards a framework named as the St.Gall Manage-ment Concept. By emphasizing distinct phases of cor-porate development, the model especially focused on evolutionary management conditions. This framework concretizes the normative, strategic and operational management levels and combines them with a harmo-nization of strategic programs, structures and culture or attitudes to an entity. Thus, the St.Gall Management Concept expresses the challenges of normative and strategic management as a variety of specifi c ten-sions, for the example the one between shareholder orientation versus stakeholder orientation in adjusting corporate policies. In this way, central management issues can be formulated. This again allows deliberate decisions in the development of an organization, based on target-performance comparisons by mapping given

and targeted profi les. In doing so, the core represents a more stabilizing orientation, while the outer poles stand for an orientation towards change.

In the middle of the 90ths in the last century the transition from the St.Gall Management Concept was initiated by the questions of change management, of knowledge management and of value management. The transition led to an integration of responsibility and value creation into the management concept. The main concern is about value enhancement. Sustain-ably increasing the value of managed units for its main stakeholders (shareholders, customers, suppli-ers, employees, community etc.) is regarded as the core responsibility of successful management. The path from vision to process organization marks the main challenges which have to be solved to meet the stakeholders’ expectations. Designed in the form of a circuit, the “VIP-Concept”6 at the same time refl ects the tradition of an integrated holistic approach which is considered as another important aspect of the “St.Gall” way of management thinking.

Fig. 3: The VIP concept of an integrated value manage-ment (translated from Gomez 1998, p. 63)

The “VIP-Concept” has proven to be a useful framework “cockpit”, a “control panel” for the sustain-able, successful management of an organization and its units (for example profi t center, functional units, subsidiaries).

The transition in the 90ths was added by a “Gen-eral Management Navigator”7, which promotes an integrated understanding of strategic and change man-agement issues. The framework combines content and process dimensions of strategic management as well as the genesis of strategies and their impact. Beneath explaining a large variety of issues of an immediate Fig. 2: Overall context of an opportunity and commit-

ment policy (translated from Bleicher 1991/1999, p. 176)


strategy deployment, the “General Management Navi-gator” also fosters to refl ect on the fi ve main matters of strategic management and can also be used to guide strategy work in an organization.

The latest approach of the SGMM enhances the original model developed by Hans Ulrich / Walter Krieg in three main aspects:

There is more attention paid to the ethical, 1. normative dimension of management.The new model refl ects the enormously in-2. creasing relevance of process-oriented view of an organization. This is especially due to innovations in information technology, to an intense time-based competition and to the substantial role of social processes.There is much emphasis on the interpretative, 3. meaning-based dimension of management.

With the integration of strategy, structure and culture, the three main pillars of the SGMM devel-oped in the 80ths still play an important role in the latest approach. Much emphasis is put on the process dimension. Finally, the great contemporary issues of company-stakeholder-interactions (resources, norms and values, concerns and interests) are combined in a new way. This is done to draw more attention to the

Fig. 4: Main matters of strategic management in the General Management Navigator (translated according to Müller-Stewens/Lechner 2001/2005, p. 30)

insight that management is very much about interpret-ing facts and giving meaning to them.

Fig. 5: Overview of the new St.Gallen Management Model (Rüegg-Stürm 2005, p. 12)


Practical experiences with the SGMM as a framework for effective leadership in management consultancy

This complex social system called organization exists not alone in the universe but is embedded in an also multidimensional environment. This has to be considered when it comes now to the refl ection of why decades of management consulting, training and development give a serious background to show how effective leadership can be put into practice.

We assume that members of the management on all levels must be aware that their organization is a complex and dynamic social system. That they must be aware about visions and missions of their entrepre-neurial activities. That they must have strategies and structures which fi t with the strategy. And last but not least the most important factor of every organization: That members of the management must be aware that human resources have to possess and develop skills and abilities for realizing the strategy.

All this has to be organized, developed and man-aged in a coherent way - a challenge which can never be handled by one person alone but has to be done in an organization by groups of persons thinking, decid-ing and acting together.

The task of a management consultant usually is the task of a change agent. When a company runs it’s stan-dard and routine procedures, rarely external support is needed. And if yet, it’s a kind of “manpower-leasing”. But as soon as the standard business operations should be changed, stopped, forced or adapted - an organiza-tion starts to tremble. The procedures aren’t running so smoothly anymore; little disturbances, little turbulenc-es make the professional life harder - as if pebbles are thrown into a machine called organization. The need arises for more leadership. And very often - because of a lack of time or because of getting “new horizons” or because of insecurity or lack of know-how - external management consultants are hired. Then they assume leadership functions in such change projects. And they bear the responsibility that these leadership functions doesn’t remain closed within them. But that they transfer - in the projects - the spirit of leadership into the organization. So that the organization develops the ability to move change projects in the right direction - at the beginning of such change processes with strong support from external consultants. But the longer the process lasts, the better the organization manages the changes without external support. Finally, a consultant should work in his or her projects in a way, that he or she becomes superfl uous. That he or she is not needed any more. Because by the consultant’s support the

company should have acquired and developed all the skills and tools, ways of thinking and acting, that they can implement effective leadership without external help. So the consultant’s job is well done if he or she has done everything to the end, that the organization doesn’t need the support any more. That’s the fi nal point, when effective leadership is implemented.

Effective leadership implementation - Concept for a result-oriented management training

This management consulting credo has lead the authors to the conclusion, that empowerment of the organization is the core function of management consultancy. The acceptance of this conclusion has motivated the authors to create a program for effective leadership implementation as a Swiss-Polish-Initiative. In cooperation with the Polish-Swiss Chamber of Commerce the authors offer a result-driven manage-ment training for executives in Poland, high potential persons who are willing and motivated to experience the implementing of effective leadership in and with their own companies.

This challenge leads to the philosophy of this management trainings. Best implementing of training results can be achieved if participants can work, learn and experience with their own questions, issues and topics and their individual situation and challenges.

Therefore the training program for effective leader-ship implementation starts already before the training begins. Participants are asked to gather and structure their own challenges, questions, situations, topics and issues. This will be the starting situation for an effective leadership implementation. The program to achieve such an implementation is structured into three phases with two days in each phase.

In the fi rst phase participants of this management training learn about the framework, the SGMM. Furthermore they are doing exercises focusing on strengths and weaknesses of their companies, as well as on environmental issues, trends and their conse-quences.

Between phase 1 and 2, participants have their fi rst “leadership-job” to do, to experience in their respective company: Defi ne vision, mission and the really most important unique selling positions.

In the second phase participants are asked to pres-ent the results of their “homework” and their experi-ences with the leadership function in their respective companies. Topics such as strategy development, marketing, sales and promotion, but also process and


quality management, innovation, HR-management and change management are topics to be dealt with, to be applied to the participants’ case studies, which are their own companies.

Between phase 2 and 3 the participants have their second “leadership-job” to do in their respective com-pany: Defi ne and formulate a management concept of a change project which will be the answer to the questions asked before the beginning of the training. These management concepts or change projects must have an action plan which shows how vision, mission, strategy and marketing, but as well as new processes etc. will put into practice.

In the third and fi nal phase, participants are asked once more to present their results. They get feedbacks from other participants, but also from the coaches and trainers - among them are experienced people in top management positions in Poland.

Participants will also take a fi nal test in which they can prove the adequate understanding of effec-tive leadership implementation. After a certifi cation participants are ready to implement their fi ndings and newly acquired know-how, as well as the results of the training program, in their respective companies.

On April 7, 2011, during a Swissness in Poland - Event, interested people have the chance to receive more information directly and personally from the authors about this way of implementing effective leadership in Poland. The event starts at 6pm in the Hotel Polonia in Warsaw (for further information, please visit www.swisschamber.pl).

REFERENCES(ENDNOTES)

[1] Drucker, Peter F. The Effective Executive The Defi nitive Guide to Getting the Right Things Done (Harperbusiness Essentials). New York: Collins, 2006

[2] Excerpt from: The Development of the „St.Gallen Management Model“ at the Institute of Management at the University of St.Gallen, by Dr. Juergen Spickers, Version 2.1 as of April 20, 2010, http://www.ifb.unisg.ch/org/ifb/ifbweb.nsf/wwwPubInhalteEng/2B1E1A1BE163DC5BC1256A5B00512DD8?opendocument

Fig. 6: Effective Leadership Implementation: Program for a result-driven management-training, developed by the au-thors (© 2011 by Bätscher / Ermatinger)


In all programs the University of St.Gall teaches students to adopt a cross functional rather than a single function approach. Since 1960s the university has been a pioneer of the systemic approach to general management. The SGMM has won international acceptance as a holistic framework for managing all kind of organizations. It allows to structure the challenges for a successful management in a complex but nevertheless integrated and pragmatic way. Special emphasis is placed on the complex relationships between companies and their multiple environmental spheres.

[3] Ulrich Hans, Die Unternehmung als produktives soziales System, Bern: Haupt, 1. Aufl . 1968

[4] Ulrich, H.; Krieg, W. (1972): Das St. Galler Management-Modell, Bern etc. (Paul Haupt), 54 p.; newly published in: Ulrich, H. (2001): Gesammelte Schriften, Band 2, Berne etc. (Paul Haupt)

[5] Bleicher, K. (1991): Das Konzept integriertes Management, Frankfurt am Main etc. (Campus), XIX, 472 p., ISBN 3-593-34480-7; 5th, revised and enhanced edition 1999

[6] Gomez, P. (1998): Ganzheitliches Wertmanagement - Von der Vision zur Prozessorganisation, Der VIP-Kreislauf als Klammer moderner Management-Konzepte, in: IO Management, No. 3, p. 62-65

[7] Müller-Stewens, G.; Lechner, C. (2001): Strategisches Management, Wie strategische Initiativen zum Wandel führen, Der St.Galler Management Navigator, Stuttgart (Schäffer-Poeschel), 3rd, actualized ed. 2005

DR. RUDOLF BÄTSCHERManaging Partner GCN ConsultingWinterthur / [email protected] www.gcn.ch

JOHANNES ERMATINGER, LIC.OEC. HSG Managing Partner rbu Consulting Niederteufen / [email protected] www.rbu.ch

/ 11MICHEL LE CHAPELLIER, PIERRE HENRI DEJEAN

1 INTRODUCTION

During the last 10 years two approaches have evolved separately: The “Evolute approach” and the “Cross disciplinary Problem solving Workshop” (CWP) approach. The aims of this paper are to present Cross disciplinary Problem solving (CPW) approach and to suggest cooperation with Evolute approach.

First we present Cross disciplinary Problem solving Workshop by answering three questions: What is CPW? How does it work? In what way are the CPWs success-ful? For this last question, we will give some examples of CPW results It will appear that CWP causes a change in each individual that could be qualifi ed as evolution-ary advantage. Although experimental evidence of evolution already exists, the question of measurement or estimation of change remains unsolved.

Concerning “Evolute” approach, we will only point out some features which indicate that this approach could be appropriate to estimate the CPW’s benefi ts for employees, company, students and professors. Then we will suggest some areas where cooperation may be useful.

CPWWhat is it?

The CPW is a partnership between one or several companies and one or several universities. So the

Evolute Approach and CPW Approach

MICHEL LE CHAPELLIERPIERRE HENRI DEJEAN

Compiegne University of Technology (UTC)

Abstract: The aims of this paper are to present results and to give suggestions. First we present Cross disciplinary Problem solving Workshop by answering three questions: What is CPW? How does it work? Is it successful? In order to answer this third question we will show examples of studies and models performed during CPWs. It appears that the CPWs produce seeable results in companies such as new process designs, new methods, and also changes in lectures. However some less seeable results remain unclear: How does the company personnel evolve during and after CPW? Does CPW motivate our future engineers enough to continuously improve their skills in risk prevention and innovative design?And the proposition is: should we connect Evolute approach and CPW approach?

stakeholders are therefore workers, engineers, manag-ers of companies, and also professors and students. The company personnel and the professors bring their expe-rience and the future engineers a refreshing insight and imagination (1). It encompasses three phases: one to six months of preparation, only one or two weeks for the core phase taking place in a company, and the implementation of change taking place over several years.

The primary purpose of CPW was to educate engineers and architects in designing the work areas and processes in order to reduce occupational and environmental risk occurring in a real work situation. The French National Institute of Research for Safety (INRS) supports this action. It had been then fi rst decided that this action should be interdisciplinary since the corporate specialists in different fi elds of knowledge do not work separately but together. Fur-thermore most hazard identifi cation methods include team work associating employees of different status and rank.

Second we think that the “Game Boy” generation should grasp what company or plant work really is. Based on “the reality” they have understood, they can come up with their own ideas. From 2005 until 2011 ten CPWs have been implemented on different work situations, in different countries with different universities.

Two words characterize CPW: Interdisciplinary and Inductive


Date Industrial sector Country University; Organization

2005 Aseptic industry France Compiegne University of technology, Architecture school of Clermont Ferrand, INRS

2006 Meat industry France Compiegne University of technology, Architecture school of Clermont Ferrand INRS

2007 Wood industry France Compiegne University of technology, Architecture school of Clermont Ferrand, University of Chalmers Goteborg, University of Cluj and Bucharest

2007 Frozen vegetable France Compiegne University of technology, Medical faculty of Amiens

2008 Old people home Sweden Compiegne University of technology, Architecture school of Clermont Ferrand, University of Chalmers Goteborg, University of Cluj and Bucharest

2009 Wood industry Brazil Compiegne University of technology, Parana’s Federation of industries (FIEP)

2009 Car manufacturer Romania Compiegne University of technology, Architecture school of Clermont Ferrand, University of Chalmers Goteborg, University of Cluj and Bucharest

2010 Mechanical Industry

Brazil Compiegne University of technology, Parana’s Federation of industries (FIEP)

2011 Lead recycling France Compiegne University of technology

2011 Construction industry

Brazil Compiegne University of technology, Parana’s Federation of industries (FIEP)

How does it work?

A CPW begins with the visit of a factory and conferences related to the processes. We explain to students that they may work on any subject, fi rst directly related to the factory they are going to see, and second encompassing occupational risk. Then the students are separated into interdisciplinary teams each of them focusing on a specific issue.That was the plan.

By chance, during the fi rst CPW Company design engineers became enthusiastic about the, students’ projects. Every evening they came to discuss pro-cesses, ideas, improvements and so on. During the following CPWs we noticed that the value of students’ projects for the company increased when company managers and engineers cooperated with students. So we continuously push to promote this combination between experience, fresh insight and imagination.

In what way are the CPWs successful?

Example: Technical plenum 2005Many industrial processes are now performed in

“clean areas” free of dust and eventually free of bio-logical agents. Above the clean area is the technical plenum containing equipment that support processes realized in the clean area.

Looking at these factories, you can see the ad-vanced manufacturing where the clean products like medicine or electronic devices we need are produced. Laure Mulot, Claire Dreyfus, Stéphanie Dumas, Camille Tranchand have had another insight: The equipments located in the plenum are essential for the main process but their maintenance is diffi cult and dangerous, which raise the following questions: How can we make the maintenance work in the technical plenum easier and safer?

Furthermore, this students’ design showed again that “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”1.

1 Benjamin Franklin


Example: Old people’s home 2008Realized in 2008, this CPW look at the old people’s

home of Gothenburg as a workplace. A students’ team (SAULNIER Chloë – ENSACF,TERY Camille – EN-SACF, ETCHETTO Guillaume – UTC, BERBECAR Gelu – PUB, JACOBSSON Stefan – Chalmers, BARGE Julien – UTC) noticed the older the popula-tion is, the older the employees are, and the older the population is, the higher the non working population ratio is. And their question was: how could the task of the nurses be done with fewer and older personnel?

The technical plenum. The students saw a maintenance’s work diffi cult and hazardous

The students’ team cooperates with the nurses to evaluate simultaneously the three following points.

Tasks’ duration ( the task’s cost is related to • their duration)Workload with a possible impact on personnel: • accident, muscullo squelettal diseases, stress, extreme tiredness…Gains for the patient•

All these estimations and evaluations were done in agreement with old people’s home personnel.

Activities described as functions, duration, consequences, probability and risk

The model the students’ team realized. The company en-gineers saw a more effi cient maintenance’s work, a “grey area” that improves the quality insurance of process.


With these evaluations, the activities and tasks of nurses and other carers can be classifi ed according to three criteria:

Duration (indicates cost of task)• Risks and pleasure for employees (evalu-• ation scale determined in agreement with employees!)Values for the patient•

The analysis shows activities with high risk, long duration and low gain for patients, at the opposite activities with low risk, low duration and high gain for patients, and “in between” all combinations. What is important isn’t only that we are able to classify the activities. An important result for the organization would be that management and employees agree on these “bottom up” evaluation criteria.

Grounded on the previous activities’ evaluation, the students’ team indicates what should be done through innovative design for achieving a “good” change of working conditions. Here the word good means:

Old people’s quality of life • Nurses’ less exposed to hazard and stressors, • with more pleasure at workMeeting the future economic conditions that • will probably require a decrease of number in employees: 8 employees for 10 patients in 2008 to 6 for 10 in the near future.

Five days of summer CPW in vegetable factoryThe preparation phase of CPW allowed us to work

with the factory managers to select three topics fresh vegetable process, frozen vegetable packaging, noise in frozen vegetable process. At that time, we noticed that several managers of the company were aware of an outsourcing threat.

During the fi ve days, the three students’ teams co-operated with workers, engineers and managers to

Gains for patient : Actions in order to improve the customers’ satisfaction

defi ne process change that would decrease occupa-tional risks and improve process effi ciency. I will just give some details on the noise study.

In can vegetable process and frozen vegetable pro-cess, noise seems to be consubstantial with process. Noise levels in work areas are frequently higher than 90 dB(A). Since a traditional preconceived idea was that the cost of noise reduction is grossly dispropor-tionate to the improvement gained, workers’ ear pro-tection was the solution used to comply with European regulations (Directive2003/10/CE).

Some students see this noisy mess as grossly unac-ceptable and they look at all consequences of noise on process effi ciency

Excessive tiredness, annoyance of operators• Diffi culty to communicate between humans• Impossibility for effi cient sound alarm, work-• ers unable to detect sound signals or any call

Then they demonstrate that in some determined situations, a reduction of noise could be performed at moderate cost.

The fi fth day, the students report the three studies, we make a group photo and students go back to their autumn semester at University.

Three years after, visiting again the factory I was surprised to hear several times “when the students came, that gave us a new impetus”. In fact numerous students’ ideas were implemented and the improvement orientation continues. It looks as if the CPW trigger a co-evolution of the diverse employees’ categories. The co-evolution have hearable consequence: The noise level has decreased in the area the student have studied, and seeable consequence: reducing noise level is a pur-pose of any new process design in this plant.

Our last CPW in a lead recycling company shows that during the months following the CPW, technical changes are realized consecutively to the students’ studies.


CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

Our first expectation was to change students through an educational activity. Although students have systematically showed a high approval rate, we don’t show evidence of student’s change that would result from CPW.

What CPW successively shows are the following innovations:

Changes of process and building• Improvement of methods for “bottom up” • evaluationSimultaneous change of operators, engineers • and managers of an organization. (In reality we especially saw the impacts on these changes on the production processes.)

John Dewey (2) goes on to acknowledge that educa-tion and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. Our result would indicate that CPW could be instrumental for launching co-evolution of the personnel. This co-evolution would result in ac-tivities changes and processes changes which increase company competitiveness.

Results of Jussi Kantola, Hannu Vanharanta, and Waldemar Karwowski (3) suggest a link between the creative tensions of operators in a large Finnish pulp and paper factory and the measured performance data of shifts in terms of reported complaints by customers.

A cooperative work could address the following issues:

Estimation of employees’ evolution during a • CPW and how it could be related to technical changes they implemented after CPWEstimation of student’s change during a • CPW.

H. Aramo-immonen, H. Vanharanta, and J. Kantola put forward a linguistic method for the collection and analysis of the qualitative bottom up information. The statements they used to describe the project features were derived from literature. (4) The study “Old people home” give us a preliminary draft of bottom up method dedicated to design criteria of project’s evaluation. The both studies intend to produce a comprehensive views resulting from several separate points of views. Both works consider the points of information and decision. A fi rst stage of common work could be to discuss how the two approaches are different and similar.

REFERENCES

[1] Cross Disciplinary Problem Solving Workshop. P.H. Dejean, M. LeChapellier. Las Vegas: In-ternational Conference of Applied Ergonomics, 2008.

[2] Dewey, John. Democracy and Education: An in-troduction to the philosophy of education. 1916.

[3] Link between operators’ creative tension and the performance data of shifts. Jussi Kantola, Hannu Vanranta, Waldemar Karwowski.

[4] A new linguistic method to capture qualitative information from a multi-project environment. J. Kantola, H. Aramo-Immonen, H. Vanharanta. The model the students’ team realized. The company engineers saw a more effi cient maintenance’s work, a “grey area” that improves the quality insurance of process.

MICHEL LE CHAPELLIERPIERRE HENRI DEJEANCompiegne University of Technology (UTC)


A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT MANAGER

Project management is a dynamic process of lead-ing, coordinating, planning, and controlling a diverse and complex set of processes and people in the pursuit of achieving project objectives. A project manager is the heart and soul of a project. He/she has a huge responsibility about budget and schedules. A project manager has to make decisions even with incomplete data and information. Relationship with the project team must be based on trust and comfort with each other. A competent project manager has a capacity to impact team building, generating enthusiasm and motivation, effi cient time management and accurate target setting. Improving the competitiveness of com-panies by investing in human resources has become increasingly important. However, the key to success is recognition of all the personnel’s capabilities and

Key Aspects of the Project Manager’sPersonal and Social Competences

KIRSI LIIKAMAA, D.SC. (TECH.)University of Turku

Turku School of Economics

Abstract: Often in newspapers and speeches the term “Competence” is used to describe a person’s comprehensive ability when it is wanted to emphasize the requirements of nowadays’ working life. Anymore it is not enough to concentrate merely on an individual’s knowledge. But what does the term Competence actually mean and why is it so important? The thought of competences’ ontology is based on understanding that competences represent an individual’s personal view and feelings of how he/she experiences him/herself. The objective of this article is to describe the theoretical background of competences and examine which are important competences in everyday activities of a project manager. In this conceptual analysis there are presented both the theoretical background of competences and a project manager’s 30 professional personal and social competences based on empirical studies.

Keywords: Project manager, personal and social competences

utilise them. Therefore personal competences in the end defi ne how effectively the organisation really operates. (Liikamaa et al., 2003) Competences are useful concepts when we try to explain why some people perform better than others or when we want to improve their performances and make decisions that will enable them to accomplish their objectives (Zwell, 2000). The effectiveness of an organisation’s employees determines how the organisation will per-form (Kerr, 2003).

Webb et al. (1999) state that there are two perspec-tives in job skills: technical skills and enhancing per-formance skills. Technical skills are acquired through education, training, or apprenticeships and related systems, methods, tools and techniques. Enhancing performance skills are learnt through life experiences including team building, generating motivation and enthusiasm, effi cient time management, accurate target

/ 17KIRSI LIIKAMAA

setting and an understanding of infl uence tactics and political behaviour (Pinto et al., 1995). All these skills are essential for project managers. A project manager represents one of the purest examples of on-the-job training. “Most project managers are project manag-ers because they have been superiors to run a project: Having been so assigned, they are often thrown into the fray to sink or swim as they are able.” Those who learn quickly will most likely succeed. (Pinto et al., 1995). Hersey et al. (2000) argue that people differ not only in their ability to do, but also in their will to do, or motivation. The motivation of employees depends on the strength of their conscious or unconscious motives.

Flannes et al. (2001) emphasize that a project man-ager has many roles, where he/she must simultaneously be the leader, manager, facilitator and mentor. In the leadership role the project manager has to have the ability to conceptualize the vision to the functional managers, team members and various stakeholders. The role as manager ensures that the project is com-pleted on time, within the budget and at the accept-able levels of performance. As a manager he/she has to create the administrative procedures and structures to monitor the completion of work including plans, schedules and software to control tasks and costs, and administer details throughout project completion. The role as facilitator provides the necessary emotional and logistic support that the team members need to com-plete the project. As a facilitator the project manager must have communication abilities, abilities for resolv-ing confl icts, the ability to actively procure necessary supplies and resources for the team, and the ability to motivate individual team members and the team as a whole. In the role as mentor the project manager assists team members with the issues of professional growth, development and direction.

Pinto et al. (1995) have analysed a great many studies on project management. On the basis of these analyses they have found certain common features in the results of these studies. First, effective project managers must be good communicators. Much of their time is spent in one form of communication or another. Second, project leaders must possess the fl exibility to respond to uncertain or ambiguous situations with the minimum stress. The third conclusion made by Pinto et al. (1995) is that strong project leaders work with and through their project teams. The fourth conclusion is that good leaders are skilled at various infl uence tactics. Effective project leaders must be well schooled in the art of persuasion and infl uence. Success of a project manager is based on achievement of his/her project goals within the defi nite limitations in terms of

time, budget and resources, completion of the project within explicit criteria, standards and specifi cations and understanding the change in priorities that may occur (e.g. Ljung, 1999; Lock, 1998; Pinto et al., 1995; Barkley et al., 1994).

COMPETENCES REQUIRED TO SUCCEED

Boyatzis & Saatcioglu (2008) state that develop-ing human talent breaks down to three categories which are; helping people to learn knowledge, help-ing them to develop what to do with that knowledge, and learning why they would use their knowledge and competences. Development of knowledge means helping people to develop the functional, declarative, procedural, and meta-cognitive knowledge needed. This knowledge is necessary but not sufficient for the leader, manager, or professional to add value to orga-nizations. In this sense, knowledge bases are threshold talents (Boyatzis, 1982; Kotter, 1982; Luthans et al., 1988; Spencer and Spencer, 1993; Goleman, 1998). But to be an effective leader, manager or professional, he/she needs the ability to use his/her knowledge and to make things happen. These abilities can be called competences. (Boyatzis & Saatcioglu, 2008)

Each competence affects a person’s performance, but competences form synergic groups, which in turn affect the individual’s performance. (Boyatzis, 1982; Wood et al., 2000; Lock, 1998). Boyatzis (1982) defi nes a competence as “A capacity that ex-ists in a person that leads to behavior that meets the job demands within parameters of organizational environment, and that, in turn brings about desired results”. Spencer et al. (1993) defi ne a competence as ‘an underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation.’ According to Boyatzis (1982) ‘Underlying characteristic’ means that the competence is a fairly deep and permanent part of a person’s personality and can predict behavior in a wide variety of situations and job tasks. Competences indicate ‘ways of behaving, thinking and generalizing across situations, and enduring for reasonably long periods of time.’

Competences always include intent, which is the mo-tive or trait force that causes action toward an outcome. Behavior without intent does not defi ne competence. Behavioral and individual competences represent the capability that a person brings to the job situation (e.g. Boyatzis, 1982; Wood et al., 2000; Lock, 1998). As shown in fi gure 1 motives, traits, and self-concept com-petences predict skill behavior actions, which in turn predict job performance outcome (e.g. Kets de Vries, 2001; Spencer et al., 1993; Zwell, 2000).


Competences can be seen as part of a layering process that has at its core needs, emotions, defenses, motives and traits. These are followed by values, at-titudes, and self-image, which in turn are followed by competences and knowledge (fi gure 2). (Kets de Vries 2001, 221)

Figure 2. The circle of Competences (Kets de Vries 2001, 222)

Personal competences are intrinsic to the individual, and refl ect the traits and characteristics that are related to what individuals believe, how they think, how and what they feel, and how they learn and develop. These competences affect people’s ability to complete tasks and people’s relationships with others, because they are related to their sense of self-identity (Zwell, 2000). The competences associated with relationships are

”Intent” ”Action” ”Outcome”

PersonalCharacteristics

Behaviour Job Performance

MotiveTraitsSelf-ConceptKnowledge

Skills

”Intent” ”Action” ”Outcome”

PersonalCharacteristics

Behaviour Job Performance

MotiveTraitsSelf-ConceptKnowledge

Skills

Figure 1. Competence Causal Flow Model (Spencer et al., 1993)

critical to individual and organizational success. The individual’s competences component reveals what a person is capable of doing and why he/she acts in a certain way. (Boyatzis, 1982)

Emotional competences

Emotional competences are learned and they are based on emotional intelligence that results in excel-lent performance at work. The emotional intelligence determines our potential for learning the practical skills that are based on self-awareness, motivation, self-regulation, empathy, and adeptness relationships. Our emotional competences show how much of that potential we have translated into on-the-job capabili-ties. (Goleman, 1998)

People have to get to know their own emotions, because a person who does not know him/herself fi nds him/herself in a deadlock situation. (Kets de Vries, 2001) To manage learning, emotions help people to understand how to acknowledge and deal with their feelings. Developing one’s emotional intelligence is learning to understand how others feel. Emotional intelligence skills are synergistic with cognitive ones: top performers have both. The more complex the job is, the more emotional intelligence matters, if only because a defi ciency in these abilities can hinder the use of whatever intellect a person may have. People need emotional competences to reach the full potential of their talent. (Goleman, 1998)

The great divide in competences lies between cogni-tion and emotions. All emotional competences involve some degree of skills in the realm of feelings. People can score well in IQ tests and other measures of cogni-tive ability, but in their jobs they can fail at emotional arts that make people like fl ight attendants so effi cient. (Goleman,1998; Zwell, 2000). The divide between those competences that are purely cognitive, and those

NeedsEmotionsDefensesMotives

Traits

Competences

AttitudesValues

Knowledge

Self-image

Behavior Action

Action Behavior

/ 19KIRSI LIIKAMAA

that depend on emotional intelligence as well, refl ects the parallel division in the human brain.

PROJECT MANAGER’S COMPETENCES

Professional organizations (e.g. PMI, 2000) and different commercial organizations aspire to identify skills, knowledge and behavioral habits, which ac-cording to them, a qualifi ed project manager should possess. Several researchers (e.g. Thamhain et al.,

1977; Posner, 1987) have endeavored to defi ne the competences of a project manager.

A project manager’s 30 personal and social compe-tences are presented in fi gure 3. The competences are result of the wider study of project managers’ compe-tences which had 50 engineers from forest industry, energy industry and offshore industry participating. The following work-role-based competences have been customized to fi t the requirements of a project manager’s job. (Liikamaa, 2006)


Before competences can be evaluated each individ-ual competence (1-30) has to be defi ned separately by words. Then according to the defi nitions every single competence is specifi ed by four statements described through texts or examples of behavior. When we evalu-ate competences we actually evaluate the statements of the competences, which easily describe understandable and evaluative everyday activities. (Figure 4)

The requirements of the job can be regarded as the job’s demands on the person in the context of the organization, with its physical, fi nancial and techni-cal resources, as well as its traditions and culture. There are many competences that are the same within several professional groups, but each of these groups also has very special characteristics that have to be determined based on the requirements of each task in an organization. (Liikamaa & Vanharanta, 2003b; Liikamaa, 2006)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The skill that distinguishes successful project managers from those who are not so successful do not include special know-how, but consist of com-petences which are not taught at all. Technical skills are acquired through education, training, or through related systems, methods and techniques. Enhancing performance skills are learned through life experi-ences. The success of a project depends not only on interaction and personnel commitment but also on project managers’ personal and social competences. (Liikamaa et al., 2003)

In the future more and more project managers are needed, as tasks become more project based and organisations become more flexible. That is why identifi cation of project managers’ personal and social competences is important. An organisation which

Figure 3. A Project manager’s personal and social competences (Liikamaa, 2006)

Figure 4. Defi nition of competences

/ 21KIRSI LIIKAMAA

recognizes that identifi cation and development of a project manager’s competences has a huge impact on the success of the project, can reduce the business risks and improve the success of the project. (Liikamaa et al., 2003) The identifi cation of the individual’s competences leads to increase the employees’ transition of experi-ence-based knowledge, skills, commitment, motivation and productivity, and thus the enterprise’s competitive advantage. (Liikamaa & Vanharanta 2003a)

A competence is an integration of knowledge, skills, abilities, behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics that allows an individual to perform successfully on the job. Creating of job competence profi les provides the organization and its employees numerous benefi ts. Using competences in recruitment can be as simple as including a list and a brief descrip-tion of the required competences in the job posting. It is important to ensure that those selected for a job meet both the minimum technical requirements, and have the essential “soft skills” (e.g. relationship building, teamwork, communication). A conceptualization of a competence is that it is observable, measurable, and can be learned to achieve desired performance levels. (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Hereby competences can be exploited in many human resources functions like recruitment, selection, placement, compensation, performance management, succession planning, and training and development. Training is focused on the competences that lead to superior performance. By comparing employees’ competences with the compe-tence requirements of the future job a successful plan can be made. (Zwell, 2000; Boyatzis, 1982; Liikamaa &Vanharanta, 2003b)

Knowledge, competences, and motivational driv-ers help us to understand what a person can do (i.e. knowledge), how a person can do it (i.e. competences), and why a person feels the need to do it (i.e. values, motives, and unconscious dispositions) (Boyatzis & Saatcioglu, 2008). Emotional competences determine how people manage themselves whereas social com-petences determine how people handle relationships. (Goleman, 1998) Competences can be taught. The improvability of competences has important implica-tions for organizations. Even core motive competences such as achievement orientation can be modifi ed. (Zwell, 2000)

In addition to competences subconscious factors are important because they affect a project manager’s performance. Individual’s subconscious factors such as motives, values and attitudes contribute to behav-ioral situations defi ned by competences, which affect the subconscious factors as a continuous interaction. (Liikamaa, 2006)

REFERENCES

[1] Barkley B. T. & Saylor J. H. (1994). Customer-driven project management. A new paradigm in total quality implementation. McGraw-Hill Inc. The United States of America.

[2] Boyatzis, R. (1982). The competent manager. A model for effective performance. John Wieley & Sons Inc. New York.

[3] Boyatzis, R. & Saatcioglu A. (2008). A 20-year view of trying to develop emotional, social and cognitive intelligence competencies in graduate management education. Journal of Manage-ment Development. Vol. 27, No. 1, 92-108.

[4] Flannes S. W. & Levin G. (2001). People skills for project managers. Management concepts. The United of America.

[5] Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. Clays Ltd, St. Ives plc, Great Brit-ain.

[6] Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. H. & Johnson, D. E. (2001). Management of organizational behav-iour. Leading human resources. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.

[7] Kerr S. (2003). The best-laid. Incentive plans. Harvard Business review.

[8] Kets De Vries, M. (2001). The leadership mys-tiques; A user’s manual for the human Enter-prise. Biddles Ltd, Guildford & King’s Lynn. Great Britain.

[9] Liikamaa, K. & Vanharanta, H. (2003a). The Identifi cation of Employees’ Personal and So-cial Competencies Connected to the Transfer of Tacit Knowledge in an Organisation. Proceed-ings of the 8th International HAAMAHA Con-ference, Rome.

[10] Liikamaa, K. & Vanharanta, H. (2003b). The Identifi cation of Employees’ Personal Com-petencies - A Tool of Human Resources Man-agement. Proceedings of the 8th International HAAMAHA Conference, Rome.

[11] Liikamaa, K., Koskinen K. U. & Vanharanta, H. (2003). Project Managers’ Personal and Social Competencies – The Key to Success of projects. Proceedings of the NORDNET Con-ference, Oslo.

[12] Liikamaa, K. (2006) Piilevä tieto ja projek-tipäällikön kompetenssit [Tacit Knowledge and Project Manager’s Competences], PhD Thesis, Tampere University of Technology, Publication 628.


[13] Ljung, L. (1999). To assess the Organisation’s Ability to Use the Project Work Form – a New Approach. In: Artto, K. A., Kähkönen, K., Ko-skinen K. (Eds.) Managing Business by Proj-ects. Project Management Association Finland and NORDNET, Helsinki.

[14] Lock D. (1998). Project Management. Sixth edition. Grower Publishing Limited, Hamp-shire, England.

[15] Pinto, J. K. & Kharbanda O. P. (1995). Success-ful Project Managers. Leading your Team to Success. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

[16] Posner, B. Z. (1987). What it takes to be a good project manager. Project Management Journal, XVIII (1), 51-54.

[17] Project Management Institute (2000). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® guide), Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

[18] Spencer, L. M. & Spencer, S. M. (1993). Competence at work – Models for Superior Performance. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

[19] Thamhain, H. J. & Wilemon, D. (1977). Leadership Effectiveness in Project Management. Project Management Quarterly, June, 25-31.

[20] Webb S. & Vielvoije R. (1999). Identifying potential project managers: Assessing for essential skills. In: Artto, K. A., Kähkönen K. & Koskinen K. (Eds.), Managing Business by Projects. Project Management Association Finland and NORDNET, Helsinki.

[21] Wood, R. & Payne, T. (2000). Competency based recruitment and selection. A practical guide. John Wiley & Sons, England.

[22] Zwell, M. (2000). Creating a Culture of competence. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

KIRSI LIIKAMAA, D.SC. (TECH.)University of TurkuTurku School of [email protected]

/ 23HANNA WŁODARKIEWICZ-KLIMEK, WERONIKA MIGAS, JOANNA KAŁKOWSKA, STEFAN TRZCIELIŃSKI

1 CHANGES IN LABOR MARKET RESULTING FROM THE KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY THAT CREATE CHANCES AND RISKS FOR THE FORMING A GRADUATE’S PROFILE PROCESS

The transformation of traditional economy into a knowledge-based economy has caused signifi cant changes of the labor market structure and needs. The analysis of the labor market as a place, where the work demand of people searching for jobs meets with the

The Changes and Competences Development of Poznan University of Technology Students and Graduates in a Perspective of the Labor Market – Research Analysis in a Frame of Knowledge for

Economy Project

HANNA WŁODARKIEWICZ-KLIMEKWERONIKA MIGAS

JOANNA KAŁKOWSKA STEFAN TRZCIELIŃSKI

Faculty of Engineering ManagementPoznan University of Technology

POLAND

Abstract: The transformation of traditional economy into knowledge based economy caused the signifi cant changes in a structure and needs of local labour market. The new quality of economy induce the universities to verifi cation of their educational programs to equip the students both with proper knowledge and essential competences expected by the employers. In that publication there will be presented some conditions which are created by new economy in relation to the labour market. On the basis on carried out researchers in Poznan University of Technology in a frame of Knowledge for Economy project, the subject of analysis will be student’s competences of selected courses. The paper will also present the changes direction as well as development perspectives into transformation of new labour market.

Keywords: knowledge economy, labour market, competences

supply offered by entrepreneurs, who create posts, it can be noticed a considerable growth tendency of knowledge importance understood as one of main exchange factors. The dominance of knowledge in economic activity of the 20th century have funds for the development of the knowledge-based economy interpreted as an economy in which constant use and creation of knowledge represent the core of economic development processes [World Bank 2006]. This new economy creates such conditionings, along with of-fered legal solutions which form the knowledge as the principal source of competitive advantage. Since the


year 2000 the European Union accepted a plan of a dy-namic, competitive and based on knowledge economy, which is able to achieve a sustainable growth, offering better jobs, better social coherence as well as respect of natural environment. The plan had the form of the Lisbon Strategy. The Strategy Europe 2020 is the direct continuation of the idea of the Lisbon Strategy adopted in 2010. Main objectives of the strategy focus on following aspects of development:

intelligent – based on knowledge and innova-• tion,

sustainable – supporting more efficiently • exploiting economy assets which is more friendly to the environment and which is more competitive,

supporting inclusion – conducive for the • economy characterized with a high level of employment and providing high social, eco-nomical and territorial coherence [Strategy Europe 2020].

Each of presented development objectives of the new European strategy must particularly refer to the formation of the social policy, especially in the area of the labor market and new quality of education. This phenomenon fi nds its refl ection in major projects ac-cepted to carry out in individual objectives of particular strategies. We can assume that following projects have the major importance in determined area:

„ Youth on the Move” (within frames of the • intelligent development) - the project aiming at improving results and growing the attrac-tiveness of the European System of Higher Education in the international area as well as improving the education quality at all levels of education and training in the EU by combining the idea of justice perfection, supporting the mobility of students and trainees and improve-ment of the situation concerning young people in the labor market.

„Agenda for new skills and jobs” (within a • frame of the objective concerning development of social inclusion) – the project’s objective is to create conditions for modernize labor markets in relation to the growing level of un-employment and ensuring the sustainability of our social models. This means a reinforcement of the position of citizens through possibili-ties creation of gaining new skills in order to guarantee present and future employees by the possibility of adjustment to new conditions and

potential change of professional career and to reduce the unemployment and upgrade the effi ciency of the labor force [Strategy Europe 2020].

The realization of assumed programs takes under consideration the new character of the labor market and the new system of education along with the dynamics and tendencies to change.

The changing labor market and changes of the edu-cational system favor the creation of a new employee profi le. We can enumerate following characteristics from the group of particular features of the modern labor market which have particularly caused the change in the approach and path of forming human resources[see: Przybyszewski R. 2007, Mikuła B. et. all 2007]:

jobs globalization,•

elimination of barriers for domestic and cross • border migration,

jobs increase in transnational corporations, •

reduction of meaning of jobs related with pro-• duction in favor to widely interpreted profes-sions related with services, particularly in the area of information and communication,

change of workplaces organization (fl exible • work time, task-oriented employment forms, deformalization of relations between the em-ployer and employee),

new forms of employment (self-employment, • telecommuting, worker leasing),

large rotation on work positions.•

The concept of a new educational system specifi -cally takes into account the assumptions of the knowl-edge based economy and the consequent need for labor market. Among factors describing modern education system it can be distinguished following ones:

lifelong learning – the concept of learning • throughout life including personal develop-ment and the development of social character-istics in all forms and in all settings, in formal and informal education,

open learning (individualized learning in terms • of content, resources and time),

internationalization of the education process,•

making education programs more fl exible in • order to adjust them to requirements of the knowledge-based economy,

change of the graduate’s profi le in direction to • prepare him to solve functional problems.


The dynamically developing new economy sup-ported by proper tools of the social policy, labor market and education, gives particular possibilities to realize individual development for every person. The development focuses on adjustment of qualifi cations and competences of present and future employees to the changing conditions in organizations. More often enterprises treat their staff not like people employed but like their human capital interpreted as a capital of knowledge, skills, health, vital energy, which has every human and a society as an entity describing work ability into adaptation to changes appearing in the environment and it represents possibilities to create new solutions [Domański, 1993].

2 FACTORS SUPPORTING THE FORMATION OF A STUDENT AND GRADUATE NEW PROFILE AS WELL AS PARTICULAR FEATURES OF THEIR COMPETENCIES IN THE KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY

The new quality of economy and expectations of en-terprises concerning new employees force universities to verify their educational programs in order to equip their graduate in suitable knowledge and necessary competencies. According to statements of the Strategy Europe 2020; better education means better chances in the labor market, bigger rates of employment sup-port the reduction of poverty. Universities that wish to keep the tempo of the labor market requirements must create profi les of their graduates and students that allow for easy adaptation to frequent changes of professions. Therefore, next to factors supporting the change of the educational process, the adjustment of the Polish system of education to European standards is another factor supporting changes. Recommendations from Bergen 2005 concerning the Bologna Process postulate to maintain and develop different forms, programs and institutions of education on the academic degree as well as forming chances for comparing achievements and qualifi cations of studying people. European and National Qualifi cations Framework are the tool for realization of presented recommendations, their implementation into practice required by the Eu-ropean Union [Zalecenia Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady Europy 2008]. Accepted National Qualifi cation Framework increase the autonomy of universities in creating study programs being attractive from the labor market view point which and will enable for defi n-ing the qualifi cations, competencies and educational effects [Chmielecka E. (red), 2010]. European funds

are a big support and a factor signifi cantly stimulat-ing the activity within presented fi eld in universities. They support the realization of operational programs that implement changes into reality.

3 KNOWLEDGE FOR ECONOMY AS A PROJECT SUPPORTING THE ADJUSTMENT OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES TO THE LABOR MARKET REQUIREMENTS

3.1 The idea of the project

Meeting trends of the labor market and require-ments concerning the education of engineer profi le of the Faculty of Management Engineering and the Faculty of Chemical Technology of the Poznań University of Technology in 2009 there has been started the realization of the project Knowledge for Economy. Presented project involve objectives in accordance to activities determined in the Human Resources Operational Program, within the IV priority, sub-objective 4.1, which is formed as “reinforcement of the university educational potential development and number of graduates growth of courses that are a key importance for the knowledge-based economy”. The main objective of the project is to adjust Poznań University of Technology graduates competencies to the requirements of their potential employers and the knowledge-based economy.

3.2 Tasks of the project

The realization of objectives if the project Knowl-edge for Economy takes place in two perspectives: the fi rst is an activity related with the university edu-cational potential development based on creating new study courses. The second is realized on the basis on strict cooperation with business representatives. The common horizon for both perspectives constitutes an optimal model of a student and graduate profi le at the Poznań University of Technology.

The activity carried out inside the academic struc-ture includes following operations:

New study courses for full-time studies• master degree– there has been prepared new study programs which take under consideration specializations that refer to changes observing in the labor market and the actual standards of education of engineer and technical study profi les.

Employers lectures • – business representa-tives of leading enterprises in the market of


the region of Greater Poland are carried out lectures and trainings for the Poznań University of Technology (PUT) students. Those lectures aiming at widening the students’ knowledge on problems and issues frequently faced in the professional practice but also their goal is to get information concerning possibilities of career development in presented branches. Employers’ lectures aiming at representing a sort of inspiration and guideline to career pattern based on a dialogue between a student and an employer.

Panel meetings • – the principal goal of this meeting is to create a collaboration model between business and university which would include formation of study programs that sat-isfy needs of the labor market in the region. Joint development of skills and competencies of students from particular study courses is an important area of those meeting. Also, creation a common fi eld for science and research is important as well. Panel meeting constitute the prolongation of the tradition of creating relations between science and business envi-ronment already established by the Convention of the Poznań University of Technology.

Labor (job) Fairs - • they form the area for meetings between the labor market represen-tatives and the Poznań University of Technol-ogy students and graduates. They represent an excellent opportunity to exchange mutual requirements and expectations on the labor market. They also constitute the fi rst impulse to create own professional career path.

Internships for students and graduates • – realization of internships in enterprises is an important element of education system. It enables for a confrontation of the knowledge obtained during the study process with pro-fessional practice. As a result, students gain experience that is one of main requirements of their future employers.

The participation in the project Knowledge for Economy creates new opportunities for students to develop the intellectual potential by enrichment of traditional methods of academic education with in-novation initiatives. Project participants are equipped with books and teaching materials for each subject of individual fi elds of study based on most modern knowledge and scientifi c research of staff employed in the Faculty of Management Engineering and the

Faculty of Chemical Technology. The educational of-fer of studies carried out within frames of the project Knowledge for Economy also enriches open lectures presented by known teachers from foreign universities, additional courses directed on development of compe-tencies from the area of foreign languages, laboratory classes which take place in newly built computer labo-ratories. The adjustment of educational programs to the needs of the labor market is a continuous process where the results aimed to implement changes related with involving a modern computing system, including ERP systems and innovation techniques of simulation to the education system.

3.3 The importance of the relation university-employers

Changes of the labor market force contemporary universities to transform their mission from the point of view of integration of the academic center with its nearest environment. The trends analysis and best practices in worldwide and European higher educa-tion1 system confi rms conclusions concerning the importance of relations between the university and the enterprise formulated in the project Knowledge for Economy. Scientists and businessmen should search for common elements for their strategic objectives, that they realize within own organizations, since the economic future of local economies will depends on knowledge assets of organization. Education on the academic level should be perceived as a common good in perspective of responsibility of the entire society. This statement refers both to the students education in order to meet the labor market needs and the technolo-gies transfer, innovations and scientifi c research in the business environment. Representatives of academic centers and employers notice many benefi ts result-ing from the development of their cooperation. Yet, they point at the existence of many barriers for this cooperation. Reports of the activity within the project Knowledge for Economy often include opinions that current state of cooperation in not suffi cient in the perspective of adjusting students competencies to the labor market requirements.

The realization of common objectives within the project Knowledge for Economy enabled compiling business and science. The project became not only the reason to widen the scale of involvement of companies from Greater Poland into the activity of the university;

1 The analysis of trends and best practice resulting from docu-ments defi ning strategies for higher education system worldwide. Interim report prepared by the consortium: Ernst & Young Busi-ness Advisory, Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową. No-vember 2009


it was also an impulse for discussing new ideas in determined fi eld. In result of panel meeting with busi-ness representatives, the team of the project prepared an idea of a collaboration model between the Poznań University of Technology and business that aims at improving the quality and effi ciency of relations be-tween university and business. The implementation of the concept of the collaboration model meets the realization of research performed in order to defi ne the actual level of cooperation between the Poznań University of Technology and business, pointing at chances and threats for this cooperation as well as defi ning it potential development. Determining typi-cal competences for PUT students and graduates is an integral part of preliminary research. Research results will be treated as initial point for creating qualifi cation profi les required by National Qualifi cation Frames. Qualifi cation profi les of students of individual courses carried out at the Faculty of Management Engineering will represent the effect of work performed by teams created for following panel meeting realized within the project Knowledge for Economy.

4 ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS COMPETENCES CHANGES AND DEVELOPMENT IN A PERSPECTIVE OF THE LABOR MARKET CHANGES

4.1 Research description

There has been realized an examination of changes and development of competences in a view of ex-pectations of employers concerning the formation of competences presented by students and graduates which are supposed to be accordant with modern needs of the labor market. The main goal of research was to establish the meaning (ranking) of presented groups of competences (specialist, conceptual, social and personal) which are important from the point of view of employers’ expectations as well as evaluation of particular competences within determined groups. There was carried out a study in relation to behaviors of enterprises in reference to the formation of hu-man resources in conditions of the knowledge-based economy.

Forty enterprises from the region of Greater Poland took part in the research. The main tool used in the study was a questionnaire; it enclosed four areas concerning following aspects: learning organization, recruitment process, competence of graduates evaluation and per-spectives for employed staff development.

The fi rst area of the questionnaire concerned the analysis of the range of cooperation of examined or-

ganizations with their environment which creates and distributes knowledge and which supports the learning process in organizations. The examination of deter mined area was carried out in order to establish the level of awareness of the organization in a view of adjustment of organization’s structure to the knowledge - based economy requirements. Scientists assumed that the more the organization is involved in the knowledge develop-ment process the higher is its awareness of meaning of employed staff competences.

The second area of research concerned the analy-sis of the recruitment process which was supposed to enable the evaluation of the organization from the point of view of awareness on current labor market and candidates selection. Scientists accepted an as-sumption that the latest recruitment process refl ects the knowledge of the labor market trends.

The third part of the questionnaire represents the core of the research; it analyses groups of specialist, social, conceptual and personal competences. The study assumes that competences mean all characteristics of employees, knowledge, skills, experience, abilities, ambitions, values that having them and usage and devel-opment will enable for enterprises’ strategy realization in which they are employed” [Rostkowski 2004].

Particular groups of competences were interpreted as follows:

Specialist competences concern the level of educa-tion and knowledge of the graduate/employee. Thus, it is possible to distinguish a general knowledge, knowledge related with the studied course or practical knowledge obtained elsewhere than in the university. It is possible to verify specialist competences on formal documents.

Conceptual competences are related to the process of reasoning, logic thinking, skills of practical knowl-edge usage, creativity and innovation.

Social competences refer to skills of own person-ality management in interpersonal relations in the organization. Such competences are connected with so-called emotional intelligence; it refers to follow-ing characteristics of the employee: ability to work in a team, negotiation and communication skills [see: Goleman D. 1997].

Personal competences expresses attitudes oriented on action. The effi ciency of such operation results from a properly stimulated employee motivation. Personal competences encloses also individual characteristics of the employee like entrepreneurship, fl exibility, inde-pendence and ability to learn [see: Siodor-Rządkowska M., 2006].

Organizations evaluating competences, determine a particular meaning of individual groups by placing them in the ranking from 1 to 4. The ranking is deter-mined by the meaning of a particular group of com-


petences from the point of view of their usability as a candidate skills while entering into the organization. There have been accurately determined characteris-tics, which are representative for particular group. The organization realizing the questionnaire evaluat-ed each meaning of a feature in the scale from 0 to 5. The examination of competence was completed with the evaluation of competence gaps which occurred in the groups of newly accepted graduates.

The last part of the questionnaire analyses perspec-tive of employed staff development. The examination of entrepreneurs’ plans concerning determined area gives the opportunity to evaluate of involvement and skills of the organization ability to notice needs of con-stant improvement of competences and skills adjust-ment to the knowledge-based economy requirements.

4.2 Research results

There have been examined forty companies func-tioning in the area of the entire Greater Poland. The majority of participating enterprises were small and medium manufacturing enterprises. The dominating form of work organization in examined enterprises was creating specialized workstations responsible for a narrow functional area, about 30% of enterprises formed permanent objective teams. In the researched companies there have been established fi xed work hours, only 16% of them introduced the fl exible work time. The analysis of specifi c areas of the survey gave following results:

In the area of • cooperation between the or-ganization and its environment which cre-ates and distributes knowledge – over 50% companies declared the realization of projects within frames of EU operational programs related to assumptions of the knowledge-based economy. Over 60 % of organizations

cooperates with universities or scientifi c and research units. The cooperation focuses mostly on the area of co-organizing forms of education through internships, trainings and lectures in enterprises. Another area of cooperation is a common initiating research and development activity and participation in events organized by universities (conferences, seminars and job fairs). The assumption adopted in the research area was evaluated positively. Organizations initiate cooperation that focuses mostly on co-participation current and potential employees in the knowledge developing process.

The analysis of the • recruitment process shows that more than 90% of examined enterprises which recruited graduates of universities during last twelve months select graduates of technical and economic faculties which are employed as trainees and specialists. Over 52% of recruited people were graduates of the Poznań Univer-sity of Technology. The dominating model of recruitment policy was to accept a candidate because of his knowledge and professional skills. Candidates representing mostly a good attitude, willingness to work and develop are employed more rarely. Following character-istic decided about employing a candidate: particular specialist and faculty knowledge (75% of examined companies), interpersonal and communication skills (68% of examined skills) and the course of graduated study (62% of examined fi rms). Other features were as fol-lows: knowledge of foreign languages (39%) professional experience gained during study (26%), internships and trainings carried out during the study course (16%). Dominating methods of selection were as follows: evalua-

Fig. 1. Evaluation of characteristics in the group of specialist competence


tion of candidate’s knowledge (71%), evalua-tion of interpersonal skills (70%), analysis of formal documents (65%). There were also no-ticed following skills presented by candidates: partial verifi cation of candidates skills (48%), practical evaluation of foreign languages knowledge (29%) and evaluation of education patterns carried out in the university (16%). Summarizing the presented area of research, it is possible to state that a part of examined organizations knows and understands modern tendencies of the labor market and it clearly determines own preferences of candidates profi les as well as recruitment methods.

Therefore, it is possible to assume that it is a proper premise to evaluate skills and graduates com-petences.

The • Evaluation of competences expected by entrepreneurs from universities’ graduates is core part of the research. The fi rst stage of the examination contains a ranking of competence created by entrepreneurs (specialist, social, conceptual, personal) in which they pointed at most important group of characteristics from the point of view of a decision of employing a graduate. Employers decided that the most important in the ranking is the group of special-ist competence; conceptual and social, personal competences are in lowest places of the rank-ing. The second stage of the examination of determined area included the assessment of particular characteristics which are represen-tative for a particular group of competences, using the scale from 0 to 5 (0 means minimum importance of determined feature). The analy-sis of characteristics in individual groups was as follows:

Specialist competenceIn the group of specialist competence (fi gure 1),

the following features were assumed by entrepre-neurs to be most important: knowledge related with the specialization of the study’s course; next was the practical knowledge and the knowledge related with the graduated course by the candidate.

There were evaluated that the group of specialist competence was the most important in the ranking.

Taking into consideration presented fact, as well as analyzing the involvement of the organization in the process of formation (internships, trainings, lectures in enterprises) and carried out recruitment, it can be state that universities’ activities should concentrated

on education in accordance with labor market expec-tations.

Conceptual competencesThe analysis of conceptual competences (fi gure 2)

related with the area of reasoning shows that employers assumed following features to be most important: skill of logical thinking, use of knowledge in practice and abilities of data analysis and interpretation.

The ability of rational thinking is the second group of conceptual competence; it confi rms tendencies of the modern labor market. Nowadays, it is expected from graduates to have both a high level of knowl-edge and fl exible skills of using this knowledge in an organizational practice.

Fig. 2. Evaluation of characteristics in the group of conceptual competence

Personal competenceIn the group of personal competence (fi gure 3), the

following features were evaluated to be most impor-tant: independence and ability to learn. The analysis of the research results on personal competence which are stimulators for motivation and operation in an or-ganization shows that it is important to focus mostly on characteristics that support learning and develop-ment. Such approach allows constant improvement of specialist competence.


Fig. 3. Evaluation of characteristics in the group of personal competence

Social competenceThe last group in the ranking was social compe-

tences (fi gure 4). Following features from this group obtained highest notes: skills of work in a team, com-munication and organization skills. Such low place of social skills in the ranking might mean that interper-sonal relations are still underestimated in organiza-tions. However, it can be point that the determined skills can be developed in employed graduates during their period of adaptation in the organization.

Fig. 4. Evaluation of characteristics in the group of social competence

The examination of competence has been complet-ed with the assessment of competence gaps observed in cases of newly employed staff. The research shows that the biggest gaps occur in the group of social and conceptual competences. Among causes of inadequacy of graduates’ competence there have been presented limitations associated with obtaining practical skills and lack of system solutions for regulation of depen-dency between education effects and expectations of employers.

The • analysis of prospects for development of employed staff was the last examined area. The research shows that over 80% enterprises build a career development model of their employees and has a system of competence improvement for their staff. Entrepreneurs pointed at widely interpreted training and education programs, as well as constant study of staff expectations related with the professional development as a main tools of competence development. Over 70% of companies have a system of staff as-sessment, which takes under consideration competence profi les.

The examination of presented area confi rms the involvement of organizations in the continuous devel-opment through upgrading the potential of employed people and adjustment of skills to the knowledge-based economy requirements.

4 SUMMARY

The developing knowledge-based economy and European strategic concepts that follow the process as well as changes in mentality of societies are the direct reason of forming the new model of the labor market and of the education process evolvement. European countries, supported by instruments and founds of leading projects of the European Union, create con-ditions for proper development of the education and lifelong learning. Those activities aims at providing a highly qualifi ed staff, equipped with suitable compe-tence that allow fl exible adjustment to the work place requirements.

Results of research shows that modern organiza-tions expect from newly employed graduates to have a specialist knowledge obtained from the course of their study supported by experience and skills of combining theoretical and practical knowledge. Such approach leads academic centers to initiate cooperation with business in order to form educational programs mu-tually within the area of specialist competence. Such cooperation should focus on creating study courses concepts, specializations and course content that refer


to the developing labor market requirements. Besides that, determined area should also include participation of enterprises in educational activity as well as mutual realization of research ventures.

REFERENCES:

Chmielecka E. red, (2010) Autonomia pro-[1] gramowa uczelni, Ramy kwalifi kacji dla szkol-nictwa wyższego, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo: Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego Domański S.R. (1993), Kapitał ludzki i wzrost [2] gospodarczy, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo PWNErnst & Young Business Advisory. (2009). Anal-[3] iza trendów i najlepszych praktyk wynikających z dokumentów defi niujących strategie szkoln-ictwa wyższego na świecie. Raport cząstkowy. Ernst & Young Business Advisory, Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową. Listopad 2009Goleman D. (1997), Inteligencja emocjonalna. [4] Media Rodzina of Poznań 1997Komisja Europejska, Strategia Europa 2020 [5] Mikuła B., Pietruszka-Otyl, Potocki A. (2007), [6] Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami w gospo-darce opartej na wiedzy, Warszawa: Wydawnict-wo Difi nPrzybyszewski R,(2007), Kapitał ludzki w [7] procesie kształtowania gospodarki opartej na wiedzy, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Difi n

Rostkowski T. red.(2004), Nowoczesne meto-[8] dy zarządzania zasobami ludzkimi, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Difi nSidor-Rządkowska M.(2006). Kompetencyjne [9] systemy ocen pracowników. Przygotowanie, wdrażanie i integrowanie z innymi systemami ZZL. Ofi cyna Ekonomiczna Kraków 2006.World Bank, [10] Korea as Knowledge Economy. Evolutionary Process and Lessons Learned. Overview, Washington: World Bank 2006.Zalecenia Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady [11] Europy, 2008/C 111/01/WE. Europejskie ramy kwalifi kacji dla uczenia się przez całe życie. Urząd Ofi cjalnych Publikacji Wspólnot Europe-jskich. Luksemburg 2009

HANNA WŁODARKIEWICZ-KLIMEKWERONIKA MIGAS JOANNA KAŁKOWSKASTEFAN TRZCIELIŃSKIFaculty of Engineering ManagementPoznan University of Technology11 Strzelecka Str.60-965 [email protected]@put.poznan.pl [email protected] [email protected]


Using Social Media in Developing Proactive Safety Culture

ELINA MÄKINENPASI L. PORKKA

HANNU VANHARANTAIndustrial management and Engineering, Tampere University of Technology at Pori

Finland

SARI TAPPURASafety management and Engineering Tampere University of Technology

Finland

ANTTI PIIRTO3TVO Oy, Olkiluoto

Finland

Abstract: Environment, Health, Safety and Quality (EHSQ) managers have created a discussion group that operates through LinkedIn on the Internet. There are already over 15 000 people all over the world and from different fi elds of industry connected via this forum. Members of the EHSQ group can have different interest groups with specifi c debates open to anyone interested. The main objective of the group is to develop EHSQ expertise and fi nd solutions through sharing EHSQ knowledge. We have been following the EHSQ Elite interest group in its discussions regarding safety management, risk management, quality management and social responsibility, i.e. important managerial and leadership areas within the organization. One of the latest topics has concerned safety culture, on which 99 comments have been posted in fi ve months. We have summarized this discourse to fi nd the practical views on safety culture and also to compare how these views fi t in with the theoretical descriptions. Our research reveals that many of the topics discussed highly suit the theoretical view of safety culture and that the practical information from the discussions supplement this theoretical view. This research can now be used to develop our ontology of safety culture and support proactive safety culture development within the organization by revealing the theoretical and practical views of the organization’s safety culture, as well as develop hands-on applications to measure that safety culture.

Keywords: EHSQ, safety culture, safety evaluation

/ 33ELINA MÄKINEN, PASI L. PORKKA, HANNU VANHARANTA, SARI TAPPURA, ANTTI PIIRTO

1 INTRODUCTION

Safety culture has an important role in preventing occupational accidents in the workplace and promot-ing health and safety at work. Technical, physical or engineering controls and safety management systems are also important, but they are not enough if the cul-ture is not conducive to safe working (IOSH, 2004). However, there is still no clear concept of safety cul-ture and its indicators (Fernandez-Muñiz et al. 2007). Two factors, management commitment to safety and employees’ involvement, have been replicated in many studies (e.g. Cox & Cheyne, 2000; Dedobbler & Belan, 1991; Hofmann & Stetzer, 1996; Mearns et al., 2003; Fernández-Muñiz et al., 2007).

In this study, we have followed an international discussion group called EHSQ Elite [#1 IN SAFETY] through LinkedIn, which is the world’s largest profes-sional network on the Internet with more than 90 mil-lion members. The LinkedIn EHSQ Elite group was founded in May 2008 and it already has over 15 000 members from all over the world and from different fi elds of the industry. EHSQ, Elite is a networking group for environment, health, safety and quality professionals to develop expertise and seek solutions by sharing EHSQ knowledge. One of the group’s main objectives is to prevent occupational accidents and to minimize their impact on people, environment and property. It is possible for all members of the group to receive information and be an active content provider. There have been active, ongoing discussions concerning safety culture (with about 90 comments in fi ve months), near miss reporting culture (about 160 comments in four months) and safety performance indicators (about 60 comments in three months).

2 DEFINITION OF SAFETY CULTURE

The concept of safety culture was presented for the fi rst time in the 1987 OECD Nuclear Agency Report on the 1986 Chernobyl disaster (INSAG, 1988; Pidgeon, 1991). Many industries and researchers around the world have showed interest in the concept ever since (e.g. Williamson et al. 1997; Cox & Cheyne, 2000; Glendon & Stanton, 2000; Cooper, 2000; Guldenmund 2000; Harvey et al. 2001).

According to Reason (1997), few things are so sought after but so little understood as safety culture. Safety culture is a socially engineered phenomenon that rises out of shared practices. These practices are assembled into a working whole. This is a process of collective learning and taking action with focus on the

prevention of occupational accidents. Safety culture is continuously striven for but rarely attained.

There are many defi nitions of safety culture in the academic safety literature. However, there is still no agreement about just what safety culture means (Hop-kins, 2006) and there is no universal agreement about the defi nition of safety culture (Fernandez-Muñiz et al. 2007). Safety culture often refers to a set of safety related attitudes, beliefs, values or assumptions that are shared between the members of an organization (e.g. Cox & Cox, 1991; Turner, 1991; Guldenmund 2000, Gadd 2002). Safety performance is affected by these socially transmitted beliefs and attitudes toward safety in the organization. The goal of safety culture is to develop a norm so that employees are aware of the occupational risks and are continually watching out for hazards. (Ostrom et al., 1993) Safety culture can be analyzed by studying safety management systems, the safety climate and both attitudes and behavior (Cooper 1998).

3 METHODS

We have created a mind map based on the com-ments posted in the safety culture discussion on how a company can develop its safety culture. The mind map is not an exhaustive description of the components related to safety culture. Rather, it’s a view of those components which the participants of the discussion group consider the most important. The participants have commented on earlier postings, have presented new, interesting points of view and have highlighted various, important factors concerning safety culture. The discussion presents those components of good safety culture.

We followed the discussion for fi ve months. The discussion was animated for the fi rst four months. The discussion ended for several weeks and later became active again. In the fi ve months, 99 comments were made by 79 different persons, 50 of them safety pro-fessionals. The participants all came from different companies and from 22 different countries.

We have used Cooper’s (1998) model of safety culture to group the comments of the discussion. Cooper (1998) depicts the model of safety culture as a system formed by three interacting components: a person, a job and an organization. Safety culture can be analyzed by studying the safety management system, safety climate and both attitudes and behavior (Figure 1). Comparison can be made between organizations and their respective units. In order to develop the


organization’s safety culture, it is crucial for organiza-tions to infl uence all three components. The value of the model is that it attempts to emphasize the holistic standpoint and the interaction between human beings and the organization in the process of fostering a safety culture. (Cooper 1998)

4 SERPENTINE - EVALUATION METHOD OF THE SAFETY CULTURE

We have made an application for evaluating the current state and development of an organization’s

safety culture, called Serpentine. Our safety culture model comprises 17 characteristics for measuring different features of safety culture. Cooper’s model of safety culture infl uenced the selection of characteristics in our model. In addition, these characteristics have been seen to support knowledge creation and learning by doing. (Porkka et al. 2010)

Our model has two main categories, the learning environment and organizational knowledge creation activities, which are further divided into eight com-petence groups. In Figure 2, the fi rst four competence groups are partly based on Tannenbaum’s model of the

Figure 1. The Safety Culture Model (Cooper 1998)

Figure 2. Ontology of safety culture (Porkka et al. 2010)


organizational learning environment (Tannenbaum 1997). The last four groups are based on the theory of organizational knowledge creation by Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995). (Porkka et al. 2010) 5 COMPARING THE CONTENT OF THE ONTOLOGY AND THE DISCUSSION

The subject of the discussion on LinkedIn was: “How does one go about changing the safety culture at an organization?” According to the replies, the safety culture has to be developed, not changed. Some com-ments from the discussion were:

“Change it to what? I can assume you mean • improve.” (Management Consulting industry, The USA)

“I think you should go back to the question • posted (earlier), change it to what? For what reason are you trying to change the culture and what benefi ts do you think you will get from it?” (Management Consulting industry, The United Kingdom)

“My point of view albeit brief is that you • cannot change a safety culture...You can only create a safety culture…” (Management Con-sulting industry, Australia)

“…There is a vast difference between climate • and culture. Unfortunately, I see many leaders fi xated on culture and overlook climate (i.e. more fl uid, rapidly impacted, … etc.). To be transparent, I’d prefer leaders to focus on cli-mate... -culture will come over time.” (Profes-sional Training & Coaching industry, The USA)

We have compared our ontology with the comments in the discussion to fi nd new viewpoints and to supple-ment and develop our ontology. The discussion and the ontology share several views, which strengthens the content of the ontology. In this article we highlight the factors that were not addressed by the ontology. In addition, some shared factors and some factors not mentioned in the discussion but referred in the ontol-ogy are examined.

Safety trainingThe theory/discussion of safety training emphasizes

its necessity, adequacy and regularity. These elements are found in the ontology and were discussed online. In addition, the discussion highlighted the type of education needed, measurement of the effectiveness of the training, as well as the presneting the results of the evaluation. The effectiveness of training is measured by the fol-lowing statement in the ontology: How well is personal development and up-to-date safety awareness monitored throughout the employee’s working career. In the ontol-ogy, attention is paid to the handling of safety matters in work orientation. Orientation was not mentioned in the discussion. This may be due to differences in the concept of safety culture in different countries.

Support and encouragementThe section on support and encouragement empha-

sizes employees’ initiative and safe behavior. Several comments deal with rewarding safe behavior. Rewards are expected to be more effective than sanctions in enhancing safe work practices. The matters related to support and encouragement are similar in the ontology and the discussion. Below are some comments from the discussion (Figure 3):

Figure 3. Staff-related comments in the discussion


“Everyone needs to know the • policies and pro-cedures and the consequences of not follow-ing them. Finally I truly believe you shouldn’t use a stick, a carrot is far more effective, let people know they are doing well and reward them for being pro-active, others will surely follow.” (Training industry, Spain)

“Have right balance of rewards and punishment • system.” (Building Materials industry, India)

Management: The management category refl ects commitment

from management, attitudes towards safety, acces-sibility of superiors and the possibility of employees participating and contributing to safety issues. All of these areas are found in the ontology and formed part of the discussion. The discussion emphasized com-mitment from the management. Participants of the discussion gave examples of a committed manage-ment. The management and the staff have to trust each other. This is seen as active and consistent commitment of the management towards safety. Below are some comments from the discussion (Figure 4):

“You are changing people’s attitudes toward • safety. To change the culture, you need to fi rst identify what needs changing…One message should be „nothing we do is worth being injured for“… It all started with a change in attitude and safety expectations of top management…They expected everyone under them to work under the same expectations. As it fi ltered down

to the line personnel, attitudes changed.” (Min-ing & Metals industry, The USA)

“I feel • the most important step is the be-ginning of complete trust. The group has to trust you. Yes, senior management must be involved. Thing is, most of us do not see our self as senior management. Ask the workers how they see you in the role? You have to get on the fl oor, in the plant, out in the warehouse…daily, for months! If they trust you, they honor you, they will follow you. That is how I feel the change starts!” (Oil & Energy industry, The USA) “As a Safety leader I have always been a • “hands on” leader. By that, I mean I am always out on the “plant or warehouse fl oor”, getting to know my employees and supervisors and speaking to them in order to get to know them and listen to their concerns, but most im-portantly to let them know that as the Safety Manager, I am there to help them.” (Consumer Goods industry, The USA)

“• Every meeting should begin with an update on Safety. EVERY meeting. Even if it is an accounting meeting. Why? It is an easy way to show what is most important.” (Professional Training & Coaching industry, Canada)

“I would like to pose a question...how many • CEOs, GMs or MDs, take time off to attend a full day’s safety training program? He should participate just like the others. That is true lead-

Figure 4. Management-related comments of the discussion


ership and that can be starters for improving safety culture.” (Health, Wellness and Fitness industry, Malaysia)

Organization’s openness to new ideas and change, atmosphere:

The organization’s openness to new ideas and changes as well as its general atmosphere affects employees’ possibilities to question the prevailing ways of action. These factors are central in the ontol-ogy, which emphasizes the signifi cance of staff as an implementer of safe working practices. The discussion does not mention the possibility to present differing opinions and question current ways of action. These factors underline the cultural differences between dif-ferent countries.

Safety culture literature emphasizes the concept of change management. This concept supplements both the ontology and the discussion. Control of changes includes identifi cation of unintended changes and the identifi cation of new dangers caused by these changes. Change management can be seen as the anticipation and management of the organization’s vulnerabilities. (Reiman et al. 2008)

Creation of the new knowledge:Our ontology includes features which measure the

creation and learning of new information. Information creation is not mentioned in the discussion. Combin-ing the know-how of the separate occupational groups and informing employees about the advantages of specifi c/certain ways of action is remarked upon in the discussion. Workers should understand why they

act in the certain way. Here are some comments from the discussion (Figure 5):

“You have to be clear that you will • not toler-ate unsafe actions and show people there are better and safer ways to fi nish a job. You have to convince them why it’s important to you, and not because it’s your job to tell them.” (Chemical Industry, Netherlands)

“Many times we fail to• show the benefi ts of safety practices in the work place to the em-ployees.” (Financial Services Industry, India)

“I like to think of a cultural change as taking • small steps such as changing daily habits. The key is to sustain these daily habits and sustain the desired change over time.” (Consumer Goods industry , The USA)

“Culture is much less mysterious and easier to • change than often described. Since a Culture is defi ned as “a set of behaviors that a particular group has come to think of as normal”, the fi rst step is always to clarify new standards of behavior that are acceptable.” (Management Consulting industry, Canada)

“To change workplace safety culture, you need • to study it fi rst what prevents the safety cul-ture from being implemented. You need to analyze all the way of thinking of the emplo-yees especially the ones with long experience as those are the ones that have the great infl u-ence on the young and new employees.” (Oil & Energy industry, Canada)

Figure 5. The ways of action-related comments of the discussion


DISCUSSION

The use of social media, in this case the LinkedIn discussion group, aims at fi nding practical views about safety culture. The people involved in the discussion are safety professionals from all over the world and from different industries, who have practical experi-ence in safety development. This allows the learning and sharing of best practices effectively. The discus-sion highlights collective problem-solving and the in-ternational perspective. A solution to a shared problem is sought collectively by sharing personal experiences and learning from others’ experiences and views on the matter.

Our goal was to use social media to fi nd new points of view on safety culture for our theoretical ontology model. This was done by comparing our ontology with the comments in the discussion. The comments emphasized the practical aspect of safety culture. The new viewpoints found in the discussion allowed us to improve our model (Table 1). Also, the similarities between our model and the discussion strengthen our model.

Possible problems concerning the use of social media in this way are the special characteristics of different fi elds of industry and the wide-ranging nature of occupational safety. It should also be noted that the participants’ own problems in the workplace may show through their comments.

Acknowledgements: Pro-Turva project, The Finn-ish Work Environment Fund

From the discussion to our ontology Not mentioned in the discussion

What kind of education is needed Handling safety matters in work orientation

Measurement of the effectiveness of training and presenting the results of the evaluation

The possibility to present differing opinions

Combining the know-how of separate occupational groups Questioning the current ways of action

Informing employees about the advantages of specifi c/certain ways of action

Change management

Table 1. Comparison table

REFERENCES

[1] Cooper, M.D. 1998. Improving safety culture -A practical guide. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 302p.

[2] Cooper, M. D. 2000. Toward a model of Safety Culture. Safety Science, 36, 111-136.

[3] Cox, S. & Cheyne, J. 2000. Assessing safety culture in offshore environments. Safety Sci-ence, 34, 111-129.

[4] Cox, S. & Cox, T. 1991. Structure of employee attitudes to safety. A European example. Work and stress, Vol. 5 No. 2, 93-106.

[5] Dedobbeleer, N., & Béland, F. 1991. A safety climate measure for construction sites. Journal of Safety Research., 22, 97-103.

[6] Fernández-Muñiz, B., Montes-Peón, J.M., Vázquez-Ordás, C.J., 2007. Safety Culture: analysis of the causal relationships between its key dimensions. Journal of Safety Re-search 38, 627–641.

[7] Gadd, S. 2002. Safety culture: A review of the literature HSL/2002/25. HSL, Health and Safety Laboratory.

[8] Glendon, A. I. & Stanton, N. A. 2000. Perspec-tives on Safety Culture. Safety Science, 34, 193-214.

[9] Guldenmund, F. W. 2000. The nature of safety culture: a review of theory and research. Safety Science 34, 215-257.

[10] Harvey, J., Bolam, H. Gregory, D., & Erdos, G. 2001. The effectiveness of training to change safety culture and attitudes within a highly reg-


ulated environment. Personnel Review, Vol. 30 No. 6, 615-636.

[11] Hofmann, D.A., & Stetzer, A., 1996. A cross-level investigation of factors influencing unsafe behaviours and accidents Personnel. Psychol-ogy 49, 307–339.

[12] Hopkins, A. 2006. Studying organizational cul-tures and their effects on safety. International Conference on Occupational Risk Prevention, Seville, May 2006.

[13] INSAG, The Intenational Nuclear Safety Advi-sory Group. 1988. Basic Safety Principles for Nuclear Power Plants. Report.. International Atomic Energy Agency, Wien.

[14] IOSH. 2004. Promoting a Positive Culture. In-stitution of Occupational Safety and Health. Guidance.

[15] Mearns, K., Whitaker, S. M., & Flin, R. 2003. Safety climate, safety management practice and safety performance in offshore environments. Safety Science, 41, 641-680.

[16] Ostrom, C. Wilhelmsen, O. C. & Kaplan, B. 1993. Assessing safety culture. Nuclear Safety, 65, 163-172.

[17] Porkka, P. L., Salo-Pihlajamäki, M., Vanharan-ta, H., Proactive Vision for the Safety Culture in a Finnish Chemical Plant. In Waldemar Kar-wowski, Gavriel Salvendy, editors, Advances in Human Factors, Ergonomics, and Safety in Manufacturing and Service Industries, Boca Ra-ton, Florida, 2010. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.

[18] Pidgeon, N. F. 1991. Safety culture and risk management in organizations. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 22(1), 129-140.

[19] Reason, J. 1997. Managing the risks of organi-zational accidents. Ashgate Publishing Limited. Aldershot, England.

[20] Reiman, T., Pietikäinen, P. & Oedewald, P. 2008. Turvallisuuskulttuuri –Teoria ja arviointi. Helsinki, VTT. 110p.

[21] Turner, B. A. 1991. The Development of Safety Culture. Chemistry and Industry, 4, 241-243.

[22] Williamson, A. M., Feyer, A.-M., Cairns, D. & Biancotti, D. 1997. The development of a mea-sure of safety climate: the roles of safety percep-tions and attitudes. Safety Science 25, 15-27.

ELINA MÄKINENPASI L. PORKKA HANNU VANHARANTA Industrial Management and EngineeringTampere University of Technology at Pori Pohjoisranta 11 PL 300, 28101 Pori Finland

SARI TAPPURA Safety Management and Engineering Tampere University of TechnologyKorkeakoulunkatu 10 33720 Tampere Finland

ANTTI PIIRTOTVO Oy, Olkiluoto 27160 Eurajoki Finland


Can future be forecasted? The answer is not a strong affi rmative. If there is something known or defi ned as ‘the future’ then it can be attempted. The word future is a relational term (Bell, 1973) it can be discussed as the future of something. Is it possible to forecast results? The answer is more not affi rmative. Forecasts can specify the constraints or limits within which decisions can be effective. Forecasting has different modes. Social forecasting differs from other modes in its scope and techniques. The most important distinction is study of sociological variables that are independent or exogenous and least precise, which affect the behaviour of other variables in the areas of economic, technological, demographic, or ecological forecasts. In this article the fundamentals of social forecasting is documented with application to informa-tion technology industry to answer the question of how innovations are likely to take shape in that industry.

Social Forecasting –Tool for Corporate Planning and Application to Information Technology Industry

in India

K. PRABHAKARProfessor, Velammal Engineering College Chennai

India

Abstract: Corporate planning largely relied on technological and economic forecasting. Any forecasting technique should have two characteristics; explain past or predict future. Some of the tools are good explainers of past and some are good predictors. However, failure to predict emergence of new business models, economic down turns are common to any tool. Social forecasting takes into account different variables that are ignored for lack of precision. Its genesis and methodological premises such as model procedure, validation process, and past studies are explored. Social forecasting is applied for information technology industry with help Generational Learning Model to answer questions relating to growth of software industry in India. Explain some of the issues such as the reason for large scale recruitment in this industry during the year 2010-2011, while world over there is a recession; The most important question will this recruitment continue? Social forecasting offers promise in explaining some of the phenomena.

Key words: Social forecasting, Economic forecasting, Technological forecasting, K-waves, structural cycles, Generational Learning Model, predictive capability, explanative capability.

Bertrand de Jouvenel, the French philosopher-econo-mist defi ned social forecasting as the prediction of big, slow changes in society. This defi nition indicates that the entity in question is nothing less than whole society. Social forecasting is thus concerned with the sweeping and ineluctable features of socio-cultural change. It describes the larger context within which volition may be exerted and alternatives effected, if desired. For de Jouvenel, there is no single tomorrow—the future consists of fan like array of possibilities, alternative futures that man can shape. The term is not a recent addition to business vocabulary.

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

Present study is undertaken to,

To provide a working defi nition of social fore-1. casting for corporate planning.

/ 41K. PRABHAKAR

Apply social forecasting to information tech-2. nology industry of India with the help of K-waves and Generational Learning Model.

Explain some of the issues such as the reason 3. for large scale recruitment in this industry dur-ing the year 2010-2011, while world over there is a recession; The most important question is will this growth continue?

INTRODUCTION

The use of social forecasting stems from recogni-tion that social pressures are becoming an increasing determinant for the success of any organization (James, 1978). Various indicators point that the society will be experiencing a total change in next few years (Morris, 1975). Some of these changes have to be anticipated and incorporated in any long-range plans. The changes that are happening in the environment are fundamental. They are not evolutionary. The greatest challenge is the discontinuities that are happening in the environ-ment (Jain and Singhvi, 1977). Examination of history indicates that there are a series of signifi cant shifts in the conditions of human society - the renaissance, the agricultural revolution and the industrial Revolution. Human society is entering a period of rapid change that is more dramatic in its consequences compared to earlier revolutions. Globalization, network economy, and democratization of polity lead modern societies to transform themselves at more and more accelerated cadences. The inevitability of internet and convergence of technologies is not only due to revolution in mi-croelectronics, but also due to exhaustion of material resources essential for maintaining industrial economy. Similarly, what kind of explanation is provided for investment in social networking websites such as OR-KUT, TWITTER, and FACEBOOK? Does Informa-tion Technology promote it because of individualism

that has become stronger and at the same time the primitive need to live with tribe? Purpose of social forecasting is to provide an analytical framework for helping the corporate decision-maker to make his or her own judgment based on analysis. Social forecasting provides better understanding of the forces shaping the environment and provides confi dence to manager that his decisions refl ect assessment of these issues.

Social forecasting includes all those other factors that are not considered by economic or technological forecasting. Primarily it involves individual as custom-er, supplier, manager, or employee. It concerns people in-groups both inside as well as outside organizations. It further unfolds to government, society in general and to transnational organizations such as World Trade Organization. Therefore, Social Forecasting is a term, which includes political, legal, and ecological factors in addition to social.

Social Forecasting in the Context of Corporate Planning

Social forecasting is to enlarge the scope of traditional business forecasting to include relevant domain of social-psychological-economic-political-ecological-technological environment. Through social forecasting, the inclusion of socio-political-ecological dimensions in strategic planning and policy formula-tion brings social issues into the mainstream of an or-ganization’s operations. By providing an open-system perspective of the organization, social forecasting helps relate social responsiveness to organizational effi ciency by providing a longer time horizon of social issues relevant to the organization. Social forecasting thus, encourages the organization to perceive itself in mutual interaction with its external environment, enables management’s application of appropriate pe-riod for the effective planning, analyzing, and imple-

Figure 1.1 Representation of Social forecasting defi nition


menting of its social involvement in a complex and dynamic environment. Social forecasting is defi ned as “a systematic process for identifying social trends and their underlying attitudes, analyzing these social changes for their relevance to the organization, and integrating these fi ndings with other forecasts”.

Social Forecasting relationship with economic forecasting and technological forecasting

Economic forecasting is essentially concerned with modeling how people behave using utility criteria as a means for maximizing welfare. It is dependent on certain assumptions of people behaviour. If the behaviour changes the forecast is likely to change. Therefore, one role of social forecast is to fi nd the underlying relationships used by economic forecasters and to modify them as necessary.

In the case of technological forecasts, it has been assumed that past data can be extrapolated into future. However, observations indicate that past relationships are unable to predict future. In the case of pharmaceuti-cal organizations, the new molecule development is more dependent on the R & D expenditure allocated. The advances cannot be attributable to serendipity. In fact, they result from managerial investment decisions (James, 1978). In case of pharmaceutical industry, these resources have been raising due to society’s growing concern for health. The liberalization of health insurance in India combined with accepting patent regime, has totally changed the role of Indian pharma-ceutical organizations. The example of pharmaceutical industry in India illustrates the complexity consisting of technological, economic potential, economic sup-port based on legislation, governmental action, and globalization of business.

Economists and technologists developed the 1. forecasting techniques. It is dissatisfaction with the methods and tools have led to development of social forecasting.

Active involvement of sociologists and busi-2. ness organizations are needed to further the objectives of social forecasting.

The disadvantage of social forecasting is for 3. phenomenon of interest, these are no clearly defi ned measures compared to technological and economic forecasting. Though objectivity is desired, subjectively is inevitable.

The forecasts cannot be ‘ends’, they are only 4. ‘means’ through which better view can be obtained about future.

Technological Forecasting with Focus on Social Variables

With the basic understanding of social forecasting, its theory is applied to information technology industry. The phenomenon of long waves theory is examined to understand the trend. The purpose is to fi nd; will there be more innovations in the next fi ve years? Alternatively, have a plateau is reached with respect to advances in innovations in computers? How the growth is likely to come; is it from new research in different areas or from the consolidation of existing business? An attempt is made to fi nd answers. Economists analyze the business cycles that happened during different times for the past three centuries. However, Kondratieff curves, known as long wave phenomenon, gives one of the most important theories. The Kondratieff phenomenon will be discussed with respect to technological forecasting rather than with economic forecasting as the evidence proved that it deals with more physical phenomenon than economic phenom-enon (Marchetti, 1988). In the introduction, the basic dimensions of K-wave theory are examined followed by discussion on its validation. Finally, K-wave theory is used to discern the likely changes in technological en-vironment. For the purpose of study extensive references is obtained from Devezas, Linstone & Santos (2005).

Kondratieff Curves – Social Phenomena

Russian economist Nikolai Kondartieff was the fi rst to bring observations about long waves also called super cycles, surges, long waves or K-waves-are described as regular cycles in a capitalist world economy. These cycles consist of alternating periods between high growth and periods of negative growth. The cycle is more relevant to world economy rather than individual national economies. It affects all the sectors of an economy, and concerns mainly output rather than prices (although Kondratieff had made observations focusing more on prices, infl ation, and interest rates). According to Kondratieff, the ascendant phase is characterized by an increase in prices and low interest rates, while the other phase consists of a decrease in prices and high interest rates.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kondratiev_wave)

/ 43K. PRABHAKAR

The curves are described to be economic waves. However, the explanation offered by Kondratieff, includes social shifts and public mood. Similarly, it also changes the attitude towards work. However, researcher presumes the 5th wave started by 1970.

Kondratieff pointed out the fi rst two cycles and the discussion of social phenomena as follows;

1790 – 1849 with a turning point in 1815. 1.

1850 – 1896 with a turning point in 1873. 2.

Kondratieff supposed that in 1896, a new cycle had started. The phases of Kondratieff’s waves also carry with them social shifts and changes in the public mood. The fi rst stage of expansion and growth, the spring stage, encompasses a social shift in which the wealth, accumulation, and innovation that are pres-ent in this fi rst period of the cycle create upheavals and displacements in society. The economic changes result in redefi ning work and the role of participants in society. In the next phase, the summer stagfl ation, there is a mood of affl uence from the previous growth stage that changes the attitude towards work in society, creating ineffi ciencies. The next stage is season of defl ationary growth, or the plateau period. The popular mood changes during this period. It shifts toward sta-bility, normalcy, and isolationism after the policies and economics during unpopular excesses of war. Finally, the winter stage, which of severe depression, includes the integration of previous social shifts, and changes into the social fabric of society, supported by the shifts in innovation and technology. There are four schools of thought and one of the most important schools of thought is innovation school propounded by Joseph Schumpeter. He suggested that these waves arise from the bunching of basic innovations that launch techno-logical revolutions that in turn create leading industrial or commercial sectors. The theory hypothesized the existence of very long-run macroeconomic and price cycles, estimated to last 50–54 years.

Validity of K-wave phenomenon

Economists and economic historians have divided opinion regarding long wave phenomenon. Two ar-eas are for continued debate. First, on the facts, are long waves a real phenomenon? If it is true, what is the nature of long wave movement? The reason for economists not accepting long wave phenomenon is that econometric research from 1980’s onwards does not give total support to the long wave phenomenon (Metz, 2005).

Regarding empirical evidence Marchetti (http://ce-saremarchetti.org) in several publications have proved

that the real evidence of long waves is not in time series data of economic parameters, but in the observation of physical entities associated economic domain, such as innovations, energy consumption, infrastructure etc. Berry (1991, 2000) using chaos theory and spectral analysis has found sound and robust evidence of the existence of K-waves. Moreover, Berry has observed that K-waves are not growth cycles, but instead struc-tural cycles. That explained the regularity for every 55 years found by Marchetti (1988) in his extensive analysis of physical parameters. This explanation will answer the fi rst question that it is a real phenomenon. The second question is the essence of discussion on long waves: their nature in relation to structural cycles and clusters of innovations. Metz (2005) found evidence of clusters of innovation activity. He used database of (15,000 innovations from the period of 1750 to 1991 collected by researchers of the Institute of Employment Research in Nuremberg) and found evidence for clusters having a peak at 1840, 1890, 1935, and 1986. His research shows that innovation activity followed by an upswing in growth of economic activity with a lag of about 18 years. These studies provide support for Generational-Learning Model that will help understanding the phenomenon better.

Among theories that explained K-waves, the plau-sible evidence is from cluster of radical innovations that peak during the ‘downswing’, phases of each K-wave. This cluster of innovations originates a com-pletely new technological new environment, which is called Technosphere according to Devezas and Corredine (2001). The 50-60 year K-waves are usu-ally measured from trough to trough, for the purpose of study, the cycles are calculated from peak to peak. Thus, Technosphere commences with a downswing of the K-wave, the period of knowledge innovation or Schumpter’s “creative destruction,” and proceeds through the trough to the knowledge consolidation in the K-wave upswing culminating at its peak.

Each such period from peak to peak has associated with it, an overarching technology that has a dominant impact. The mechanization of textile industry galvanized the fi rst K-wave upswing before 1800. Steam powered transportation was the dominant technology of the period encompassing the subsequent fi rst wave down swing and second K-wave upswing (about 1800-1856).

Steel and electricity are important in the second

downswing and third upswing (1856-1915), while oil was important technology in the era of the third down-swing and fourth upswing (1916-1969). The overreach-ing technology is now, in the cycle of fourth down swing and fi fth upswing (1970-2025). The cyclical patterns are given in the following table for reference.


It has been widely observed that the K-wave rhythm is observed not only in economic sphere, where Kon-dratieff focused his attention, but also in global reliance on energy, in disruptive innovations in communication, transportation modes, infrastructure, manufacturing, business organization. However, these domains are related. Marchetti (1988) stated, “With increasing mechanical transport and speed, the personal territory increases, and so rises the opportunity to set up com-munication poles farther and farther away. Movement

Figure1.3 The Generational Learning Model of Long Waves. The overall growth curve of a new technoeconomic system (technosphere) encompasses two successive logistic structural cycles: an innovation structural cycle with characteristic duration tGI triggered during the “disintensity down slope” of the previous technosphere, and a consolidating structural cycle, with characteristic duration tG, which marks the defi ni-tive entrenching of the new technosphere and the vigorous “intensity upslope” of the long wave.

SOURCE: Adopted from Devezas T.C, Linstone H.A, and Santos H.J.S. (2005). The Growth Dynamics of the Internet and Long Wave Theory, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72, p. 916.

generates communication (not vice-versa).” The nature of this pattern made him to think that

it is not an economic phenomenon, but an expression of deeper physical one relating to the basic working of the society: especially society as a learning system (Marchetti, 1980,1988). The prime mover of any evo-lutionary process is the information transfer, which can be named as learning process. The rate of information transfer is initially low, then overcoming the inertia of system, grows, reaches a maximum rate of growth,

/ 45

slows down, and reaches a ceiling, following then a typical logistic growth pattern. In the evolutionary process, a system self-organizes and learns confi guring and reconfi guring itself towards greater and greater effi ciency and with successive iteration improving performance. Each stage corresponds to a given structure that corresponds previous self-organization, learning and current limitations. Thus, it may be said that, “self-organization and learning are embodied in the system’s structure, and the learning rate is an overall system property.”

Social Forecasting for an Information Technology Firm

The fi fth upswing is supposed to start from circa 1970 and likely to end by 2030 culminating 60years of cycle as indicated by the arrow. There is swarm of innovations approximately from 1983 to1995 and this period is characterized by advent of internet. Period starting from 1995-2005 exhibited diffusion phase with synergism and disintensity of conver-gence of different technologies. Thus, the information technology industry attained its peak in innovations from 2005-2010. This also corresponds to touching of the lowest point of economic growth as indicated by arrow. This study remarkably corresponds to the recession (2005-2009) that is not expected by many but could be inferred from the generational learning model. Thus, from 2010 onwards growth will hap-pen not due to new technological innovations and due to further consolidation of the present technologies.

Domain of Innovation1st to 2nd wave1800-1855

2nd to 3rd wave1856-1915

3rdto4th wave1916-1969

4th to 5th wave1970-2025

Overarching technology Steam power Steel/electricity Oil Information Technology

Transportation Rail roads Automobiles Air craft Space craft

Communication Periodicals Telegraph, Telephone Radio, TV Internet, WWW

Primary Global Energy Wood Coal Oil Natural Gas, Nuclear

Manufacturing Process Factory Scientifi c Management assembly line

Mass production, in-house R&D Minimal inventory, CAD

Corporate organization Hierarchy Division Matrix Network,Virtual company

Table 1.1 Cyclical Patterns of Innovation

SOURCE: Adopted from Devezas T.C, Linstone H.A, and Santos H.J.S. (2005). The Growth Dynamics of the Internet and Long Wave Theory, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72, page 917.

It indicates that economies will have a recovery at a slower phase in the next fi fteen years. What are the implications for a information technology fi rm from this analysis? The manpower requirements are not for high end research, but to implement the innovations that have already taken place. Thus the fi rms will be requiring mostly human resources will skills to imple-ment the innovations and researcher’s hypothesis is post recession requirements will be in large numbers. These predictions of Generational Learning Model are being validated by upswing of hiring pattern of information technology industry in India from 2010 to 2011. Since there is no need for extraordinary skills that are required the need for a moderately competent person is suffi cient. With the portability of jobs from US to countries such as India and China, where a comparable engineer can be hired with 7000$ to that of 47000$ that need to paid in US.

CONCLUSION

Social forecasting encompasses variables that are generally ignored by economic and technologi-cal forecasting. With availability of data and robust methodology, social forecasting offers promise of pre-dicting trends better than economic and technological forecasting. Present study with respect to Generational Learning Model offered better explanation of past and could predict phenomena relating to present advent of hiring of information technology industry. However, the results are not to be viewed as a starting point for more rigorous research.

K. PRABHAKAR


REFERENCES

[1] Bell, D. (1973). ‘The coming of Post- Industrial Society’, New York, Basic Books pp 507.

[2] James, B.G. (1978). Social Impact: The Phar-maceutical Industry, Long Range Planning, 11.

[3] Morris, G.K. (1975). Forecasting the Impact of Social Change, Long Range Planning.

[4] Jain, C.S., & Singhvi, S.S. (1977). Environmen-tal Forecasting Non-Profi t Professional Organi-zations, Long Range Planning, 10.

[5] Devezas T.C, Linstone H.A, and Santos H.J.S. (2005). The Growth Dynamics of the Internet and Long Wave Theory, Technological Fore-casting and Social Change, 72, 913-915.

[6] Metz, R. (2005). Empirical Evidence and Cau-sation of Kondratieff Cycles, Presented at the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Kon-dratieff Waves, Warfare and World Security, February, 14-18 , 2005, Covilhã, Portugal, to be published in the proceedings.

[7] Berry, B.J.L. (1991). Long Wave Rhythms in Economic Development and Political Behav-

Figure 1.4 Generational Learning Model Interpretations

/ 47

iour, Johns Hopkins University Press, Balti-more.

[8] Berry, B.J.L. (2000) A pacemaker for the long wave, Technology Forecasting and Social Change, 63, 1-23.

[9] Marchetti, C. (1980). Society as a learning sys-tem: discovery, invention, and innovation cycles revisited, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 18, 267-282.

[10] Marchetti, C. (1988) Infrastructure for move-ment: past and future, chapter 7, In J.H.Ausubel,

R.Herman (Eds), Cities and the Vital Systems: Infrastructure Past, Present and Future, National Academy of Engineering.

DR. K. PRABHAKARProfessorVelammal Engineering CollegeChennaiINDIA [email protected]

K. PRABHAKAR


1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of organizational commitment has been studied extensively and defi ned in various ways during the past decades, and it is still one of the most challenging and studied concepts in organizational research. Today’s dynamic business environment further emphasizes its importance for organizations. Committed employees have been found to contribute to organizational effectiveness if they identify with the organization’s goals and values and are willing to engage in activities that go beyond their immediate role requirements.

This paper proposes an ontology model for the development of organizational commitment. The ontology model will be used as a basis for creating a computer application using the generic Evolute sys-

Basics of Ontology-Based Organizational Commitment Evaluation

JARNO EINOLANDERHANNU VANHARANTA

Industrial Management and Engineering Tampere University of Technology

Pori, Finland

Abstract The concept of organizational commitment has been studied extensively during the past decades and it is still one of the most challenging and studied concepts in organizational research. This paper represents the basics of an ontology model for the development of organizational commitment. The proposed model is divided into three main sections that cover the process from the time before joining the organization to actual commitment and to its presumed outcomes. Our objective is to create an instrument for management and leadership purposes that could be used to assess the degree of collective commitment and its types in a given organizational context. With this information, management can better lead the change and direct its human resource management practices in a direction benefi cial to the organization. Highly committed employees have been seen to have a strong desire to belong to their organization and work towards its goals.

Keywords: organizational commitment; ontology; collective; degree of commitment; evaluation

tem (Kantola 2009) on the Internet. This process type ontology model builds upon the strengths of current approaches on commitment. The theoretical frame-work for the ontology is based on literature relating to organizational commitment, its antecedents, pro-pensities, and several processes believed to affect its development. Our objective is to create an instrument for management and leadership purposes that could be used to assess the degree of collective commitment and its types in a given organizational context. With this information, management can better lead the change and direct its human resource management practices in a direction benefi cial to the organization.

2 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

The concept of organizational commitment (OC) has been at the centre of studies into individual and or-

/ 49

ganizational performance for several decades. During this time is has been defi ned in various ways (see e.g. Meyer and Allen, 1997, p. 12) and studied extensively. However, much has happened during this time to the ways in which organizations behave, including the evolution of new forms of employee relations and new psychological contract (Swailes, 2002). Now for more than 20 years the leading approach to organizational commitment research has been Meyer and Allen’s (1984; 1997) three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment which was affected by strengths and weaknesses of earlier conceptualiza-tions. They describe them as distinguishable com-ponents, rather than types of attitudinal commitment and denominate them as affective, continuance, and normative commitment. According to this model, the affective component refers to employees’ emotional attachment to, identifi cation with, and involvement in the organization, while the continuance component refers to the commitment accumulated based on sacri-fi ces and investments made by employee which would be lost if the activity were discontinued (e.g. pension, seniority). Lastly, the normative component refers to employees’ feeling of obligation to remain with the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1997). Each type of commitment ties the individual to the organization in different ways and will differently affect his/her be-havior in the workplace. They argued that employees can experience each of these psychological states to varying degrees. This model has been subjected to the greatest empirical scrutiny and has arguably received greatest support (e.g. Meyer and Allen, 1997).

However, some studies have found high correla-tions between affective and normative commitment which has placed the contribution of the concept of normative commitment under strict scrutiny (Cohen, 2007). Consequently, Cohen (2007) argued that norma-tive commitment should be rather viewed as pre-entry commitment propensity than actual commitment that develops after one’s entry into organization. He argued that as the normative commitment is probably mostly shaped by early socialization and cultural factors and measuring normative commitment after entry into the organization provides little information about commit-ment of current employees (Cohen, 2007). In addition, Cohen tried to avoid potential overlap between con-tinuance commitment and outcomes such as turnover intentions and some problems with its construct and predictive validity by shifting the focus from the costs of leaving the organization to the instrumental ex-change focusing on the perceptions about the benefi ts of staying i.e. instrumental commitment.

2.1. Antecedents of Organizational Commitment

There have been several comprehensive studies regarding the antecedents of organizational commit-ment (see e.g. Allen and Meyer, 1990; Meyer and Al-len, 1997; Mowday et al., 1982; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). These are the factors believed to contribute to the development of organizational commitment. Ante-cedents of affective commitment have arguably gained the most attention. This might be because affective commitment is the most desirable form of commitment and it also has been studied most extensively.

In addition to the organizational antecedent factors employees have been infl uenced by many cultural in-stitutions before joining the organization, for example, family, community, nation, state, church, education systems, and other work organizations (Hatch 1997). These pre-employment associations shape their at-titudes, behavior, and identity which affect their pro-pensity i.e. an inclination to become committed while working in the organization.

Affective Commitment

Antecedents of affective commitment have gener-ally been categorized in three main groups: organiza-tional characteristics, person characteristics, and work experiences (Meyer and Allen, 1997). Further, person characteristics have usually been categorized into two types of variables, i.e. to demographic variables (e.g., gender, age, tenure) and dispositional variables (e.g., personality, values).

Mathieu and Zajac’s (1990) meta-analysis identi-fi ed that among personal characteristics, age and tenure tend to have a low positive association with commit-ment although it may be non-linear. Cohen found that correlations were stronger for younger employees and for those with high tenure. This may be because employees could need to attain a certain amount of experience in order to become strongly attached to the organization, or perhaps only the employees who will develop affective attachment will remain in the organization in the long run (Meyer and Allen, 1997). Education level was found to have a non-signifi cant or low negative association. Gender did not appear to have influence on organizational commitment. Meyer and Allen (1990) found that perceived personal competence correlates strongly with commitment (Swailes, 2002).

However, Meyer and Allen (1997) conclude that the relations between affective commitment and demographic variables have not found to be strong

JARNO EINOLANDER, HANNU VANHARANTA


or consistent. Consequently, like many other studies Meyer and Allen (1997) argue that it is more likely that personal characteristics involve the development of affective commitment through particular work experiences. A great amount of research concern-ing the importance of work experiences highlights the organization’s supportiveness to its employees, fair treatment and enhancing of employees’ senses of personal importance and competence (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

Organizational policies and fairness behind orga-nizational acts has been found to correlate positively with affective commitment. Also, the way which the new policies are communicated to employees’ tends to have an effect on affective commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1997). In addition, many studies have reported strong correlations between job scope characteristics and affective commitment. Specifically, affective commitment has been positively correlated with job challenge, degree of autonomy, and variety of skills the employee uses (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

Continuance Commitment

Conceptually, the development of continuance commitment is fairly straightforward. Continuance commitment can develop as a result of any action or event that increases the costs of leaving the organiza-tion, provided the employees recognizes that these costs have been incurred. In Meyer and Allen’s (1991) three-component model these actions and events were categorized as two sets of antecedent variables: invest-ments and alternatives (Meyer & Allen 1997).

Employees can make investments in organizations in many ways, for example, by incurring the expense and human cost of relocating a family from another city or by spending time acquiring organization-specif-ic skills. Leaving the organization could mean that an employee would lose or have wasted the time, money, or effort that was invested (Meyer & Allen 1997).

The other hypothesized antecedent of continuance commitment is the employee’s perception of em-ployment alternatives. Employees who have several possible alternatives will have lower continuance commitment than those who think their alternatives are few (Meyer & Allen 1997).With respect to process considerations, it is important to point out that neither investments nor alternatives will have an impact on continu-ance commitment unless or until the employee is aware of them and their implications (Meyer & Allen 1997).

Normative Commitment

Normative commitment to organization develops on the basis of a collection of pressures that individuals feel during their early socialization (from family and culture) and during their socialization as newcomers to the organization. Socialization experiences are ex-tremely rich and varied and carry with them all sorts of messages about the appropriateness of particular attitudes and behaviors (Meyer & Allen 1997).

It has been also suggested that normative com-mitment develops on the basis of a particular kind of investment that the organization makes in the em-ployee –specifi cally, investment that seem diffi cult for employees to reciprocate. These might include such things as organization-sponsored tuition payments or a “nepotism” hiring policies. Given norms of reciproc-ity it is argued that employees might fi nd this sort of imbalance or indebtedness uncomfortable and, to rectify this imbalance, will feel a sense of obligation (normative commitment) to the organization. It is possible that cultural differences exists in the extent to which people have internalized the reciprocity norms and, therefore, in the extent to which organizational investments will lead to the feelings of indebtedness (Meyer & Allen 1997).

Normative commitment might also develop on the basis of the “psychological contract” between an employee and the organization (Meyer & Allen 1997). Psychological contracts refer to the perceived ex-change agreement between the two parties, i.e. things offered by the organization, or by the employees, that are conditional on something the other party does in return (Conway & Briner, 2005). In other words, psy-chological contracts consist of the beliefs of the parties involved in an exchange relationship regarding their reciprocal obligations (Meyer & Allen 1997).

This chapter summarized some of the themes found in literature concerning antecedents of commitment. Next, we discuss the processes believed to infl uence the development of organizational commitment.

2.2. Commitment Processes

In addition to commitment related antecedent vari-ables, researchers have identifi ed several intervening, complimentary processes that are believed to have an effect on the development of commitment. Each of these processes are related to different components (i.e. affective, normative, continuance) of commitment. Fig. 1 shows, nine groups of variables that may be affecting the development of organizational commit-ment i.e. the commitment processes. In the following sections, these processes are discussed briefl y.

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Fig. 1. Variables of Commitment Ontology

2.2.1 Affective Commitment Processes

Role of Causal Attribution

Attribution addresses the perceived cause of oth-ers’ behaviors (e.g., compliance with law, out of habit, genuine concern for employees). It is believed that the impact of HRM practices on commitment is moderated by employees’ perceptions of the motives behind these practices (eg. Koys, 1988, 1991).

Retrospective rationalization

Affective commitment to an entity will develop on the basis of behavioural commitment via retrospective rationality or justifi cation processes. Retrospective ra-tionality occurs very quickly and without the person’s awareness (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Salancik (1977) indentifi ed four determinants that measure human acts which included explicitness, or deniability of act, revocability of the act, volition, or the motivation behind the act, and publicity, or linkage of the act in a social context. Extending this rationalization to orga-nizational context Meyer and Allen (1997) suggests that the employees will be more likely to remain with the organization if they joined the organization of their own volition, they made their choice public, and the decision could not be reversed easily. After being “bound” to the organization employees will attempt to justify their actions, retrospectively, by developing emotional attachment to the organization.

Met expectations

Employees have different expectation about the job when they enter the organization. These expectations moderate the extent to which an actual experience within the organization will be related to affective commitment. Employees develop positive attitudes towards the organization when the experiences within the organization meet their expectations. Negative attitudes develop, however, if those expectations are disconfi rmed. Studies have shown that the discrepancy

Organizational Commitment

Affective Commitment

Attribution

Antecedent variables (e.g. personal

characteristics, role states, work experiences, idiosyncratic

variables, socialization experiences)

Rationalization

Met expectations Person-Environment

Fit Need Satisfaction

Normative Commitment

Expectations

Obligations

Continuance Commitment

Alternatives

Investments

(or lack thereof) between expectations and experiences is what infl uences affective commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

Person Environment Fit

The concept of P-E fi t has been conceptualized as an overarching construct that subsumes several other conceptually distinct types of fi t e.g. Person-Job (P-J) Fit and Person-Organization (P-O) Fit (Sekiguchi, 2004). PJ-Fit can be defi ned as the compatibility be-tween abilities of individuals and demands of specifi c jobs or the desires of a person and the attributes of a job (Kristof, 1996). Most researchers broadly defi ne P-O fi t as the compatibility between individuals and organizations, emphasizing the extent to which a per-son and the organization share similar characteristics and/or meet each other’s needs (Kristof, 1996).

Needs satisfaction

The fulfi llment of personal needs i.e. the needs satisfaction process has long been assumed to be re-lated to affective commitment but it has not or cannot be studied empirically (Meyer and Allen, 1997). It is believed that employees will develop affective com-mitment to an organization to the extent that it satis-fi es their needs, meets their expectations, and allows them to achieve their goals. In other words, affective commitment develops on the basis of psychologically rewarding experiences (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

2.2.2. Normative Commitment Processes

Some studies have shown overlapping between af-fective and normative commitment conceptualizations that has caused researchers to question the contribution of normative commitment to the conceptualization of commitment (Cohen, 2007).

Expectations

Meyer and Allen (1997) concludes that normative commitment develops on the basis of pressures felt by individuals in their early socialization (from family and culture) and during their socialization in the organiza-tion. Through these socialization processes including conditioning (rewards and punishments) and model-ing (observation and imitation of others), individuals learn what is expected of them e.g. appropriateness of particular attitudes and behaviors. The presumed process here is the process of internalization of the appropriateness of being loyal to one’s organization.



Dunham et al’s (1994) study supports the conclusion that the expectations could infl uence the development of normative commitment.

Obligations

Rousseau (1990) linked the obligation-related antecedents and processes of the normative commit-ment to the psychological contract. Rousseau (1990) argued that psychological contract is implicit rather than explicit agreements between organization and its employees. They can also change over time as one or both parties perceive obligations to have been fulfi lled or violated and can take different forms (i.e. trans-actional and relational). Relational contracts (social exchange) seem to be more relevant to normative com-mitment, whereas, transactional (economic exchange) might infl uence on the development of continuance commitment (Conway and Briner, 2005).

Meyer and Allen (1997) argue that normative com-mitment may also develop based on investments (e.g. paid tuition) that organization makes in its employees that are hard to reciprocate. Employees might feel the imbalance or indebtedness uncomfortable and, to rectify this, will feel a sense of obligation to the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

2.2.3. Continuance Commitment Processes

Continuance commitment is believed to develop as a function of the employment alternatives and ac-cumulations of investments. These potential costs can develop with full recognition by the employee (e.g. special skills training) or they can accumulate over time without employees awareness (e.g. employees skills become useless elsewhere). However, unless they are recognized they have no impact on continu-ance commitment.

Employment Alternatives

Evidence (Allen and Meyer, 1990) suggests that the perceptions of the availability of alternatives are related to employees’ need to remain with the organization. Em-ployees who have several possible alternatives will have lower continuance commitment than those who think their alternatives are few (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

Investments

The investment process draws on Becker’s (1960) side-bet theory. Becker argued that commitment can result from accumulation of side bets person makes. Applied to organizational commitment, side bets in-

volve the investments (e.g., time, effort, money) that an employee would lose if he or she left the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

To conclude this chapter, it must be noted that al-though the processes believed to be involved in the de-velopment of different components have been described separately, they occur, to a large extent alongside. Also, some of the processes identifi ed here have encountered criticism concerning that they provide little support in explaining the process of commitment formation. However, they have all been presented here because of mixed results in the different studies. Further, the above mentioned antecedents and processes have some similarities and are interlinked together closely to foster the development of commitment. Lastly, the theoretical discussion of this paper focused on the commitment towards the organization, it is clear that people develop commitment to various work-related domains such as workgroups, unions or teams.

3 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND COMMITMENT

Organizational policies and human resource man-agement (HRM) practices can have a signifi cant effect on employee commitment. HRM practices promote, reinforce, and infl uence commitment through selec-tion, placement, development, rewards, and retention (Wimalasiri, 1995). Shahnawaz and Juyal (2006) argue that commitment is one of the key factors of HRM policy for an effective organization and that it should be central to organizational strategy.

Stum (2001) claims that the development process of the commitment can be described with a model conducted from the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs which he calls the Performance Pyramid. The levels of the pyramid were combined based on the information gathered from the extensive Workforce Commitment Index studies investigating the factors and conditions that have the most impact on commitment between the individual and the organization. The fi ve levels of workforce needs are safety/security, rewards, affi lia-tion, growth, and work/life harmony.

Stum’s (2001) fi ndings show that there is a hier-archy of organizational factors that build upon one another to construct higher levels of commitment in the workforce. Attending to higher level need when lower level issues are below employees’ expecta-tions do not enhance commitment. For example, the employee must feel physically and psychologically safe in the work environment for commitment to be possible at higher levels and that the organization has to meet expectations for affi liation before trying to fulfi ll growth of work/life level. As each of these needs

/ 53

are satisfi ed the individual focuses on attaining the needs at the next level thus moving up the hierarchy as in Maslow’s model (Stum 2001). In other words, organization has to fulfi ll or exceed employees’ ex-pectations at the each level in the hierarchy in order them to move up the hierarchy towards commitment, and consequently towards presumed organizational outcomes of high levels of commitment.

Addressing the issues requires organization-wide HR policies and practices that support the meeting or exceeding expectations at each level. HR provides the architecture that supports the pyramid levels and thus creates an environment where the highest level of com-mitment and retention can be attained. However, the interpretation and implementation of the policies and attributes will either support of inhibit higher retention and commitment (Stum 2001). It is believed that the impact of HRM practices on commitment is moderated by employees’ perceptions of the motives behind these practices (e.g. Koys 1988; 1991). In support of above contention, Gaertner and Nollen found that the percep-tions of HRM practices contributed over and above context factors (supervisor relations, participation in decision making, and communication) in explaining differences in commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1997).

4 BUILDING THE ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT ONTOLOGY

The creation of overall ontology is problematic because the views on commitment are so diverse. To

be most effective ontology should incorporate the most empirically and conceptually warranted components of the process.

Using the theoretical research we have constructed a new ontology for evaluating organizational commit-ment. Fig 2 presents the current process type construct of the ontology. The ontology encompasses commit-ment-related variables and the relations between them. The ontology model draws upon existing research on commitment processes (Meyer and Allen, 1997; Mowday et al., 1982; Cohen, 2007; Swailes, 2002). The theoretical part of this paper discussed the factors that have been identifi ed to affect the development of commitment towards a given work-related domain. These factors of the ontology are portrayed in Fig 2 in a process-like manner.

Meyer and Allen’s (1984; 1997) multidimensional model of commitment seems to be subjected to greatest empirical validation and has arguably received greatest support. Therefore, we have used it as the main model to distinguish different components of commitment. However, we have added to our ontology the new fi ndings and the criticism their model has encountered (e.g., Cohen 2007; Swailes, 2002). In addition, we are planning to incorporate to our ontology the time before joining the organization including the reasons why a prospective employee would choose to become a member in a given organization, and the motives behind the selection decision.

The proposed ontology model is divided into three main sections that cover the process from the time

Individual, workgroup, team, organization, etc.

Integrative HRM policies and practices

NORMATIVE COMMITMENT PROPENSITY

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS OF JOB CHOICE

PRIOR WORK EXPERIENCES

EXPECTATIONS ABOUT JOB

EARLY SOCIALIZATION EXPERIENCES

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

INSTRUMENTAL COMMITMENT PROPENSITY

AFFECT-RELATED

NORM-RELATED

COST-RELATED

ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT

ROLE STATES

ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT

NORMATIVE COMMITMENT

CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT

RETENTION

EFFECTIVE STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT

PRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR

EMPLOYEE WELL-BEING

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE

CHANGE

SERVICE QUALITY

SAFETY

”External” Antecedents

Propensity for Commitment

”Internal” Antecedents

CommitmentProcesses

CollectiveCommitment Consequences

INTENT TO APPLY

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

MOTIVES FOR SELECTING JOB

INSTRUMENTAL COMMITMENT

Feedback

Fig. 2. The Current Process Ontology Model of Organizational Commitment



before joining the organization to actual commitment and to some of its presumed outcomes. Further, the classifi cation of the commitment process has been divided into two stages: (a) pre-entry, job choice in-fl uences, and propensity to become committed which develops before entry into the organization; and (b) the development actual subsequent commitment, which develops after entry into the organization.

The ontology will be used as a basis for creating a new decision support system using generic Evolute platform (e.g. Kantola 2009; Kantola et al. 2006). The work on the ontology is still ongoing, and more re-search is required to fi nalize the construct for research purposes. Fuzzy logic will be used as the key technol-ogy in the proposed methodology and application.

4.1. Research Objectives and Evaluation

The goal of our research is to collect the verifi ed and mostly accepted components and measurement of methods of commitment into an ontology and con-sequently under one application. We hope that this application will help to bring the knowledge from several scientifi c studies and the views of scientifi c communities regarding organizational commitment and the variables affecting employees’ commitment closer to strategic decision making and daily leader-ship and management.

The current state of collective commitment will be evaluated in our future application partly with some of the existing conceptually and empirically verifi ed measuring methods and their statements, and partly with new statements concerning the variables presented in the ontology. The degree of commitment is obtained by collecting the states of the different variables, and the collective commitment can be de-termined by gathering the commitment levels of the group in question. As a result, we obtain a picture of the overall degree of commitment within the target group. This information could help management to design and implement specifi c actions to improve and foster employees’ commitment and, in turn, the effectiveness of the organization and wellbeing of the employees. Furthermore, this information might help to be able to lead the change better and to prepare to the future turnover of the staff.

In organizations there is always employee turnover and total commitment is not necessarily required from all of its employees. In our study we do not try to determine the actual commitment of every employee individually but rather to evaluate the degree of com-mitment and its types collectively.

5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The results obtained from various scientifi c studies and models have little effect on organizational decision making if they cannot be made clear and usable for management. We believe that an easy way to measure commitment and its related constructs is needed by or-ganizations in order to create effective HRM strategies and utilize this information in day-to-day operations. We aspire to create such a measurement application by designing an ontology for organizational commit-ment and its closely related constructs. As the views regarding organizational commitment are partially diverse in this study an attempt was made to create model which describes at the concept of commitment from various viewpoints in one go. The theoretical framework for the ontology is based on literature re-lating to organizational commitment, its antecedents, propensities, and several processes believed to affect its development.

The fi rst stage of building the new application is completing the fi rst version of the ontology, including the compilation and creation of the statements describ-ing the process of commitment. Next, the statements will be converted into a new Evolute system. After the functionality of the application has been confi rmed, case studies will be processed and evaluated. As more is learned about the concepts and their relations, it is possible to fi ne-tune the behavior of the application with fuzzy rules, such as the weights of the different variables or statements.

REFERENCES

[1] Allen, N. J. & Meyer, J. P., 1990. The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology (1990), 63, pp. 1-18.

[2] Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P., The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, pp. 1–18.

[3] Becker, H. S. 1960. Notes on the content of commitment. American Journal of Sociology, 66. pp. 32-42.

[4] Cohen, A., 2007. Commitment before and after: an evaluation and reconceptualization of organizational, Human Resource Management Review 17, pp. 336–354.

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[5] Conway, N. & Briner, R. B., 2005. Understanding Psychological Contracts at Work – A Critical Evaluation of Theory and Research. New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 226 p.

[6] Dunham, R.B., Grube, J.A. & Castenada, M.B., 1994. Organizational commitment: The utility of an integrative defi nition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(3). pp. 370-380.

[7] Hatch, M. J., 1997. Organization Theory: Modern, Symbolic, and Postmodern Perspectives. Oxford University Press, New York, 387p.

[8] Kantola, J., 2009. Ontology-Based Resource Management, Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries, Special Issue on Managing Real World Concepts, Kantola, J. (editor), 19 (6), 6/2009, pp. 515–527.

[9] Kantola, J., Vanharanta, H, & Karwowski, W., 2006. The evolute system: a co-evolutionary human resource development methodology. International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, 2nd ed.

[10] Koys, D.J. 1991. Fairness, legal compliance, and organizational commitment. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 4(4), pp. 283-291.

[11] Koys, D.J., 1988. Human resource management and a culture of respect: Effects on employees’ organizational commitment. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 1(1), pp.57-68.

[12] Kristof, A. L., 1996. Person-organization fit: an integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, Spring96, Vol. 49, Issue 1, pp. 1-49.

[13] Mathieu, J. E. & Zajac, D. M., 1990. A review and meta-analysis of the antecedents, correlates, and consequences or organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108, pp. 171 - 194.

[14] Meyer, J. P. & Allen, N. J. 1997. Commitment in the workplace: theory, research, and application. Sage Publications, Inc., 160p.

[15] Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J., 1991. A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1(1). pp. 61-89.

[16] Meyer, P. J., & Allen, J. N., 1984. Testing the side-bet theory of organizational commitment: Some methodological considerations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, pp. 372−378.

[17] Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W, & Steers, R. M., 1982. Employee-organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. Academic Press, New York, 253p.

[18] Rousseau, D. M., 1990. New hire perceptions of their own and their employer’s obligations: A study of psychological contracts. Journal of Organizational Behavior, September 1990, Vol. 11, Issue 5, pp. 389–400.

[19] Salancik, G. R., 1977. Commitment and the control of organizational behavior and belief. In B.M. Staw & G.R. Salancik (Eds), New directions in organizational behavior, Chicago, St. Clair Press, pp. 1-54.

[20] Sekiguchi, T., 2004. Person-organization fi t and person-job fi t in employee selection: a review of the literature. Osaka Keidai Ronshu, Vol. 54 No. 6, March 2004, pp. 179-196.

[21] Shahnawaz M.G. & Juyal R. C. 2006. Human Resource Management Practices and Organizational Commitment in Different Organizations. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, July 2006, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 171-178.

[22] Stum, D. L., 2001. Maslow revisited: Building the employee commitment pyramid. Strategy & Leadership, Jul/Aug 2001, 29, 4, pp. 4-9.

[23] Swailes, S. 2002. Organizational commitment: a critique of the construct and measures. International Journal of Management Reviews, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp. 155–178

[24] Wimalasiri, J. S., 1995. An examination of the infl u-ence of human resource practices, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction on work perfor-mance. International Journal of Management, 12, pp. 352–363.

JARNO EINOLANDERHANNU VANHARANTAIndustrial Management and Engineering Tampere University of Technology Pori, Finland



1 INTRODUCTION

The dynamics growth of the modern world, increas-ing globalization and the importance of knowledge in shaping the economy become the main incentive of pro-gressive change in the relationship between universities and business community.Enterprises and universities seeing the benefi ts of mutual exchange and knowledge development undertakes . The need for collaboration has been strengthened by numerous external circumstances. Among the external factors mobilizing Polish universi-ties to develop collaboration with businesses it can be distinguished following factors:

need of adaptation the education process to the • European standards according to the Bologna Process,

The Collaboration Model Between University and Business Concerning Creation Both the Students as well as Graduates Qualifications and Competences

HANNA WŁODARKIEWICZ-KLIMEK DARIA NADOLNAWERONIKA MIGAS

JOANNA KAŁKOWSKAFaculty of Engineering Management

Poznan University of Technology

Abstract: The dynamic development as well as progressive globalization and increasing the knowledge importance in creating economy became an impact factor of progressive changes in relation of universities with business. The enterprises and universities while observing mutual benefi ts of knowledge exchange and development, take up widely understood collaboration. The results of that collaboration concerning universities gives the possibilities of development scientifi c and didactic capability; concerning enterprises, they contributes to increasing knowledge share in creating enterprises’ value as well as to gain competitive advantage. The subject of this paper is to determine the collaboration model between university and business. In a frame of this model, there will be presented common activity areas which concentrates on increasing the employee participation in creation both the students and graduates competences. These activities are carried out by common working and shaping the study programmes, organization of internships as well as employee participation in education process and organization of business and science representatives meetings. The essential element of such collaboration is also carrying out the common research and development activities which contributes to mutual knowledge growth, competences and innovativeness.

change of approach in the creation the study • courses and specializations on the labor market in accordance with the expectations of enter-prises regarding the qualifi cations and compe-tences of graduates, taking into consideration the organizational and technological progress as well as the region needs [see: KRASP, FRP, 2009]

Moreover, the relations between business and uni-versityare determined by:

rapidly changing economic situation and the • need for fl exibleadaptation,

specialization and diversifi cation of activities • conducive to look for specifi c skills and com-petencies on the labor market,

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technological progress and innovation require • constant growth of knowledge workers.

Undertaken collaboration should focus on shap-ing the direction of common knowledge and stu-dents’ skills through joint education initiatives, and on both sides undertaking the research and develop-ment activity. Expected cllaborationresults will give universities the possibility to increase the scientifi c and didactic capability. On the other hand companies contribute to increase the share of knowledge in cre-ating business value and competitive advantage.

2 LEGAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL DETERMINANT CONCERNING SHAPING THE STUDENTS AND GRADUATES SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES

2.1 Bologna System and National Qualification Framework

European Qualifi cations Framework concept was established in 2004. It evaluated on the basis of the Bologna Declaration, signed on the 19 June 1999 by the 29 European countries, including Poland. Its main goal was to create an European Higher Educa-tion Area. The idea of approximation of the higher education systems of European countries carried out by the Bologna process were based on the promotion of European higher education dimension, particularly in terms of professional development, mobility and integration ofcurriculum, research and training, as well as to improve the higher education quality [www.nauka.gow.pl], easy adoption and joint degrees as well as diploma supplement and ECTS credits system.

In April 2008, the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted aRecommen-dation on the establishment of a European Qualifi ca-tions Framework for lifelong learning [Recommenda-tions of the European Parliament and European Coun-cil, 2008]. This directive became the main stimulus to start working on them in the European countries. Poland began to work on the National Qualifi cation Framework under the project Developing a system balance of accomplishment and competencies avail-able in the labor market in Poland and the National Qualifi cation Framework model, implemented by the Ministry of Education incollaboration with the Educational Research Institute and the Cooperation Fund Foundation for Priority III of Human Capital Operational Programme.

In implementing the European Qualifications Framework each country should refer their national

qualifi cations to the eight levels of the European Qualifi cation Framework. The national qualifi cations framework for higher education is a particular method that Polish universities offer for students. This method is distinguished by two distinctive features. First, the descriptions are formulated in the language of learning outcomes, that is presenting the requirements which should have been completed within a given cycle. Secondly, these descriptions, using the common Eu-ropean system will allow for comparisons diplomas awarded in various universities throughout Europe [Chmielecka E. (ed), 2010]. Essential for the proper understanding what thequalifi cations framework are, is a correct interpretation of the qualifi cation and com-petence concept.

2.2 Competence and qualifications

Qualifi cation means a formal outcome assessment and validation process resulting inasituation in which the competent authority in accordance with established procedure stated that an individual has achieved learn-ing outcomes (competence) in accordance with certain standards (diploma, certifi cate). So, the classifi cation is defi ned as obtaining thedegree, title, attesting to obtain specifi c learning outcomes (competencies) after completed education. It is a kind of confi rmation that an individual has achieved the appropriate learning outcomes to given standards.

Effects on a different training skills defi ne what the students should know, understand and are able to do at the end of studying. In the European Qualifi cation Frame-work according to therecommendations of the European Parliament and the Council of the 23 April 2008, learning outcomes are defi ned in three categories:

knowledge that in the context of the European • Qualifi cation Framework may be theoretical or factual and means the outcome of the assimila-tion of information by learning, it is a collection of the relevant facts, principles, theories and practices associated with a particular fi eld of work or study,skills that can be mental / cognitive (logical, • intuitive and creative thinking) and practical (involving manual dexterity), they mean the ability to apply knowledge and use know -how to complete tasks and solve problems,personal and social skills, in the context of the • EQF are described in terms of responsibility and autonomy, they mean a proven ability to apply knowledge, skills and social personal competence or methodological shown during working, studying and in personal develop-ment.

HANNA WŁODARKIEWICZ-KLIMEK, DARIA NADOLNA, WERONIKA MIGAS, JOANNA KAŁKOWSKA


All these categories of education outcomes should be treated as a coherent whole, since the effects de-scribed as knowledge contain a component of skills, effects defi ned as the ability to include certain elements of knowledge, and knowledge and skills are an im-portant component of personal and social competence [Chmielecka E. (red), 2010].

Personal and social competence play an impor-tant role in the learning process as they allow for the acquisition of skills such as interaction with others, both as a member and as a group leader and also al-low to adapt to a changing world which still poses a new challenge.

Coping with them can only occur through a lifelon-glearning process and gained personal and social skills are becoming a kind of universal competence, giving the advantage in many areas of our lives.

It is worth to mention that the consequence of the implementation of the National Qualifi cation Frame-work is to enlarge the direct responsibility of the universities for quality education, but also to facilitate modifi cations and changes in study programs, so that they may be more diverse, but primarily adapted to the expectations and capabilities of learners as well as the employers. As it is known, the job market required from graduates their fl exibility which is unable to be providedby the rigid list of study courses. Besides, the clarity of qualifi cations, which are nevertheless gained in different training systems, has become an important element in the common labor market.

3 THE COLLABORATION BETWEEN POZNAN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS IN EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES

The resolutions of the Bologna Process, as well as the directive of the New Law on Higher Education which will go into effect for the Polish universities from the 1 October 2011, emphasized the need of sci-ence and business collaboration development in the process of creating skills and graduates competencies. Dynamic development of job market in the knowl-edge based economyrequires education outcomes in measurable terms that will translate into economic growth and cultural and social development across Europe. Science and education are now the main base of human capital, new technology and innovation. Without these factors it would be impossible to build a knowledge-based economy where only education and high qualifi cation allows for creative performance and fl exible adaptation to changing conditions in the labor market. The modern enterprise based its competitive

advantage precisely on knowledge. Therefore, creat-ing a model of collaboration between universities and business community, has become a very important aspect.

Poznan University of Technology, as a modern and steadily growing university, to meet the expectations of the idea of knowledge-based economy creates own collaboration model. This is done through establishing appropriate advisory bodies, creating the autonomous organizational units responsible for building relation-ships between students, educators and businesses as well as participation in EU projects.

Among the main initiatives aimed at Poznan Uni-versity of Technology strengthen the integrationbe-tween science and business are:

appointment the Poznan University of Tech-1. nology Council in April 2007. The Council is an associationwhich comprises representa-tives of reputable businesses and pro-business organizations in the Wielkopolska region which want give both the merit and material supportfor education and scientifi c development of Poznan University of Technology. The Council provides a forum for exchanging ideas and experiences focused on innovation in Wielkopolska region, engineering education, development plans of the Poznan University of Technology and its research and development offer for industry.

establishment of the Practices and Career 2. Center as an independent entity which goal is to encourage students and graduates in the labor market. The main task is to mediate, support and build uprelationships of employer-student and employer-graduate.

establishment of the Innovation, Development 3. and Technology Transfer Center whichis respon-sible for the effective combination of science and business. It supports innovative solutions aimed at rising the competitiveness of the University of Technology and Polish enterprises, mainly through EU projectscoordination. Among the projects, a key importance to develop relations with the busi-nessare the following projects [www.put.poznan.pl/projekty]:

Knowledge for Economy - the main objec-• tive is to adapt the educational offer to the expectations of potential employers, labor marketand the requirements of the knowledge based economy by improving education quality and strengthening the practical aspects in close collaboration with business/industry.

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Age of the Engineer - the project focuses both • on improving the education quality for students and employed staff as well as implementing a model of quality management in university.Partner relationship of science and develop-• ment - the main task is to popularize the achievements of Polish and world science, pro-motion of innovation in conjunction with the new technologies implemented in the economy, the popularization thestudy fi elds that make up a modern economy,promoting examples of knowledge transfer to the economy, presenting science as a way of increasing competitiveness and the innovation economy.Foresight Project on Wielkopolska Economic • Networks - the main subject of this project is to develop scenarios of the knowledge transforma-tion concerning products, technologies and new concepts of management with the perspective of the year 2030. The project supports innovation in the region and is addressed to the Wielkopol-ska community.

In addition to projects aimed at developing the potential growth of Poznan University of Technology, an important role in the relationship with business has also project and science research carried out at the university.

4. THE COLLABORATION MODEL BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND BUSINESS CONCERNING CREATION BOTH THE STUDENTS AS WELL ASGRADUATES QUALIFICATIONS AND COMPETENCES – ON THE BASIS ON PROJECT KNOWLEDGE FOR ECONOMY EXAMPLE

Carried out by the Poznan University of Technol-ogy project the Knowledge for Economy underthe Op-erational Programme Human Resources Development has created an opportunity to develop a comprehensive model of collaboration between university and busi-ness. The collaboration focuses on developing skills and competencies of students and graduates of the Faculty of Management Engineering, PUT in follow-ing courses: Safety Engineering, Logistics and Man-agement. Forming relationships with business is done via panel meetings with employers, which become a forum for dialogue and cooperation. Other tasks such as the creation and implementation of study programs, internships and practice, lectures by employers and job fairs areinformationallyconnected with panel meetings and draw knowledge from their results.

Work on the diagnosis, evaluation,shaping the quali-fi cations andcompetencies as well as creating a collabo-ration model were carried out in two phases. The fi rst phase were divided into two areas. First of it concerned diagnosis and assessing the skills and competencies level that graduates achieve as educationprocess result. The second area was the identifi cation of existing col-laboration areas between university and business. The second phase focused on creating the concept of model, using the diagnosis results from the fi rst phase.

4.1 Phase One - Diagnosis

Diagnosis, skills assessment and competencies were conducted during panel meetings. In the fi rst stage of diagnosis, both the authorities of university and faculty presented the following assumptions that became the basis for the evaluation:

the graduates of the Poznan University of • Technology have good (positively evaluated, accepted, satisfactory) professional compe-tences,

the graduates present low levelof soft skills,,•

the graduates of the Poznan University of • Technology posses a suffi cient level of foreign languages,

the time of the graduate professional adapta-• tion is short,

the graduates of the courses Management, Lo-• gistics andSafety Engineering have a suffi cient technical knowledge necessary to fulfi l their professional roles.

As a result of the discussion,the business repre-sentatives presented the strengths and weaknesses of students and graduates of the Faculty of Management Engineering which are presented on fi gure 1.

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Properly implemented teaching process that gives graduates a good technical professional preparation

Problems with interper-sonal communication

Ability of logical think-ing as a distinguishing feature of PUT graduates

The low level of foreign languages knowledge

Fig. 1.Strengths and weaknesses of students and gradu-ates of the Faculty of Engineering Management in the assessment of business representatives (own study)



At the same time, the business representatives formulated their expectations about the attitudes and skills concerning students and graduates. They are as follows:

openness for new ideas,,•

ability to combine theoretical knowledge with • practical,

improving language skills,•

emotional intelligence as an important element • in shapingsoft competencies,

the role of information technologyin engineers • education (Integrated Management Systems)

the need for education in project management • and business processes.

Also, during the panel meeting the participants indicated the opportunities and threats in shaping the students and graduates profi le. They are presented in fi gure 2.

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

The occurrence of a uni-versal set of competencies required for every work-place in all branches

High dynamics and uncertainty of the econ-omy resulting unpre-dictability in the labor market requirements

Education focused on per-sonal development per-spective, early choice of career paths and increas-ing the staff mobility

The branch diver-sity creates a variety of employers expectations in relation to the gradu-ates.

Fig. 2. Opportunities and threats in shaping the students and graduates profi le of the Faculty of Engineering Man-agement in the assessment of business representatives (own study)

Identifying the existing areas of cooperation between university and business,the participants of the panel meeting pointed out the organization of internships andpractices as the most effective part. In the other areas, there is a defi ciency of common activities.

4.2 The second phase - model construction

Based on the results of the diagnosis carried out in the fi rst phase, the idea of a collaboration model between the university and businesswas created. Next,the model were verifi ed during the panel meeting. Also the concept of collaboration was formulated.

The essence of the model is development of com-mon collaborationprinciples between the Faculty of Management Engineering Poznan University of Technology and enterprises involved in the project Knowledge for Economy in the following areas:

participation in the education process,• shaping the skills and competencies of students • of following courses: Safety Engineering, Lo-gistics and Management,modellinggraduates’ profile of following • courses: Safety Engineering, Logistics and Management,creating common ground for research and • development activity.

Areas of activities identifi ed in the model will be car-ried out through the forms presenting on fi gure 3.

Collaboration across the E-recruitmentplatform

DIPLOMA THESES

RESEARCH PROJECTS

INTERSHIPSTRACKING

GRADUATES CAREER

EMPLOYERS’ LECTURE

PANEL MEETINGS,CONFERENCES

POSTGRADUATE STUDIES AND

TRAININGS

DOUBLE STUDIES

JOB FAIRSIMPROVMENT OF

EDUCATION PROGRAMS

COLLABORATION

Fig. 3. Forms of collaboration between Faculty of Engi-neering Management with business (own study)

The collaboration will be based on direct contact of business with university. This collaboration will include improving education programs, employers lectures, panel meetings and scientifi c conferences, the creation of postgraduate studies and double studies as well as organization ofjob fairs. The second part of the cooperation will be aided by computer software in the form of web-based platform - E-recruitment. The main task of this platform is to match on-line businesses and students concerning internships and to follow graduates careers. The platform will be also able to establish contacts between scientists and business to conduct research. The activities in a frame of carried out collaboration model will be placed in three stages presented on fi gure 4. The stages are following:

Stage 1 - Cooperation by E-recruitment plat-• form,Stage 2 - Evaluation of the education process,•

/ 61

Stage 3 – Common research and development • activities.

Accepted form of model havecontractual character. Next, in practice after it full implementation, the vari-ous stages will functionparallel.

STAGE 1 Collaboration by the E-recruitmentplatform

DIPLOMA THESES

RESEARCH PROJECTS

INTERSHIPSTRACKING

GRADUATES CAREER

Activities within the collaboration model

STAGE 2 Evaluation of the education process

STAGE 3 Common research and development activity

ADAPTATION OF EDUCATION PROCESS TO THE LABOUR MARKET EXPECTATIONS

COMPETENCES DEVELOPMENT IN ACCORDANCE WITH

NATIONAL QUALIFICATION FRAMEWORK

COMPETENCE SHAPING

SCIENCE AND BUSINESS COLLABORATION

Fig.4.Stages of collaboration between Faculty of Engi-neering Management and business (own study)

4.3 Perspectives for development activities and resulting benefits from implementation of the model

At present, there have been taken activities in the fi rst stage of collaboration. The E-recruitment platform gives an opportunity to cooperate in fi eld of diploma theses and internships. There are also some prepara-tionconcerning running the modules responsible for tracking the graduates’ career paths and alsocollabora-tion concerning research and development activity. At the same time there are prepared activities in second stage. The current diagnosis, which were a starting point to formulate a model has been enriched by ad-ditional research of skills and competencies of students and graduates. The researchesfocused on identifi ca-tion of qualifi cation and competence requirements in three perspectives: employer, student and university teacher [Włodarkiewicz-Klimek H. et al 2011]. Col-lected research results will become a prerequisite for common development of the education process in ac-cordance with established activities in the second stage of collaboration model. The work will start in October 2011 and will involve both business and university representatives concerning shaping the qualifi cation and competences in accordance with NQF.

Common activities of the university and business community provide numerous benefi ts. Concerning Poznan University of Technology, the collaboration with business allows for:

exchange of knowledge and experience be-• tween practitioners and university staff, creating aneducational offer in accordance with • labor market expectations,possibility of extending the scope of carried out • research as well as increasing of scientifi c and research competences of university staff,dissemination of scientifi c achievements. •

Among the main benefi ts concerning collaboration of business with Poznan University of Technology there are following ones:

access to the newest scientifi c research - inno-• vativeness, knowledge, competitiveness,

infl uence on shaping the qualifi cations and • competence of future workers,

prestige for the enterprises’ employees in-• volved in student education process.

5. SUMMARY

The dynamics ofeconomic prosperity and escalat-ing globalization have become a major incentive to ensure the European economy as the most competi-tive and dynamic economy in the world. Accepted in 2010,a Strategy for Europefocuses on development: intelligent (based on knowledge and innovation), sus-tainable (supporting more effi ciently exploiting assets economy, which is more friendly to the environment and which is more competitive),

supporting inclusion (conducive for the economy characterized with a high level of employment and providing high social, economical and territorial co-herence) [Strategy Europe 2020].

To accomplish these objectives it is necessary to improve the education systems to use the knowledge and skills required for labor market as well as to fol-low the changes. Connections of education system-resulting from the growing importance of education, qualifi cations and professional competences as the effects of the education system. These factors play a signifi cant role in the individual dimension because they become a specifi c form of personal capital own-ership which pointing out the labor market status, job safety, job content, professional position as well as salary level and possibilities of professional develop-ment. Modern enterprises expect from their employees a high competence level (merit, interpersonal and social) in accordance with modern opinions that they are considered as a strategic resources [Przybyszewski R. 2007].

The undertaken by universities activities aiming at integration with business, fully fi ts in above trends. The studied and implemented by the Faculty of Man-



agement Engineering collaboration model is a great way of integration communities in the education offer, common research and development activities.

REFERENCES:

Chmielecka E. red, (2010) Autonomia progra-[1] mowa uczelni, Ramy kwalifi kacji dla szkolnic-twa wyższego, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo: Mini-sterstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego

Ernst & Young Business Advisory. (2009). [2] Analiza trendów i najlepszych praktyk wynika-jących z dokumentów defi niujących strategie szkolnictwa wyższego na świecie. Raport cząst-kowy. Ernst & Young Business Advisory, Insty-tut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową. Listopad 2009

Komisja Europejska, Strategia Europa 2020 [3]

KRASP, FRP, (2009), Strategia rozwoju [4] szkolnictwa wyższego: 2010-2020. Projekt środowiskowy, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego

Przybyszewski R,(2007), Kapitał ludzki w pro-[5] cesie kształtowania gospodarki opartej na wie-dzy, Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Difi n

Włodarkiewicz-Klimek H., Kałkowska J., Mi-[6] gas W., Nadolna D., Opracowanie metodyki ba-dania i kształtowania kwalifi kacji i kompetencji

studentów i absolwentów Wydziału Inżynierii Zarządzania PP, Materiały robocze WIZ PP

www.nauka.gov.pl/szkolnictwo–wyzsze/spra-[7] wy-miedzynarodowe/proces – bolonski.

www.put.poznan.pl/projekty[8]

www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~depchem/[9] Biuletyn/2004/DB.htm

Zalecenia Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady [10] Europy, 2008/C 111/01/WE. Europejskie ramy kwalifi kacji dla uczenia się przez całe życie. Urząd Ofi cjalnych Publikacji Wspólnot Euro-pejskich. Luksemburg 2009

HANNA WŁODARKIEWICZ-KLIMEK DARIA NADOLNAWERONIKA MIGASJOANNA KAŁKOWSKAFaculty of Engineering ManagementPoznan University of Technology11Strzelecka Str.60-965 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

/ 63

“What are you doing in response to the crisis of sustainability”? This is the challenge the authors present to themselves, their students and to business. To fulfi l their own contribution, they have developed MSc-level courses which confront several tacit as-sumptions in business and in business education. This book provides a series of refl ections on their worldview followed by chapters “offering stories from the fi eld”, told by students who have completed the course; and ending with the editors refl ecting on those stories. Both the structure and content of the book are unusual and stimulating. It is appealing for both its educational stance and for the refl ections on current practices in sustainability provided by the students.

The fi rst three chapters outline the formation and delivery of a UK MSc course in Responsibility and Business Practice, including the ideas and practices which underpinned the teaching [but are not intended to be a full appraisal of the course]. They call on their students to think “outside the box” and to question the current business mindset which is the basis of tradi-tional MBA courses. They wish to cultivate “an atti-tude of inquiry” which tests conventional management education as well as the topics relating to sustainability. This demands constant refl ection on themselves, the content of the course and its application in organiza-tions. In short, they are training change agents.

“We wanted the course to be a basis from which people developed actions in the world. An action research approach...asks the individual to discover

Leadership for Sustainability – An Action Research Approach

Ed. Marshall, J., Coleman, G. and Reason, P.Greenleaf Publishing April 2011

ISBN 978-1-906093-59-4

Review for Global Partnership Management Journal December 2011

PHILIPPA COLLINS

CSR Aware

something by doing, and refl ecting, and in the light of that refl ection, doing some more.”

Far from providing “defi nitive” knowledge and answers, their philosophy is “question-posing rather than ‘banking’ education.” Students used to rote and passive learning are encouraged to become “co-inquirers in a messy terrain.”

Their chapter on ideas and practices is divided into very readable summaries:

Theory and practice of action research•

Worldviews•

Systemic thinking and practice•

Power•

Tempered radicals•

Action enquiry and the leadership development • framework

Relational practice•

Questions of gender: connecting personal and • political

Freefall writing as enquiry•

The concept of tempered radicals is a fascinating insight into the requirements of all those attempting to bring about change. Meyerson and Scully (1995:586) offer the following defi nition:

“individuals who identify with and are committed to their organizations, and are also committed to a

PHILIPPA COLLINS


cause, community, or ideology that is fundamentally different from, and possibly at odds with the domi-nant culture of their organizations. The ambivalent stance of these individual creates a number of spe-

cial challenges and opportunities.”

I noted just one reference to the quality movement of the 1980s and 1990s. In that era quality managers and facilitators went through very similar disappoint-ments and emotions as do today’s pioneers promoting sustainability. They were also change agents facing hostility and lack of interest, yet now quality is the backbone of every organization and none survive with-out establishing excellence throughout all projects, products and processes. In time sustainability will be embedded in similar fashion, if only the leaders of today can accept the urgency of the current situation and act quickly enough. Re-reading the stories of the quality pioneers would strongly complement these stories in Leadership for Sustainability.

In view of the huge infl uence of the quality move-ment, a surprising theme in the book is the need to use systems theory and systems thinking. By now that should be “normal” behaviour in organizations, as quality management cannot succeed without it. Maybe it is taken for granted by too many tutors as having been “done” already. A clear message from this book is that all management courses should include systems thinking. This provides a major contribution to understanding not just how businesses work, but how in this world of inter-connectedness and globalization it is impossible to deal with any problem without un-derstanding its wider context and impact – including unintended consequences.

Some readers who merely dip into the book super-fi cially might think that the students are simply writing to endorse their former post-graduate programme, and that the fi rst person accounts are self-indulgent. On deeper reading it is clear that the purpose is far more profound. Apart from a few rather short and peremptory contributions (including irrelevancies such as the number of children the authors now have, which should have been edited out) these accounts will inspire confi dence in newly qualifi ed graduates, managers, and those thinking about how they can make a personal contribution. When times are tough in their own organizations and they feel that they are up against a brick wall, going nowhere, they can read this book and realize that the feelings and frustrations of being a change agent are normal.

I urge readers to read at least the fi rst three chapters of this book to fi nd inspiration for new ways of teach-ing. Some of the “refl ective” chapters are especially

inspiring. Kené Umeasiegbu suggests that “all change agents start from the point of ‘protesting’ about the world as they see it” but discusses how he learned to “engage” colleagues to work towards common goals within Cadbury. Paul Dickinson discusses the devel-opment of the Carbon Disclosure Project. Dickinson states that “I think we all need to learn that the idea of leadership in isolation from the direction in which you are travelling is irrelevant........ (I) am frankly proud to be considered a peer of most people I work along-side......Hierarchy is a tiring irrelevance. Authority is taken, not given”. David Bent recalls that “In 2003 the debate was still about ‘responsibility’, meaning the impact of business on society. Now the key word is ‘sustainability’, and is more about the impact of particular issues – especially climate change – on business”. Charles Ainger reminds us that “academic language” can get in the way of what we are trying to achieve, and that we still need to move from advo-cacy for sustainability to action, and the diffi culty of changing things. He suggests that retirees can play an important role in such action.

Do encourage your students and colleagues to read this book, or even to enrol on the MSc in Leadership and Sustainability. Even if this is not their chosen career, the teaching methods are so good that they will have a broad education that makes them potentially much better managers. Then consider adopting the teaching methods yourself. It is very hard work, but the rewards for tutors, students, and potentially for business are tremendous. Leadership for Sustain-ability is an important contribution to management teaching, and should be read not just by those inter-ested in sustainability, but by anyone passionate about management education.

“The crisis we face is fi rst and foremost one of mind, perceptions, and values; hence, it is a challenge to

those institutions presuming to shape minds, percep-tions, and values. It is an educational challenge.

More of the same kind of education can only make things worse.” (Orr 1994:72)

USEFUL REFERENCES

[1] Dunphy, D.C. , Griffi ths, A.B., & Benn, S.H. 2007 Organizational Change for Corporate Sustain-ability London: Routledge 2nd Ed.

[2] Meyerson, D.E. & Scully, M.A. 1995 Tempered Radicalism and the Politics of Ambivalence and Change Organizational Science 6.5: 585-600

/ 65PHILIPPA COLLINS

[3] Orr, D. W. 1994 Earth in Mind Washington D.C.: Island Press [quoted on p. 15]

[4] www.cdproject.net

[5] www.wiseearth.org

[6] www.artofhosting.org

[7] www.greyandgreen.org.uk

Availability: you can view and download Chapter 1 from http://www.greenleaf-publishing.com/leader-ship. It can be purchased for a 20% discount from this site.

PROF. DR PHILIPPA COLLINSConsultantCSR Aware10 Hayward DriveGalashielsScotland TD1 3JB [email protected]

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