Geography of India

Official Name : Republic of IndiaCapital : New DelhiNationality : Indian Geographical Area (Sq. Km.) : 32,87,263

Population (2011) :  1,210,193,422                                  Males : 623,724,248                                  Females : 586,469,174

Pop. Density : 382 per sq. km.Sex Ratio :  940 females per 1000 males

Literacy Rate (2011) : 77, 84, 54,120 (74.04 %)                                     Males : 44, 42, 03,762 (82.14 %)                                     Females : 33, 42, 50,358 (65.46 %)

States : 28

Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Karnataka, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Asom, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Sikkim, Goa.

Union Territories : 7Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Pondicherry, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep.

Mountain Ranges : 71. The Himalayas 2. The Patkoi and other ranges bordering India in the north and north-east 3. The Vindhyan 4. The Aravalli 5. The Satpura 6. The Sahyadri 7. The Eastern Ghats.

Main Watersheds : 31. Himalyan range with its Karakoram branch in the north, 2. Vindhyan and Satpura ranges in Central India, and 3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats on the West Coast.

Situation : India is the seventh largest country and second most populous country of the world accounting for about 2.4% of the total world area. lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitude 8°4' N and 37°6' N and 68°7' E and 97°25' E and is a part of the Asian continent. India measures about 3,214 km from north to south between the extreme longitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km. The total length of the costline of the mainland, lakshdweep islands and Andaman and Nicobar Isalands, is 7,575.6 km. Total geographic land area 32,87,263 sq km. If we consider cultivable land, India is second only to USA. India is located mid-way between West Asia and East Asia. Many transoceanic routes pass through India which connect African continent, industrially developed European continent, Petroleum rich West Asia and South-eastern countries, namely, China, Japan, Australia and Western coast of USA.

Countries having a common border with India are Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar to the east and Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal.

Physical Characteristics : The mainland consists of four well-defined regions :1.   The great mountain zone2.   The Indo-Gangetic plain

3.   The desert region4.   The Southern Peninsula

Rivers : The rivers of India may be classified as follows :1.   The Himalayan rivers2.   The Deccan rivers3.   The Coastal rivers4.   The rivers of the inland drainage basin

Climatic Conditions : The Indian meteorological department recognizes four seasons viz.,1.   The Cold Weather (Dec. – Feb.)2.   The Hot Weather (March – May)3.   The Rainy Season (June – Sept.)4.   The season of the retreating monsoon (Oct. – Nov.)

The climatic regions based on rainfall are granted recognition in India.

Dimensions : Distance from north to south 3,214 km                            Distance from east to west 2,933 km                             Length of coastline 6,100 km                             ength of land frontier 15,200 km 

Boundaries :

North : The Himalayan range and Nepal separate India from Tibet. The protected state of Bhutan also lies in the north-east. The boundary line between India and China is called the MacMohan Line. India's holder with Nepal spans for (1,752 km); with Bhutan (587 km); and with China (3,917 km).

East : Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh form an enclave within India and the Bay of Bengal. Its international boundary with Myanmar is 1,458 km long and with Bangladesh is 4,096 km long.

West : In the north-west India shares a boundary mainly with Pakistan and the Arabian Sea on the west.

North-West : Afghanistan and Pakistan are situated on the north-west of India. India-Afghanistan border is only 80 km long whereas Indo-Pakistan border is 3,310 km long.

South : To the south of India are the Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka on the eastern side

River SourceTotal Length (km)

Important Tributaries

Important Places on The river bank

Indus Mansarovar 709 in India

Shyok, Skardu, Shigar, Gilgit in Mountain area, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi,Beas and Sutlej in plains

Leh, Skardu

Jhelum Verinag 400 in IndiaLidar, Pohru, Kishenganga

Anantnag, Srinagar, Uri

Chenab Lahul 1200 in IndiaRohtang Pass, Ramban, Riasi

Ravi Rohtang Pass 725  

Beas Rohtang Pass 470Mandi Kapurthala, Ferozepur.

Sutlej Rakas Lake 1050 in India Beas Joins at HarikeBhakra, Nangal, Rupar, Ludhiana

Ganga (comprised of two streams)

i) Bhagirathi from the Gangotriii) Alaknanda

2071

Pindar, Mandakini, Dhauliganga,Bishenganga, Yamuna, RamgangaGhaghara, Kosi, Gandak, Sone,Mahananda, Damodar

Devprayag, Hardwar, Kanpur,Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna Bhagalpur, Kolkata,

Yamuna

Yamnotri Glacier on the Bandarpunch peak in Uttarakhand

1300Hanumanganga, Hindan, Chambal,Sind, Betwa, Ken.

Delhi, Mathura, Agra, Allahabad

RamgangaRisi in Garhwal district

690 Khoi ganga.Ranikhet, Bareilly Moradabad

Ghaghara (Karnali in Nepal)

Gurta Mandhata Peak in Tibet

690 Rapti, SharitaFaizabad, Ayodhya Chhapra

Gandak (Narayani in Nepal)

Near Tibet-Nepal Border

425 in India Hajipur

Burhi GandakSumesar hill India-Nepal border

610  

Kosi Sapt Kosi 730 in IndiaHanumanagar Supaul, Saharsa

SoneAmarkantak Plateau

780Johilla, Gopat, Rihand, Kanharr,North Koel.

 

B. The Peninsular River West flowing rivers

NarmadaAmarkantak Plateau

1312Burhar, Sher, Dedhi, Tawa, Hiram,Bama, Goi, Machak

Amarkantak, Jabalpur, Bharuch

TapiMultai in Betul Distt. of M.P.

730Purna, Betul, Patki, Gangajl, Dathranj,Amravti

Bushanpur, Manadvi, Surat

Mahi Rises In Vindhyas   Som, Anas, Panam  

LuniAnnasagar in Ajmer

450 Jojri, Sukri Balotra

SabarmatiJai Samad Lake of Udaipur

416Wakal, Harrow, Hathmathi, Watrak,Meshwa

 

MahanadiSihawa in Raipur Distt

858Sheonath, Hasdao, Mand, lb, ong, Tel

Raipur, Hirakud, Cuttack

Godavari Trimbak in Nasik 1465

Mangra, Pranhita, Penganga, Wardha,Waingana, Sabari, Indravati

Nasik, Bhadrachalam

Krishna Mahabaleshwar 1400

Koyna, Penchganga, Oudhganga,Malprabha Bhima-Tungbhadra Musi etc.

Rajahmundry, Mahabaleshwar,Nagarjun Sagar

CauveryRises in Brahmgiri hills

800Hemavati, Shima, herangi, Kabbani,Suvarnavati

Vijayawada, Krishnaraj Sagar,Shivasamudrarn, Tiruchirapalli

ChambalJaunapav Hill near Mau

900Kali sind, Parvati, Banas

Mhow, Gandhi Sagar, Kota,

Brahmani   705   Rourkela, Talchir

Subarnarekha   333Chhotanagapur Plateau

Udaigiri, Jamshedpur

Brahmputra or Tsangpo

Mansarovar Lake in Tibet

885 in indiaDibhang, Lohit, Manas SubannsariKameng, Tista, Torsa

Dibrugarh, Gauhati, Dhubri 

Major Industries and its Centres

  Towns Associated with Industries

Cotton TextilesMumbai, Sholapur, Nagpur, Pune, Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Indore; Chennai, Madurai and Coimbatore, Kanpur and Kolkata.

Jute TextilesWest Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, U.P. and M.P.

Silk TextilesAsom, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, U.P., M.P., W. Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra and Punjab.

Woollen TextileThe chief centres of woollen textiles are Punjab, U.P., Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal.

Sugar IndustryU.P., Bihar and some centres are there in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Punjab.

Cement IndustryJharkhand, M.P., Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Haryana, U.P. and Orissa have some factories also.

Paper IndustryWest Bengal, Maharashtra, U.P., Bihar, Odisha, Punjab, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.

Iron and Steel IndustryJamshedpur, Bokaro (Jharkhand), Bhilai (Chattisgarh), Durgapur, Hirapur, Kulti, Burnpur (West Bengal), Rourkela (Odisha), Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Rourkela (Odisha) and Neyveli (Tamil Nadu).

Leather IndustryChennai, Agra, Kolkata, Delhi, Kanpur, Mumbai, Deonaar, Deevaghat.

AluminiumAlwaye (Kerala), Muri (Jharkhand), Hirakud (Odisha), Renukoot (U.P.), Bailur (W. Bengal), Koyna Mettur (Tamilnadu) and Hirakud (Odisha).

MatchesBareilly, Kolkata, Chennai, Gwalior and Hyderabad.

Photo Film IndustryOotacamund (Tamil Nadu).

GlassFerozabad, Shikohabad, Bahjoi, Naini, Haorah, Bangalore and Belgaon.

Chemical IndustryDelhi, Pimpri, Pune, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Rishikesh, Bangalore and Amritsar.

Rubber-Goods IndustryKolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ballabhgarh, Shahaganj, Chamanacheri and Ambatoor.

Locomotive IndustryChittaranjan (West Bengal), Varanasi in U.P., Perambur (Tamil Nadu).

Automobile IndustryMumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Jamshedpur, Pune and Gurgaon.

Antibiotic IndustryRishikesh, Pimpri and Delhi.

Aircraft Manufacturing IndustryBangalore, Kanpur, Nasik, Koraput and Hyderabad.

Fertilizers IndustryDurgapur, Kanpur, Foolpur (Uttar Pradesh), Haldia, Namrup, Rourkela, Vadodara, Barauni, Vishakhapatnam, Gorakhpur, etc.

Plastic IndustryMumbai, Kolkata, Amritsar, Kanpur, Hyderabad and Coimbatore.

Petro-Chemical IndustryVadodara and Mumbai, Bongaigoan, Asom

 

Towns Associated with Industries

Agra : Stoneware, leather, carpets and marbles. Ahmedabad : Cotton-textiles. Aligarh : Cutlery, locks and dairy-industries. Ambala : Scientific goods. Amritsar : Cloth-printing, carpets, woollen goods, shawls. Bangalore : Watches, telephone, aircraft industry. Bareilly : Rubber factory, match factory, wood work. Bhagalpur : Silk. Chennai : Integral coach factory, leather, cigarette, cotton. Mumbai : Chemicals, oil refineries, fertilizers, film, industry, woollen goods, cotton

manufacturing. Chittaranjan : Electrical locomotives. Churk : Cement. Cochin : Coffee, coconut oil, ship-building. Dalmianagar : Cement. Darjeeling : Tea, orange. Delhi : Textiles, chemicals, electronics, sewing machines. Dhariwal : Woollen goods. Ferozabad : Glass-bangles. Hardwar : Heavy electricals. Jamshedpur : Iron and steel works, train coaches locomotives. Jallandhur : Sports articles and surgical goods. Jaipur : Ivory work, brass work, jewellery, pottery, cloth painting. Kolkata : Iron and steel, jute, paper, pottery. Kanpur : Leather, cotton, aircraft factories, woollen mills, soap, iron, flour mills. Kolar : Gold-fields. Lucknow : Embroidery, gold, silver, lac work. Ludhiana : Hosiery, cycle. Mirzapur : Carpet, pottery, stoneware and brass. Moradabad : Brassware, cutlery, enamel industry. Karnataka : Sandalwood oil, ivory work, silk goods. Renukoot : Hindustan Aluminium Works. Saharanpur : Paper mill. Srinagar : H.M.T. factory, woodwork, embroidery, paper machine, woollen shawls. Surat : Cotton textiles. Tarapur : Atomic power plant. Titagarh : Paper and jute. Trombay : Oil refineries, atomic-reactors. Varanasi : Diesel-locomotives, brass-wares, lac bangles. Vishakhapatnam : Ship-building

Indian History

Indus Valley CivilizationThis was the earliest civilization (between 2500 BC and 1750 BC) that flourished in India on the banks of the river Indus, from frontiers extending from Manda on the Chenab near Jammuin the north to Daimabad, on the Godavari in Ahmednagar in the south embracing 200 sites in the Kutch-Saurashtra region of Gujarat.

In India, important sites connected with the Indus valley civilization are–Lothal near Ahmedabad (in Gujarat), Kalibangan (in Rajasthan), Banwali in Hissar (district of Haryana) and Ropar near Chandigarh (in Punjab).

.

Vedic CivilizationInvasion of the Aryans recurrent floods and other possible natural causes like earthquakes were responsible for the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization and the origin of Vedic civilization.

The Aryans are supposed to have come to India from Central Asia. They first occupied Punjab. Gradually, they pushed their way along the courses ofthe Ganga and the Yamuna and conquered the whole of northern India.Their penetration was a long and slow process. The Indo-Aryans did not conquer the south. They were tall and fair complexioned and possessed sharp features. They are responsible primarily for Indian culture and civilization

Major Dynasties of Ancient India

Maurya Dynasty (323 B.C.-184 B.C.)Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.) : He founded the Maurya Empire in India with the help of Kautilya. He was a military genius and an eminent statesman.

Ashoka the Great (273-232 B.C.) : Coronation in 269 B.C. He was the son of Bindusara. He conquered Kalinga in 261 B.C. This war killed the soldier in him and he embraced Buddhism.

.

Kushan Dynasty (40-176 A.D.)Kanishka (78-101 or 102 AD.) : He is known as a great empire builder. Like Ashoka he patronized Buddhism. He patronized the Gandhara School of Art. The famous Indian physician Charak and Bhuddhist scholar Nagarjuna lived during his reign. Ashwaghosh aBuddhist monk also lived in his time.Gupta Dynasty (319-500 A.D.)The great rulers in this dynasty are: (1) Chandra Gupta I. (2) Samudra Gupta, (325-375 A.D.), also known as Napoleon of India, (3) Chandra Gupta II. (380-412 A.D.) (Vikramaditya), and (4) Skanda Gupta (455-467 A.D.). The Gupta period is described as the golden period in the history of ancient India. Among the great personalities of the period mention may be made of Kalidas, the famous dramatist, Aryabhatta, the famousastronomer and mathematician. Varahamihir and Brahma-gupta also belonged to this age. Pallava and Chalukya Dynasty

Pallava Dynasty : The Pallavas power reached its glorious heights during the reign ofNarasimhavarman II (695-722 A.D.) who is well-known for his architectural achievements. The Cholasdefeated king Aparajita and took over their kingdoms towards the close of the 9th century A.D.

Chalukyas : Pulkeshin I was the founder of this dynasty. He made Kanchi or Modern Badami his capital. His grandson Pulkeshin II (609-642) was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty. He measured swords with king Harsha and defeated him on the bank of the Narmada.Vardhana or Pushya-Bhuti Dynasty (560-647 A.D.)The greatest king of this dynasty was Harsha Varadhan (606-647 A.D.). He was a great patron of art and literature. He himself was a man of letters having written two great books 'Naga Nandin' and 'Ratnavali'. He was the last great Hindu ruler of India. Huen Tsang aChinese pilgrim, visited India during his reigoin.

Major Dynasties of Medieval India

Ghazni Dynasty (962-1116 A.D.)Mahmud Ghazni (997-1030) : He was a great conqueror. He invaded India 17 times. His invasions weakened the Indian rulers and paved the way for Muslim rule in India. The fmnous Persian poet Firdausi, the writer of 'Shahnama' lived in his court.

Ghori (1186-1206 A.D.)Mohammed Ghori (1186-1206) was defeated by Prithviraj, the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi at the first Battle of Tarain. He however, defeated Prithviraj at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192. This marked the beginning of permanent Muslim rule in India.

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 A.D.)Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-1210 A.D.) was the founder of the Slave Dynasty. He mmenced the building of the Qutub Minar which was later completed by AItamash (1211-1236) who was succeeded by Razia Begum (1236-1239 A.D.) his daughter.

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 A.D.)Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.) was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty. He was a great conqueror and his empire extended to the far south. He was famous for control of markets.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 A.D.)Mohammed Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty. He was known for his learning and also for mixture of sagacity and madness. His transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad has been described by historians as an act of madness.

Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 A.D.)

lbrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 A.D.) made some mark in extending his dominions. He was a cruel ruler. He was defeated by Babar in 1526 at the First Battle of Panipat, and the foundations of Mughal rule in India were laid.

Mughal Dynasty(1526-1857)

Babar (1526-1530 A.D.) founded the Mughal rule in India in 1526 by defeating Ibrahirn Lodhi. He however, did not live long and succeeded by hissori Hurnayun (1530-1540) and (1555-1556 A.D.) in 1530. Akbar (1556-1605 A.D.) was the mostcapable and distinguished ruler of the Mughal dynasty. His Son Jahangir (1605-1627A.D.) followed in his footsteps to some extent. Jahangir was succeeded by Shahjahan (1627-1659 A.D.) whose reign is described as the golden period in Mughal history. His son Aurangzeb (1659-1707A..D.) was the last great Mughalemperor. But with him began the downfall of Mughal empire on account of his policy of intolerance which alienated the Hindus especially the Rajputs.

Suri Dynasty (1540-1555 A.D.)Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 A.D.) : His rule provides an interragnum between two phases of Mughalrule in India. Sher Shah defeated Humayun and forced him into exile. He carried out notable reforms inadministration.

The Marathas (1649-1748 A.D.)

The Maratha power rose in the latter half of the 17th century. The Marathas organised their power under the leadership of Shivaji (1627-80). He was an able ruler and commander. During the Peshwa period, the Maratha power spread through the major part of India. But at a time when the Maratha power was at its zenith and promised to establish its sway over the whole of India, the forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali badly defeated the Peshwa forces in 176.1 at the Bat tie of Panipat. Though the Marathas were defeated at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali, neither of the two parties could maintain its sovereignty over India. On the contrary this battle made the field clear for the establishment of British East India Company's rule in India.

The Peshwas (1708-1818)

After the death of Shivaji, Peshwas continued their struggle. They did succeed to a great extent in their struggle. A major portion of Indian peninsula came under their control at the outset of British hold. But due to internal conflict and subsequent

weakening of power they succumbed to British power which had been gaining momentum.

Important Dynasties in the SouthCholas : Parantaka I was the founder of this dynasty in 907. Chola rule reached its high water mark of glory under Raja Rajadeva, the Great and his son Rajendra Choladeva I. The Cholas established their supremacy even outside India.

Bahmani Muslim Kingdom (1346-1526 A.D.) : The Muslim Kingdom was  established in the Deccan during the reign of Mohammed Tughlaq and founded in 1347 by a brave soldier, named Zafar Khan. The most illustrious person of this kingdom was Mahmud Gawan, a Persian who was a minister for a long time. He was killed and after that the kingdom was split into five independent states. (1) Bedar, (2) Berar, (3) Ahmednagar, (4) Bijapur, (5) Golkunda.

Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565 A.D.) : Harihar and Bukka were the founders of this dynasty in 1336. Thegreatest rulers of this dynasty were Deva Raya II and Krishna Deva Raya. The glory of Vijayanagar empire was smashed at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 when the Deccan SuItantes fought and defeated Ramraja and killed him

Major Dynasties and Rulers of India

Century6–4 BC   Magadhan Ascendancy (North India)

  544–492   Bimbisara

 492–460   Ajatshatru

  344–323   Mahapadma Nanda, Dhan Nanda

4–2 BC   Mauryan Empire (Areas south of Karnataka)

  324–300   Chandragupta Maurya

  298–273   Bindusara

  273–236   Ashoka

 

2–1 BC   Shungas (Ganges valley and part of Central India)

  184–151   Demetrius II

  155–130   Menander (Milinda)

1 BC–AD 3   Satavahanas (North Deccan) 120 Gautamiputra Satakarni

1 BC–AD 3   Shakas (West India)

1 BC–AD 3   Kushanas  (Northern India and Central Asia)

  78–106 Kanishka

AD 4–AD 6   Guptas (North India)

  319/20–330   Chandragupta I

  330–375   Samudragupta

  375–413   Chandragupta II

  413–455   Kumaragupta I

  455–477   Skandagupta

AD 4–AD 9   Pallavas (Tamil Nadu)

AD 5–AD 6   Hunas (Northwestern India and Central Asia)

AD 7   Harsha (North India and Central Asia)

300–888   Pallavas (Tamil Nadu)

  630–668   Narasimhavaraman Mahamalla

  695–722   Narasimhavaram II

556–757   Chalukyas of  Vatapi (West and Central Deccan)

609–642   Pulakeshin II

7th to 10th C   Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu)

 668–815   Veruguna I

  815–862   Shrimara Shrivallabha

  862–867   Varaguna II

630–970   Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)

750–1142   Rashtrakutra (West and Central Deccan)

773–1019   Pratiharas (West India and Upper Ganges)

850–1276   Cholas of Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu)

916–1203   Chandellas (Bundelkhand)

850–1195   Kalachuris of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh)

973–1192   Chalukyas of Kalyani (West and Central Deccan)

974–1060   Paramaras (Malwa)

1090–1193   Gahadavalas (Kanauj)

1110–1327   Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (South Deccan)

1118–1199   Senas (Bengal)

1190–1294   Yadavas of Deyagiri (North Deccan)

1206–1290   Ilbari

1290–1320   Khilji

1320–1414   Tughlaqus

1451–1526   Lodis

1526–1857   Mughals

1540–1555   Suri

1649–1818   Marathas

1708–1818   Peshwas

Indian National Movement

Government of India Act 1858• Indian National Congress (1885)• Partition of Bengal (1905) • Muslim League (1906)• Swadeshi Movement (1905)• Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)• Lucknow Pact (1916)• Home Rule Movement (19151916)• The Gandhian Era (1918-1947)• Khilafat Movement (1920)• The Rowlatt Act (1919)

• Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)• Swaraj Party (1922)• Simon Commission (1927)• Dandi March (1930)• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)• The Government of India Act, 1935• Quit India Movement (1942)• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)• Interim Government (1946)• Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)• Mountbatten Plan (1947)• The Indian Independence Act, 1947

• Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

• Partition of India (1947)

The East India Company had established its control over almost all parts of India by the middle of the 19th century. There were numerous risings in the first hundred years of British rule in India. They were, however, local and isolated in character. Some of them were led by the nobility who were refusing to accept the changing patterns of the time and wanted the past to be restored. But the risings developed a tradition of resistance offoreign rule, culminating in the 1857 revolt. 

The Revolt of 1857, which was called a Sepoy Mutiny by British historians and their imitators in India but described as "the First War of Indian Independence" by many Indian historians, shook the British authority in India from its very foundations.

The Revolt of 1857, an unsuccessful but heroic effort to eliminate foreign rule, had begun. The capture of Delhi and the proclamation of Bahadurshah as the Emperor of Hindustan are a positive meaning to the Revolt and provided a rallying point for the rebels by recalling the past glory of the imperial city.

On May 10, 1857, soldiers at Meerut refused to touch the new Enfield rifle cartridges. The soldiers along with other group of civilians, went on a rampage shouting 'Maro Firangi Ko'. They broke open jails, murdered European men and women, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi. The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning in Delhi was a'signal to the local soldiers, who in turn revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 80-year old Bahadurshah Zafar, as Emperor of India.

 Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the Revolt spread to the different parts of the country. Kanpur, Lucknow, Benaras,  Allahabad, Bareilly, Jagdishpur and Jhansi. In the absence of any leader from their own ranks, the insurgents turned to the traditional leaders of Indian society. At Kanpur, NanaSaheb, the adopted son of last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, led the forces. Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal in Lucknow and .Khan Bahadur in Bareilly were in command. However, apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had no political perspective or a definite vision of the future. They were all prisoners of their own past, fighting primarily to regain their lost privileges. Unsurprisingly, they proved incapable of ushering in a new political order. 

Government of India Act 1858Queen Victoria issued a proclamation on November 1, 1858, placing India under direct government of the Crown, whereby:(a) A viceroy was appointed in India(b) Princes were given the right to adopt a son (abolition of Doctrine of Lapse)(c) Treaties were honoured(d) Religious freedom was restored and equality treatment promised to Indians

 The Proclamation was called the 'Magna Carta of Indian Liberty'. The British rule in India was  strongest between 1858 and 1905. The British also started treating India as its most precious possession and their rule over India seemed set to continue for centuries to come. Because of various subjective and objective factors which came into existence during this era, the feeling of nationalism in Indians started and grow.

Indian National Congress (1885)Although the British succeeded in suppressing the 1857 Revolt, they could not stop the growth of political awareness in India. The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885. It was the visible embodiment of the national awakening in the country. Its founder was an Englishman, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired member of the Indian Civil Service. The Indian leaders, who cooperated with Hume in launching the Congress, were patriots of high character. The first President of the Congress was W.C. Bannerjee. 

The aims of the Congress were: promotion of friendship and cooperation amongst the nationalist political workers from the different parts of the country; the eradication of racial, creed or provincial prejudices and promotion of national unity; formulation of popular demands and their presentation before the Government; and, most important of all, the training and organisation of public opinion in the country.

Partition of Bengal (1905)On December 30, 1898, Lord Curzon took over as the new Viceroy of India. The partition of Bengal came into effect on October 16, 1905, through a Royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of East Bengal, which later on became East Pakistan and present day Bangladesh. The government explained that it was done to stimulate growth of underdeveloped eastern region of the Bengal. But, actually, the main objective was to 'Divide and Rule' the most advanced region of the country at that time. 

Muslim League (1906)In 1906, All India Muslim League was set up under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. The League supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, and demanded special safegurds for its community and a separate electorates of Muslims. This led to communal differences between Hindus and Muslims. 

Swadeshi Movement (1905)The Swadeshi movement has its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was started to oppose the British decision to divide Bengal. With the start of the Swadeshi movement at the turn of the century, the Indian National Movement took a major leap forward.

The Indian National Congress took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905, presided over by G.K. Gokhale, supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of Bengal, Militant Nationalism spearheaded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh was, however, in favour of extending the movement of the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and boycott of goods to full-fledged political mass struggle.

Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord Minto was the GovernorGeneral of India. The reforms envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims besides other constitutional measures. The government thereby sought to create a rift within the Congress on the one hand by winning the support of the moderates,

and on the other, to win favour of Muslims against Bindus. To achieve the latter objective, the reforms introduced the system of separate electorates under which Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates. This was done to encourage the notion that the political, economic and cultural interests of Hindus and Muslims were separate and not common. Indian political leaders were however dissatisfied by these reforms.

Lucknow Pact (1916)An important step forward in achieving Hindu-Muslim unity was the Lucknow Pact 1916. AntiBritish feelings were generated among the Muslims following a war between Britain and Turkey which opened way for Congress and Mus-lim League unity. Both the Congress and the Muslim League held sessions at Lucknow in 1916 and concluded the famous Lucknow Pact. The Congress accepted the separate electorates, and both organizations jointly demanded dominion status for the country.                 

 Hindu-Muslim unity weakened the British attitude and forced the government to announce its future policy. In 1916 a British policy was announced whereby association of Indians was increased and there was to be a gradual development of local self-governing institutions.

Home Rule Movement (19151916)Dr. Annie Besant, inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a Home Rule Movement in India in September 1916. The movement spread rapidly and branches of the Rome Rule League were established all over India. Bal Gangadhar Tilak wholeheartedly supported this movement. Rejoined forces with Dr. Besant and persuaded the Muslim League to support this programme.  

The Gandhian Era (1918-1947)Mahatma Gandhi dominated the Indian political scene from 19181947. This period of the Indian National Congress is also referred to as the Gandhian Era. It was the most intense and eventful phase of India's freedom struggle. Mahatma Gandhi provided the leadership of the highest order and his philosophy of non-violent Satyagraha became the most potent weapon to drive out .the British from the Indian soil.

Khilafat Movement (1920)

The Caliph, Sultan of Turkey, was looked upon by the Muslims as their religious head. During the First World War, when the safety and the welfare of Turkey were threatened by the British thereby weakening the Caliph's position, Indian Muslims adopted an aggressive anti-British attitude. The two brothers, Mohammed Ah and Shaukat Ali launched an antiBritish movement in 1920-the Khilafat Movement for the restoration. 

The Rowlatt Act (1919)While trying to appease Indians, the British Government was following a policy of repression. Throughout the First World War, repression of freedom fighters had continued. The revolutionaries had been hunted down, hanged or im-prisoned. The Government now decided to arm itself with more powers in order to suppress the freedom fighters. In March 1919, it passed the Rowlatt Act. This Act authorised the government to detain any person without trial. The Rowlatt Act came like a sudden blow. The Indians had been promised extension of democracy during the war. They felt humiliated and were filled with anger when they found that their civil liberties were going to be curtailed still further. Unrest gripped the country and a powerful agitation against the Act started. During this agitation, Gandhiji took command of the nationalist movement. March and April 1919 witnessed a remarkable political awakening in the country. There were hartals, strikes and demonstrations at various places. The slogans of Hindu-Muslim unity filled the air. 

Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)The Government was bent on suppressing the mass agitation. In Bombay; Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Delhi and at other places demonstrators were lathi-charged and fired upon. Gandhiji gave a call for a general hartal on April 6, 1919. The call was responded to with great enthusiasm. The Government decided to resort to repression to suppress the agitation. At this time the British Government committed one of the worst political crimes in modem history. An unarmed but a large crowd had gathered in Jallianwalla Bagh, Amritsar (Punjab) on April, 13, 1919 for a meeting. General Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on them without warning. This massacre of unarmed people (hundreds died and thousands were wounded) in an enclosed place from which there was no exit, was followed by a reign of terror in several districts under martial law. 

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)With the Congress support of the Khilafat movement, Hindu-Muslim unity was achieved which encouraged Gandhiji to launch his non-violent, non-cooperation movement. At the Calcutta Session in September 1920, the Congress resolved in favour of the non-violent, non-cooperation movement and defined Swaraj as its ultimate aim. The movement envisaged: (i) Surrender of titles and honorary officers; (ii) Resignation from nominated offices and posts in the local bodies; (iii) Refusal to attend government darbars and official functions and boycott of British courts by the lawyers; (iv) Refusal of general public to offer themselves for military and other government jobs, and boycott of foreign goods, etc.

 The non-cooperation movement also saw picketing of shops selling foreign cloth and boycott of the foreign cloth by the followers of Gandhiji.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)The Congress session held at Ahmedabad in December 1921 decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement while reiterating its stand on the non-violent, noncooperation movement of which Gandhiji was appointed the leader. Before Gandhiji could launch the Civil Disobedience Movement, a mob of countrymen at Chauri Chaura, a place near Gorakhpur in D.P., clashed with the police which opened fire. In retaliation the mob burnt the police-station and killed 22 policemen. This compelled Gandhiji to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement on February 12, 1922.

 Despite this Gandhiji was arrested and sentenced to six years imprisonment. The Chauri Chaura incident convinced Gandhiji that the nation was not yet ready for the mass-dis6bedience and he prevailed upon Congress Working Committee in Bardoli on February 12, 1922 to call off the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Swaraj Party (1922)Gandhiji's decision to call off the agitation caused frustration among masses. His decision came in for severe criticism from his colleagues like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar, who organized the Swaraj Party. The foundations of the 'Swaraj Party' were laid on January 1, 1923, as the 'CongressKhilafat-Swarajya Patty'. It proposed then an alternative programme of diverting the movement from widespread civil disobedience programme to restrictive one which would encourage its member to enter into legislative councils (established under Montford Reforms of 1919) by contesting elections in order to wreck the legislature from within and to use moral pressure to compel the authority to concede to the popular demand for self-government. 

Simon Commission (1927)Under the 1919 Act, a statutory commission was to be appointed by the British Government at the end of ten years from the passing of the Act to inquire into the working of the system of government in the country and to recommend further reforms. Thus the commission was scheduled to be appointed in 1929. It was actually appointed two years earlier in 1927. The commission consisted of seven members of the British Parliament. It was headed by Sir John Simon. As all its members were British, the Congress decided to boycott it. The Commission arrived in India in Feb. 1928. It was greeted with black flags and hostile demonstrations everywhere it went. In one such demonstration at Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in a wanton police lathi-charge on the demonstrators. Lalaji died soon after from wounds received during the demonstration. 

Dandi March (1930)Also called the 'Salt Satyagraha'. To achieve the goal of complete independence, Gandhiji launched another civil disobedience movement. Along with 79 followers, Gandhiji started his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 20,1930, for the small village Dandi to break the Salt Law. While Gandhiji was marching to Dandi,

Congress leaders and workers had been busy at various levels with the hard organizational tasks of enrolling volunteers and members, forming grassroot Congress Committees, collecting funds, and touring villages and towns to spread nationalist messages.

 On reaching the seashore on April 6, 1930, he broke the Salt Law by picking up salt from the seashore. By picking a handful of salt, Gandhiji inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement, a movement that was to remain unsurpassed in the history of the Indian National Movement for the countrywide mass participation it unleashed. The movement became so powerful that it sparked off partriotism even among the Indian soldiers in the Army. The Garhwal soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)Early in 1931 two moderate statesmen, Sapru and Jayakar, initiated efforts to bring about rapprochement between Gandhiji and the government. Six meetings with Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the signing of a pact between the two on March 5, 1931, whereby the Congress called off the movement and agreed to join the Second Round Table Conference. The terms of the agreement included the immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted for violence, the remission of all fines not yet collected, the return of confiscated land not yet sold to third parties, and lenient treatment of all the government officials who had resigned.

 Gandhiji and other leaders were released from jail as Irwin agreed to release most political prisoners and to return the properties that had been seized by the governments. The government also conceded the right to make the salt for consumption of villages along the coast, and also the right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing. The Congress on its part, agreed to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement and to participate in the next Round Table Conference.

The Government of India Act, 1935The Simon Commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for the Government of India Act 1935. The new Government of India Act received the royal assent on August 4, 1935.

 The Act continued and extended all the existing features of the Indian constitution. Popular representation, which went back to 1892, dyarchy and ministerial responsibility, which dated from 1921, provincial autonomy, whose chequered history went back to eighteenth century presidencies, communal representation, which first received recognition in 1909, and the safeguards devised in 1919, were all continued and in most cases extended. But in addition there were certain new principles introduced. It provided for a federal type of government. Thus, the act:

(a) Introduced provincial autonomy(b) Abolished dyarchy in provinces I(c) Made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre

 The Act of 1935 was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public opinion and was unanimously rejected by the Congress. The Congress demanded instead, the convening of a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of adult franchise to frame a constitution for an independent India.              

Quit India Movement (1942)On August 8, 1942, the Congress in its meeting at Bombay passed a resolution known as 'Quit India' resolution, whereby Gandhiji asked the British to quit India and gave a call for 'Do or die' to his countrymen. On August 9, 1942, Gandhiji was arrested but the other leaders continued the revolutionary struggle. Violence spread throughout the country, several government officers were destroyed and damaged, telegraph wires were cut and communication paralyzed. The movement was, however, crushed by the government.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The British Prime Minister, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission would visit India to make recommendations regarding constitutional reforms to be introduced in India. The Cabinet Mission which constituted of Lord Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander visited India and met the representatives of different political parties but a satisfactory solution to the constitutional difficulties could not be found. The Mission envisaged the establishment of a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution as well as an interim government. The Muslim League accepted the plan on June 6, 1946, while maintaining its rights of striving for a separate Muslim state. The Congress also partially accepted the plan.

Interim Government (1946)On September 2, 1946, an interim government was formed. Congress members led by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but the Muslim League did not as it withdrew its earlier acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.  

Formation of Constituent Assembly (1946)The Constituent Assembly met on December 9, 1946, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The Muslim League did not join the Assembly. 

Mountbatten Plan (1947)In March 1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell. He announced his plan on June 3, 1947. It offered a key to the political and constitutional deadlock created by the refusal of the Muslim League to join the Constituent Assembly formed to frame the Constitution of India. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity. The country would be partitioned but so would be Punjab and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that emerged would meet both the Congress and the League's position to some extent. The League's position on Pakistan was conceded in that it would be created, but the Congress position on unity would be taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. He laid down detailed principles for the partition of the country and speedy transfer of political powers in the form of dominion status to the newly formed dominions of India and Pakistan. Its acceptance by the Congress and the Muslim' League resulted in the birth of Pakistan. 

 The Indian Independence Act, 1947The Bill containing the provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, was introduced in the British Parliament and passed as the Indian Independence Act,

1947. The Act laid down detailed measures for the partition of India and speedy transfer of political powers to the new government of India and Pakistan.

 Partition of India (1947)In accordance with the Indian Independence Act, 1947, India was partitioned on August 15, 1947 into India and Pakistan. The Act made India and Pakistan independent dominions. Bloodshed and violence marked the exodus of refugees. The state of Kashmir acceded to the Indian Union, after the raiders were helped by Pakistan, in October 1947. Lord Mountbatten was appointed the Governor-General of free1ndia and M.A. Jinnah the first Governor-General of Pakistan

Prominent Figures of the Indian Freedom Movement

 

Allan Octavian Hume (1829-1912)A retired English member of the Indian Civil Services who sympathised with the Indian cause and propagated the ideals of the Congress in Britain. He founded the Indian National Congress in 1885 and was its first General Secretary.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)An aggressive freedom fighter popularly known as 'The Father of Indian Unrest'. His political career began in 1896 during the famine in the Deccan. His followers along with him preached the relevant sections of the Famine Relief Code and motivated the people to be bold and fearless in demanding their rights. He was first Indian leader to give the slogan "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it". He is the author of Gita-Rahasaya through which he taught the people to fight against oppression and unrighteousness. He started two well-known newspapers: Kesari (Marathi) and Maratha (English) to rouse national sentiments. The three leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal are known in the history of Indian freedom movement as 'Lal, Bal, Pal'.

Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)One of the extremist leaders of the freedom struggle and an ardent supporter of the boycott of foreign goods, the Swadeshi movement and national education. He did not believe in Dominion Status and wanted full-fledged independence. Achieved national stature after partition of Bengal. In the 1907 Surat Congress session, he fought for Tilak's candidature for presidentship.

Dadabhai Naoroji (1824-1917)Also known as the 'Grand Old Man of India', he was a prominent Congress leader and worked for Swaraj in England which was the centre of his political activities. He was the first Indian to be elected member of the House of Commons from a London county. He authored Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.

Surendranath Bannerji (1848-1925)He entered the Indian Civil Services in 1869 but was dismissed for a minor irregularity. He then established the Rippon College of which he remained the Principal for several years. Surendranath Bannerji started a daily newspaper 'Bengal' which was published in English. He was the president of Indian National Congress twice (1895 and 1902).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915)Started as a maths teacher and rose to the position of Principal of the well-known Ferguson College, Pune. He played a commendable role in the Imperial Legislative Council of which he was a member in 1902. He founded 'The Servants of India Society' and served as President of the Indian National Congress in 1907.

Ms Annie Besant (1847-1933)Also known as the 'Grand Old Lady of Indian Nationalism'. She became member of the Theosophical Society in 1889 and became its President in 1907. She settled in India and worked for the social upliftment of the people. Ms Annie Besant joined the Congress and in 1916 inaugurated the All India 'Home Rule League' in Madras. She played a prominent role in uniting militant and moderate leaders at the Congress session in Lucknow in 1920. Later she left the Congress but

continued to serve India. She translated the Bhagawad Gita into English.

Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)A dedicated social worker educationist, he joined the Indian National Congress in 1888. He supported the extremist leaders in the 1907 Congress split-along with Tilak. Lal Lajpat Rai started and edited a newspaper Young India, presided over the 1920 Congress Session and became member of the Indian Legislative Assembly in 1923. In 1920 he led the non-cooperation movement in Punjab and was sent to jail. On a visit to Lahore on October 30, 1928, he suffered severe lathi blows in a police attack and later died of injuries. He is also called 'Sher-e-Punjab' and 'Punjab Kesri'. C. R. Das (1870-1925)Also known as 'Deshbandhu', a lawyer in the Calcutta Bar he entered politics in 1920. He presided over the Gaya Congress session and along with Motilal Nehru and Hakim Ajmal Khan launched the 'Swaraj Party' in 1923.

Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946)He joined the Congress in 1886 and was twice elected President of the Indian National Congress. He represented the Hindu community at the Round Table Conference and founded the Nationalist Party to protect rights of the Hindu community.

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)Known as 'Father of the Nation' and 'Bapu', he was a true believer of non-violence. He led the Indian National Movement from 1920 to 1947. He worked for Hindu-Muslim unity but was assassinated in 1948.

Subhash Chandra Bose (1897)Also known as 'Netaji', he resigned from the Indian Civil Service in 1921 and supported the non-cooperation movement led by Gandhiji. He was elected president of the Congress in 1938 but left the Congress in 1939 and formed the 'Forward Black' party. Subhash Chandra Bose was arrested during World War II but escaped from India and went to Japan where he formed the Indian National Army (INA) to fight the British but was unsuccessful due to Japan's surrender after the war. It was Netaji's wish to unfurl the national-flag at the Red Fort in Delhi. It is thus in his remembrance that the National Flag is unfurled every year at Red Fort on August 15. He also gave the slogan 'Jai Hind' to the nation. He is believed to have died in an air-crash in 1945. Motilal Nehru (1861-1931)A national leader of the Gandhian era; a noted lawyer of the Allahabad High Court, Motilal Nehru joined the Home Rule League in 1917 and was elected president of the Indian National Congress in 1930. He founded the Swaraj Party and donated his palatial house 'Anand Bhawan' (later known as Swaraj Bhawan) to the Congress.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950) Also known as the 'Iron Man of India' Sardar Patel was Home Minister in independent India's cabinet during which time he worked tirelessly for the integration of the Indian princely states.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888-1958) A great national leader who believed in communal harmony, he was elected President of the Indian National Congress in 1923 and was a close associate of Gandhiji. He remained Union Minister of Education from January 1947 till his death on February 22,1958.

Dr Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963) Joined the Congress in 1911. He also edited a Hindi weekly called Desh. He is said to have changed

the whole base of Indian politics after the 1920 Nagpur session of the Congress by deciding to involve the masses in the freedom movement. He remained Food and Agriculture Minister in the interim ministry and was elected President of the Constituent Assembly in 1947. He later took over as President of India between 1952 and 1962.

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) A leading member of the Indian National Congress. As Congress President at the 1929 Lahore Session he declared that complete independence was the aim of the Congress. Jawaharlal Nehru remained PM of India from 1947 till his death. He pronounced the doctrine of Panchsheel which is based on the ideology of peaceful co-existence and non-alignment. He authored Discovery of India and Glimpses of World History, among other books

Indian History At a Glance

  Indian History : After IndependenceB.C.

2500-1500Indus Valley Civilisation.

540Birth of Mahavir—Founder of Jainism.

563 Birth of Gautam Buddha—Founder of Buddhism.

483 Buddha attains Nirvana.

468Mahavir attains Nirvana.

327-325Alexander's invasion of India.

322Chandragupta Maurya's accession to the throne of Magadha.

305Defeat of Seleucus at the hands of Chandragupta Maurya.

273-232Ashoka's regime

261Conquest of Kalinga.

58Beginning of Vikram Era.

A.D.

78Beginning of Saka Era.

120Accession of Kanishka.

320Beginning of Gupta Dynasty.

405Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien visited India.

606-647Harsha Vardhan's regime.

629Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited India.

712Mohammad-bin-Qasim's invasion of Sindh.

1001Mahmud Gazhni's first attack on India.

1025Mahmud Gazhni destroyed Somnath Temple.

1191First Battle of Tarain.

1192Second Battle of Tarain.

1206Foundation of first Muslim Dynasty in India by Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

1221First Mongol invasion of India by Changez Khan

1236Accession of Razia Sultan to the throne of Delhi.

1398Taimur Lang invaded India.

1469Birth of Guru Nanak—Founder of Sikhism.

1498Discovery of sea-route of India by Vasco-de-Gama, Portuguese

sailor.

1526First Battle of Panipat, Ibrahim Lodi defeated by Babar, foundation of Mughal rule in India.

1556Second Battle of Panipat, Hemu defeated by Akbar and latter'saccession to the throne.

1576Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap was defeated by Akbar.   

1600Establishment of East India Company.

1605Death of Akbar.

1612First English factory at Surat.

1627Birth of Shivaji—Founder of Maratha Power.

1648Taj Mahal completed at Agra.

1666Shivaji's visit to the Mughal Court at Agra, his imprisonment and dramatic escape.

1680Death of Shivaji.

1707Death of Aurangzeb.

1739Nadir Shah of Persia invaded India.

1757Battle of Plassey.

1761Third Battle of Panipat.

1764Battle of Buxar.

1773Regulating Act.

1774

Birth of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

1784Pitt's India Bill.

1793Permanent settlement of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

1833Macaulay recommended English as the medium of instruction in India.

1839Death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

1853First railway line opened in India from Bombay to Thana.

1857First Battle of Indian Independence.

1858End of East India Company's rule; administration of India transferred to the British Crown.

1861Indian Councils Act; Rabindranath Tagore born.

1863Birth of Swami Vivekanand.

1869Birth of Mahatma Gandhi.

1885Indian National Congress founded by A.O. Hume.                

1889Birth of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.

1905First Partition of Bengal.

1906All India Muslim League founded.

1909Morely-Minto Reforms Bills passed.

1911Partition of Bengal revoked; India's Capital transferred from Calcutta to Delhi.

1919Government of India Act Passed; Jallianwala Bagh massacre at Amritsar.

1920Bal Gangadhar Tilak died; Non-Co-operation Movement startedby Mahatma Gandhi-Khilafat Movement started by Ali Brothers.

1922Chauri Chaura outrage in U.P.

1927Visit of Simon Commission.

1928Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1929Under the Presidentship of Pt. Nehru at Lahore session of Congress, a resolution for complete independence passed.

1930Mahatma Gandhi takes up Dandi March; First Round Table Conference in London.

1931Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Second Round Table Conference.

1932Communal Award announced; Gandhiji declares fast unto deathagainst the award.

1935Government of India Act passed.

1937Provincial Autonomy.

1941Death of Rabindranath Tagore; escape of Subhash ChandraBose from India.

1942Quit India Movement.

1943Bengal famine; Indian National Army formed at Singapore by Subhash Chandra Bose.

1945Trial of I.N.A. at Red Fort; Shimla Conference.

1946Visit of Cabinet Mission to India; Formation of Interim Government at the Centre.

1947India attains independence; Partition of India & creation of Pakistan

Indian History : After Independence

1948Mahatma Gandhi assassinated.

1949Indian Constitution adopted.

1950India goes Republic; Death of Sardar Patel.

1951First Five-Year Plan launched.

1952Independent India's First General Elections to the Lok Sabha.

1953Conquest of Mt. Everest by Ten Zing and Edmund Hillary.

1956States Reorganisation Act.

1957Second General Elections to the Lok Sabha.

1961Goa, Daman and Diu liberated from the possession of Portuguese.

1962China's attack on India; Third General Election.

1964Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru died; Lal Bahadur Shastri took over as the new Prime Minister.

1965Indo-Pak War; Ceasefire.

1966Tashkent Pact; Death of Lal Bahadur Shastri; Mrs. Indira Gandhi took over as the new P.M.; Punjab divided; Formation of HaryanaState.

1967

Fourth General Elections.

1968Emergency lifted.

1969Death of President Zakir Husain, V. V. Giri elected as new President; Split in Congress; Nationalisation of 14 Banks.

1970Fourth Lok Sabha dissolved; First atomic power station launchedat Tarapur.

1971General Elections; Statehood to Himachal Pradesh; Indo-Pak War, Birth of Bangladesh.

1972New States of Meghalaya, Tripura and Manipur; Assam state reorganised; Shimla Agreement; Death of C. Rajgopalachari.

1973Nationalisation of Coal Mines; Mysore state renamed Karnataka.

1974Nuclear explosion by India making her the sixth nuclear power in the World; Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed took over as the fifth President; Sikkim granted associate statehood to India.

1975Sikkim becomes the 22nd state of India; India enters space age with the launching of Aryabhatta; Dr. Radhakrishnan dies; First Internal Emergency in independent India.

1976Diplomatic relations with China & Pakistan restored; Lok Sabha extended for another year; 42nd Constitution Amendement Bill passed.

1977Lok Sabha Elections; President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed died; Combination of four opposition parties named as Janata Party gets absolute majority; Mr. Morarji Desai became P. M.; Emergency lifted; N. Sanjiva Reddy elected President.

1979India's Second satellite Bhaskara goes into orbit; Resignation of Mr. Morarji Desai as P. M.; Mr. Charan Singh sworn in as the new P.M.; Lok Sabha dissolved and mid-term poll announced; Death of  Loknayak Jay Prakash Narayan.

1980General Elections to the Lok Sabha; Mrs. Gandhi returns to Power; Formation of Bharatiya Janata Party; Six more commercial banks nationalised, Launching of first satellite into orbit, Sanjay Gandhi died in air crash.

1981India's first geostationary experimental communication satellite, APPLE, launched, Bhaskara II launched.

198246th Amendement Bill passed by Lok Sabha, Agreement for Supply of Mirage 2000.

1984Rakesh Sharma is became India's first spaceman, Phu Dorjee becomes the first Indian to scale Mt. Everest without oxygen; Bachendri Pal becomes the first Indian woman to scale Mt. Everest; Operation Bluestar in Punjab to flush out extremists and terrorists from the Golden Temple and from Gurudwaras; Mrs. Indira Gandhi assassinated by her own security guards, Rajiv Gandhi takes over as the new P.M., More than 2,000 persons die due to the gas leakages in the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal, Eighth General Elections and Congress (I) gets massive majority.

1985Lok Sabha passes Anti-defection Bill.                                   

1986India's first test tube baby `Indira' is born at Bombay.

1987Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh declared 23rd and 24th state of India,. Mr. R. Venkataraman sworn in as 8th President of India.

1988Six opposition parties and Jan Morcha launch National Front. A new opposition party, the Janata Dal is launched Bangalore with V.P. Singh as its Chairman.

1989The Supreme Court of India settles compensation for the Bhopal Gas tragedy victims at 470 million dollars. For the first time in the history of Parliament 73 M.Ps. resigned enmass.

1990Upper age limit for the Civil Services Examination enhanced. The Union Government decided to implement the Mandal Commission report. 27 percent jobs to be reserved for Backward Classes.

1991India allows U.S. military planes to refuel in country. Rajiv Gandhi assassinated at Sriperumbdur, 45 km. from Chennai.

1992Woman commission constituted, Narsimha Rao wins confidence vote, Agreement on Tin Bigha, Babri Masjid demolished, Communal riots envelope the country.

1993Russian President Boris Yeltsin visits India, Bodoland problem solved, Human Rights Commission set up.

1994India successfully launches ASLV-D4. Surat declared pleague hit. First heart transplantation in the country.

1995SAARC Summit in New Delhi. Punjab C.M. Beant Singh assassinated.

1996India-Bangladesh sign Ganga Water Pact.

1997U.F. Govt. led by H.D. Deve Gowda resigns. India celebrates 50th year of its independence. Lok Sabha dissolved.

1998Death sentence for 26 persons in Rajiv Gandhi assassination case.

1999Operation Vijay makes a headway in Kargil.                         

2000India US Joint working group on counter terrorism. TRAI ordinance promulgated.

2001Summit in Agra with Pakistan, GSLV placed a satellite in a Geosynchronous Transfer orbit, Launching of PSLV-C3, Attack on the Parliament house, Missile Nag successfully test fired, Year of Census; collect data of one billion plus population.

2002POTA passed in joint session. Missile man Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam elected as 12th President of India, India's first full-fledged meterological satellite METSET was successfully launched from Sriharikota.

2003India and Pakistan exchange lists of nuclear installations, Canada, Australia, Singapore, New Zealand and EU Countries, Iranian President Moh. Khatami was the Chief Guest at India's 54th Republic Day Celebration, Brahmos, the supersonic, antiship cruise missile successfully test fired. RESOURCESAT-I sucessfully launched, India-Thailand signed five agreement. Bodo, Santhali, Maithili & Dogri languages included in the 8th Schedule.

2004Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee attended the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad. President of Brazil was the Chief guest at India's 55th Republic day. The Election Commission announces Lok Sabha election. NDA loses Lok Sabha elections. President appoints Dr. Man Mohan Singh new Prime Minister of India. Major Rajyvardhan Singh wins silver medel in olympic double trap event. India's first educational satellite EDUSAT launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota. Vilas Rao Deshmukh sworn in C.M. of Maharashtra.

2005The Union Cabinet approves the National Rural Health Mission, Noted film-maker, The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, launches the National Legal Literacy Mission, in New Delhi, Punit Arora takes over as the first woman Vice-Admiral in the Navy, The Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, launches the National Knowledge Commission, Justice Y.K. Sabharwal is sworn in Chief Justice of India, Uma Bharati is expelled from the BJP for `indiscipline', Raj Thackeray quits the Shiv Sena, Lal Krishna Advani resigns as BJP president.

2006India-Pakistan exchange lists of nuclear facilities, 93rd congress held in Hyderabad, Lahore-Amritsar Bus Service begins, Presidentor APJ Abdul Kalam assent the constitution amendment bill providing reservation for the socially

and educationally backward classes. VAT implemented in 27 states. Domestic Violence Act, 2005 comes into effect. Ban on child labour under the provisions of child labour Act, 1986. Sachar Committee submitted report on Muslims. Prithvi Interceptor Missile tested successfully. India-US Nuke deal approved by the US Congress.

2007INSAT-4B is successfully launched by Ariane-5 launcher from the spaceport of Kourou in French Guyana. Sara Jane selected new Miss India-world, 2007. PSLV-C8 Launched Italian Satellite in space. Mayawati sworn in as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. Ms. Pratibha Devisingh Patil was sworn in as the first woman President of India. Mohammad Hamid Ansari was sworn in as the Vice-President of India. Ace Shooter Manavjit Singh Sandhu has been awarded the prestigious Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award, 2006. Lt. Gen. Deepak Kapoor has been appointed as the chief of Army Staff. President rule in Karnataka

Andhra Pradesh

Area : 2,75,069 sq km Population : 76,210,007 Capital : Hyderabad Principal Languages : Telugu and Urdu  History and GeographyThe earliest mention of the Andhras is said to be in Aitereya Brahmana (2000 BC). It indicates that the Andhras, originally an Aryan race living in north India migrated to south of the Vindhyas and later mixed with non-Aryans. Regular history of Andhra Desa, according to historians, begins with 236 BC, the year of Ashoka‘s death. During the following centuries, Satavahanas, Sakas, Ikshvakus, Eastern Chalukyas, Kakatiyas ruled the Telugu country. Other

dynasties that ruled over the area in succession were the kingdoms of Vijayanagar and Qutub Shahi followed by Mir Qumruddin and his successors, known as the Nizams. Gradually, from the 17th century onwards, the British annexed territories of the Nizam and constituted the single province of Madras. After Independence, Telugu-speaking areas were separated from the composite Madras Presidency and a new Andhra State came into being on 1 October 1953. With the passing of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, there was a merger of Hyderabad State and Andhra State, and consequently Andhra Pradesh came into being on 1 November 1956. Andhra Pradesh is bound on the north by Orissa and Chhattisgarh, on the west by Maharashtra and Karnataka, on the south by Tamil Nadu and on the east by the Bay of Bengal with a coastline of 974 km.  AgricultureAgriculture is the main occupation of about 62 per cent of the people in Andhra Pradesh. Rice is a major food crop and staple food of the State contributing about 77 per cent of the foodgrain production. Other important crops are jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, small millets, pulses, castor, tobacco, cotton and sugarcane. Forests cover 23 per cent of the State's area. Important forest products are teak, eucalyptus, cashew, casurina, bamboo, softwood, etc.  IrrigationImportant irrigation schemes implemented in the State are Godavari Delta System, Krishna Delta System, Nagarjunasagar project, Pennar Delta System, Tungabhadra Project H.L.C. (Stage-I), Tungabhadra Low-level Canal, Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal, Kadam Project, Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme, Nizam Sagar and Potharlanka. Other important projects under implementation are Vamsadhara Project Stage-I and II, Chagalnadu L.I. Scheme, Yeleru Reservoir Project, Tarakarama Krishnaveni L.I. Scheme, Veligonda Project, Somasila Project, Telugu Ganga Project, T.B.P.H.L.C. Stage-II, Pulivendla Branch Canal, K.C. Canal Modernisation Scheme, S.R.B.C., S.L.B.C. (AMR Project), S.R.S.P. Stage-I & II, Flood Flow Canal from S.R.S.P., Jurala Project, R.D.S. Link Canal, Bhima L.I. Scheme, T.B.P.H.L.C. Stage-I Modernisation, Guru Raghavendra Swamy L.I. Scheme and Singur Project.  

Andhra Pradesh is the first state to involve the farmers in the management of irrigation sources, boasting of 9,922 water user associations and 163 distributory committees formed.  PowerImportant power projects in the State are: the Nagarjunasagar and Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Sagar (Srisailam Hydel Project), Upper Sileru, Lower Sileru, Tungabhadra Hydel Projects and Nellore, Ramagundam, Kothagudem, Vijayawada and Muddanur thermal power projects. The Srisailam Hydro Electric Project with an installed capacity of 770 MW and the Nagarjunasagar Complex with 960 MW are the principal sources of hydel generation. Vijayawada Thermal Power Station with an installed capacity of 1,260 MW and Kothagudem Thermal Power Station with an installed capacity of 1,180 mw are the main sources of thermal power generation. The 1,000 mw coal-based Simhadri Thermal Power Station aims at supplying the entire energy generated to the State.  Industry and Minerals There are several major industries in operation around Hyderabad and Visakhapatnam. They manufacture machine tools, synthetic drugs, pharmaceuticals, heavy electrical machinery, fertilizers, electronic equipments, aeronautical parts, cement and cement products, chemicals, asbestos, glass and watches. Andhra Pradesh has the largest deposits of quality chrysolite asbestos in the country. Other important minerals found in the state are copper ore, manganese, mica, coal and limestone. The Singareni Coal Mines supply coal to the entire south India.  TechnologyThe State government is also promoting Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) at Hyderabad. IIIT offers 4-year UG and 2/3 year PG programmes. IBM, Oracle, Signal Tree, Satyam and Motorola have established their corporate schools.  TransportRoads : National Highways passing through Andhra Pradesh constitute 4,104 km. There are around 60,000 km of state highways and close to 1,04,000 km of Panchayati Raj roads in the State.  Railways : Of the railways route covering 5,107 km in Andhra Pradesh, 4,436 km is broad-gauge, 634 km is metre-gauge and 37 km is narrow gauge.  Aviation : Important airports in the State are located at Hyderabad, Tirupathi and Visakhapatnam. International flights are operated from Hyderabad.  Ports : Visakhapatnam is a major port in the State. Minor ports are located at Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Bheemunipatnam, Krishnapatnam, Vadarevu and Kalingapatnam.

Tourist Centres Charminar, Salarjung Museum, Golconda Fort in Hyderabad, Thousand Pillar Temple and Fort in Warangal, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple at Yadagirigutta, Buddha Stupa at Nagarjunakonda and Nagarjuna Sagar, Sri Venkateswara Temple at Tirumala-Tirupathi, Sri Mallikarjunaswamy Temple at Srisailam, Kanaka Durga Temple at Vijayawada, Sri Satyanarayana Swamy Temple at Annavaram, Sri Varaha Narasimha Swamy Temple at Simhachalam, Sri Sita Rama Temple at Bhadrachalam, Araku Valley, Horsley Hills, Nelapattu, etc., are the major tourist attractions in Andhra Pradesh. Thirty-three life-size statues of eminent Telugu personalities of the State were erected on Tankbund of Hussainsagar lake in Hyderabad. A giant statue of Lord Buddha of a height of about 60 feet has been erected on the Gibraltar rock in the Hussainsagar lake, which separates Hyderabad and Secunderabad cities.

 Text and Pix Courtesy by India Government Portal

The Constitution of India & Indian Polity

The Preamble    Articles of the Constitution    Schedules

The task of framing the Constitution of India was given to the Constituent Assembly, formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The inaugural meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on December 9, 1946. Dr Sachidananda Sinha was dected provisional Chairman of the Constituent Assembly. On December 11, 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the permanent chairman of the Constituent Assembly.

The Constitution of India was enacted, signed and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949.

On January 26, 1950, the Constitution of India came into force on which date India also became a Republic. Our constitution makes detailed provisions for the following:

Citizenship, Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy, Structure of the Government, Parliament and State Legislatures, Supreme Court and High Courts, Relationship between the Union and the States, Services, Official Language and various other matters of basic importance

Salient Features of Constitution

1. It is the longest written constitution in the world. 2. Consisting of 22 Chapters, over 395 Articles and 12 Schedules. 3.  It proclaims India a Sovereign Democratic Republic. 4. Fundamental Rights are guaranteed to all citizens of India. 5. Directive Principles of State Policy are incorporated. 6. It established the parliamentary system of government, i.e., the President of the Union is the constitutional

head, the Council of Ministers or the Union Cabinet is the real executive and is responsible to the Lok Sabha.

7. It is federal in form (in normal times) but unitary in spirit (in emergencies). 8. It is neither too rigid (as some provisions can be amended by a simple majority) nor flexible (as some

provisions require special majority for amendment). 9. It declares India a secular state. 10. It guarantees single citizenship to all citizens. 11. It introduced adult franchise, i.e., every adult above 18 years has the right to vote and the system of joint

electorates. 12. It established an independent judiciary; the Supreme Court acts as a guardian of the Constitution in place of

the Privy Council.

 The Preamble

The draft of the Preamble was prepared by Jawaharlal Nehru and is based on the American model. The 42nd Amendment added the words ``Secular and Socialist'' and now the preamble reads as follows.

``We the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens :

Justice; social, economic and political;Liberty; of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;Equality; of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all; Fraternity; assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation; 

In our Constituent Assembly, November 26, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution.

Articles of the ConstitutionPart Article Deals with

Part I Articles 1-4 Territory of India,, admission,, establishment or formation of new states

Part II Articles 5-11 Citizenship

Part III Articles 12-35 Fundamental Rights

Part IV Articles 36-51 Directive Principles of State Policy

Part IV A

Article 51-A Duties of a citizen of India. It was added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976

Part V Articles 52-151 Government at the Union level

Part VI Articles 152-237 Government at the State level

Part VII Article 238Deals with states in Part B of the First Schedule. It was repealed by 7th Amendment in 1956

Part VIII

Articles 239-241 Administration of Union Territories

Part IX Article 242-243Territories in Part D of the First Scheduleand other territories. It was repealed by 7th Amendment in 1956

Part X Articles 244-244 A Scheduled and tribal areas

Part XI Articles 245-263 Relations between the Union and States

Part XII Articles 264-300 Finance,, property,, contracts and suits

Part XIII

Articles 301-307Trade,, commerce and travel within theterritory of India

Part XIV

Articles 308-323 Services under the Union and States

Part XIV-A

Articles 323A-323BAdded by the 42nd Amendment in 1976and deals with administrative tribunals to hear disputes and other complaints

Part XV Articles 324-329 Election and Election Commission

Part XVI

Articles 330-342Special provision to certain classes ST/SCand Anglo Indians

Part XVII

Articles 343-351 Official languages

Part XVIII

Articles 352-360 Emergency provisions

Part XIX

Articles 361-367Miscellaneous provision regarding exemption of the President and governors from criminal proceedings

Part XX Article 368 Amendment of Constitution

Part XXI

Articles 369-392 Temporary,, transitional and special provisions

Part XXII

Articles 393-395Short title, commencement and repealof the Constitution

Schedules

FIRST SCHEDULE : I. The State, II. The Union Territories.

SECOND SCHEDULE :

PART A.  Provisions to the President and the Governors of StatesPART B.  (Repeated)

PART C.  Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State.PART D.  Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts.PART E.  Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

THIRD SCHEDULE :  Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.

FOURTH SCHEDULE :  Allocation of Seats in the Council of States.

FIFTH SCHEDULE : Provisions as to the administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.

PART A.   GeneralPART B.   Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled TribesPART C.  Scheduled AreasPART D.   Amendment of the Schedule

SIXTH SCHEDULE :  Provisions as to the administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam,  Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

SEVENTH SCHEDULE :

LIST I.   Union ListLIST II.   State ListLIST III.   Concurrent List

EIGHTH SCHEDULE :  Languages

NINTH SCHEDULE :  Article 31B

TENTH SCHEDULE :  Provisions as to disqualification on the ground of defection

ELEVENTH SCHEDULE :  Article 243G

TWELFTH SCHEDULE :  Article 243W

Government : At Union Level

Vice President     Council of Ministers

The Union executive consists of the President, the Vice President and the Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President.

The President

The President must : 1. be a citizen of India, 2. be qualified for election as a member of the House of the People (Lok Sabha) 3. have completed the age of 35 years, 4. not hold any office of profit under the Government of India, or the Government of

State,or under any local authority.

Method of Election – The president is indirectly elected by a body of electors forming the electoral college which includes the elected members of both houses of Parliament as well as the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the states.

He is elected in accordance with the system of proportional representation by the method of a single transferable vote the number of voter cast by each member of the legislative assembly and by each member of the parliament is obtained by the following formula :

The number of votes cast by each member of L.A.

      = {Total population of  the  state / Total elected  members of  the  Assembly} ÷ 1000

Each member of the Parliament will have as many votes as

       = Total number of  votes assigned to  the Assemblies ÷ Total number of elected members of Parliament

Term of Office – His term of office is five years unless he resigns or is removed from office by impeachment. He is eligible for re-election.

Impeachment of the President – The president may be impeached on a charge of violating the constitution. Such impeachment can be moved in either House of the Parliament by means of a resolution. Such resolution can be moved, only, if 14 days' notice in writing duly signed by at least one-fourth of the total membership of the House concerned is given. Such a resolution must be passed by at least two-thirds of the total membership of the House concerned. The charges must be investigated by the other House. The president has the right to be heard and defended during the investigation of the charges against him. If the investigating House sustains the charges by a resolution, adopted by a two-third majority. The president must be removed from office at once.

Powers of the President —

1.  Executive Powers – The President appoints the Prime Minister, the Governors, diplomats, judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts, the Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission, Chief Commissioners of Union Territories, the Attorney-General of India, the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, the members of Finance Commission and Election Commission. He is the supreme commander of defence forces. 

2. Legislative Powers – The President summons, prorogues, addresses, sends messages to Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha; promulgates ordinance at any time, except when both Houses of Parliament are in session, water recommendations for introducing financial and money bills and gives assent to bills, grants pardons; reprieves, respites or remission of punishment or suspends, remits or commutes sentences in certain cases. When there is a failure of the constitutional machinery in a State, he can assume to himself all or any of the functions of the government of the State. 

3. Emergency Powers – If President is satisfied that the security of the country is in danger because of any reason, he may issue a proclamation of emergency.

  4. Financial Powers – No Money Bill or demand for grant can be introduced

or moved in Parliament, unless it has been recommended by the President. 

5. Judicial Powers – He has the power to grant pardon, reprieve or remit of punishment or commute death sentences.

Vice President

The Vice-President is elected by members of an electoral college consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote. He must be a citizen of India, not less than 35 years of age and eligble for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha. His term of office is five years and he is eligible for re-election.

The Vice-President is ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and acts as President when the latter is unable to discharge his functions due to absence, illness or any other cause or till the election of a new President. While so acting, he ceases to perform the function of the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.

Council of Ministers

The Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to aid and advise the President in exercise of his functions. He is the leader of the party that enjoys a majority in the Lok Sabha. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President who also appoints other ministers on the advice of Prime Minister.

The Council is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It is the duty of the Prime Minister to communicate to the President all decisions of Council of Ministers and information relating to them.

The Council of Ministers comprises Ministers who are members of Cabinet, Ministers of State (independent charge), Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers

Government at State Level

  Membership of the State Legislative Assemblies

The State Executive consists of Governor and Council of Ministers with Chief Minister as its head.

Governor

The Governor is the executive head of the State and all executive authority of the State is vested in him. A Governor must be

1. citizen of India; 2. completed the age of 35 years; 3. not be a member of either House of Parliament or the state legislature; 4. possess the qualifications prescribed for membership of the state

legislature; and 5. not hold any office of profit. He is appointed by the President for a term of

5 years

State Council of Ministers

The Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers with Chief Minister as its head. The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other Ministers. They should be members of legislature of the state. If a non-member is appointed as Minister, he has to become the member of the state legislature within six months. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State.

Legislature — Every State has a legislature. Some States have one house while others have two. There are two houses in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir. Rest of the States have only one house. Where there is one house, it is known as the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) and where there are two houses, the upper house is called Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) and lower house is called Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). 

Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) — It can not have more than 1/3rd of the total members of the Legislative Assembly and in no case less than 40. It is constituted in : 1/3rd of its members are elected by the local bodies.; 1/3rd by the legislative assembly of the State; 1/3rd are elected by the Municipalities, District Board and other Local Bodies of the State; 1/12th by the university graduates of at least three years standing; 1/12 by the teachers who have been in service for at least three years and 1/6th to be nominated by the Governor from among persons distinguished in literature, science and social service. The legislative council can not be dissolved, its 1/3rd members retire every second year. 

Lagislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) — Total membership of a Legislative Assembly varies in each state according to its population. It consists of not more that 500 and not less than 60 members. The normal term of the Assembly is five years. The Assembly may be dissolved before five years.  

Membership of the State Legislative Assemblies

o Name of the State  — Total Memberso Uttar Pradesh  — 403o Maharashtra  — 288o Bihar  — 243o West Bengal  — 294o Andhra Pradesh  — 294o Tamil Nadu  — 234o Madhya Pradesh  — 230o Rajasthan  — 200o Karnataka  — 224o Gujarat  — 182o Orissa  — 147o Kerala  — 140o Jharkhand  — 81o Assam  — 126o Punjab  — 117o Haryana  — 90o Chhattisgarh  — 90o Delhi  — 56

o Jammu & Kashmir  — 76o Uttaranchal  — 70o Himachal Pradesh  — 68o Tripura  — 60o Manipur  — 60o Meghalaya  — 60o Nagaland  — 60o Goa  — 40o Arunachal Pradesh  —  40o Pondicherry  — 30o Mizoram  — 40o Sikkim  — 32

Major Constitutional Amendments : A Brief Survey

It will be appropriate here to describe the major Constitutional Amendment in chronological order.

The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951In June 1951, the Constitution (First Amendment) Act was passed, and the following Amendment in the Constitution were inserted : (i) To Article 15, a new clause (4) was added: (ii) clauses (2) and (6) of Article 19 were recast; (iii) After Article 31, Article 31A and 31B were inserted; (iv) For Original Article 85, a new Article was substituted; (v) In Article 87, clauses (1) and (2) were recast; (vi) For the Original Article 174, a new Article was substituted; (vii) In Article 176, clauses (1) and (2) were recast: (viii) Clause (1) of Article 341 was recast; and similarly, clause (1) of Article 342, sub-clause (a) of Article 342, sub clause (a) of clause (3) of Article 372, and clause (1) of Article 376 were also recast; (ix) After the Eight Schedule to the Constitution a Ninth Schedule was added and thirteen laws passed by State Legislatures were included in it so that those Acts might not be challenged in courts.

The main purpose of the Amendment was the removal of certain practical difficulties created by court decisions in several cases such as Kameshwar Singh vs. State of Bihar, Romesh Thapar vs. State of Madras, Brij Bhusan vs. State of Delhi and Motilal vs. Government of Uttar Pradesh. The issues involved in these cases were numerous, such as the scope of the fundamental right of freedom of speech, acquisition of Zamindari (land) of intermediaries, conflict between a citizen’s fundamental right to practise any profession, or to carry on any business or trade (Article 19) and state monopoly of any trade, and so on. The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952The Second Amendment amended Article 81 in order to remove the prescribed limit of 7,50,000 of the population for one member to be elected to the Lok Sabha. According to the original provision, at least on member was to be elected to the Lok Sabha for every 7,50,000 of the population. It was further provided that the maximum number of elected member to the Lok Sabha should not exceed 500. The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954The Third Amendment brought about changes in the Seventh Schedule consisting of the three legislative lists and entry 33 of the Concurrent List was substituted by a

new one. The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955Article 31 and 31A were amended by the Constitution Fourth Amendment Act. Clause (2) of Article 31 clause (1) of Article 31A were substituted by new clauses as. As a result of these, the adequacy of the quantum of compensation paid for the compulsory acquisition of property for ‘a public purpose’ could not be questioned in a court of law. It also amended Article 305 and the Ninth Schedule. The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955 The Constitutional Fifth Amendment Act amended Article 3. in the Constitution there was no time limit during which a State Legislature should express its boundaries, which the Centre may like to make. With the help of this amendment is was provided that the State will be required to express its views on such matters within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period, as the President may allow. The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956In this Act, the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution was amended and in the Union List, a new entry was added after entry 92 in the State List, a new entry was substituted for entry 54. it also amended Articles 269 and 286 dealing with inter-state Sales-tax.

The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956The Seventh Amendment brought about the most comprehensive changes so fair in the Constitution. This amendment was designed to implement the State Reorganisation Act. The Second and Seventh schedules were substantially amended for the purpose of the States Reorganization Act.  The Constitution (Eight Amendment) Act, 1959The Act extended the period of reservation seats in Lok Sabha and State Legislatures for the Anglo-Indians, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by another 10 years.

The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960It provided for the transfer of certain territories of India to Pakistan under and agreement between India and Pakistan as a part of a comprehensive settlement of border disputes between the two countries.

The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961The Tenth Amendment integrates the areas of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Union of India and provides for their administration under the regulation making powers of the President.

The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961It amends Article 71 so as to make it clear that the election of the President or the Vice-President shall not be challenges on the ground of any vacancy for whatever reason in the appropriate electoral college. It also obviates the necessity of a joint meeting of the two Houses of Parliament (Article 66) by constituting them into an electoral college for the election of the Vice-President.

The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962The main object of the Amendment was to add Union Territories of Goa, Daman and Diu to the Union of India and for this First Schedule of the Constitution was amended. The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962 The Act provides the creation of Nagaland as the Sixteenth State of the Union. The Amendment provides also for the vesting of certain special responsibilities in the Governor of Nagaland.

The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962The amendment provides for the incorporation of the former French Establishments in India, under the name Pondicherry, as an integral part of the territory of the Indian Union. it also amended Article 31 to increase, from a maximum 20 to 25, the number of seats assigned in the Lok Sabha for the Union Territories. The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963The amendment raised the retirement age of High Court. Judge from 60 to 62 years. It also empowered the various High Courts to hear cases against to the Union Government. The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963The Act seeks to enable Parliament to make laws provident penalty for any person questioning the sovereignty and integrity of India. Under the provisions of the this Amendment, a person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in Parliament or in the Legislature of State unless, inter-alia, he maker or subscribes before a person authorised by the Election Commission an oath or affirmation that he will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution and will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India. The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964The Act amend the definition of the term ‘estate’ in Article 31A to include lands held under ryotwari settlement and also other lands in respect of which provisions are normally made in land reform enact-ments. It also amends the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to include therein 44 State enactment relation to land reforms in order to remove any uncertainty or dobut that may arise with regard to their validity. The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966The amendment provides for the creation of new States, namely, Punjab and Haryana as a result of the reorganisation of the former State of Punjab and the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh.

The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966The Act modified Article 324 so as to terminate the jurisdiction of election tribunals to decide election disputes. The Amendment withdrew from the Election Commission the power of setting up election tribunals.

The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966The Act inserts a new Article 233A immediately after Article 233 in order to validate the appointment of District Judges, which might not have conformed fully to the different Constitutional requirements, which were in existent prior to 1966. The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment) Act, 1967It amended the Eight Schedule to the Constitution by including ‘Sindhi’ therein.                                    

The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969The amendment conferred legislative power on Parliament for the purpose of creating and autonomous Hill State within the State of Assam. Accordingly, Parliament passed the Assam Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act 1969 to set up the State of Meghalaya within the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment) Act, 1969It deals with the questions of reservation of seat in Parliament and State Assemblies for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indian and further extend the period of reservation by another ten years, which means in effect thirty years from the commencement of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971It amends Article 13 and 368 with a view to removing all possible doubts regarding the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure thereof. It gets over the Golak Nath ruling and asserts the power of Parliament, denied to in the Golak Nath, to amend fundamental rights.

The Constitution (Twenty-fifth) Amendment Act, 1971The 25th amendment of the Constitution in 1971 added a new clause, Article 31C to the Constitution. Upto 1971, the position was that fundamental rights prevailed over the directive principles of State Policy and that a law enacted to implement a directive principle could not be valid if it conflicted with a fundamental right. Article 31C sought to change this relationship to some extent by conferring primacy on Articles 39(b) and 39(c) over Articles 14, 19 and 31. The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1971It abolishes Articles 291 and 362 of the Constitution and also inserts a new Article 362A after Article 363. the cumulative effect of these changes is the end of the recognition granted to the former rulers of Indian States and the abolition of Privy Purses. The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1971The Act was enacted to implement the decision to establish the Union Territory of Mizoram. It empowered Parliament to create a legislature and Council of Minister for the new territory.

The Constitution (Twenty-eight Amendment) Act, 1972The amendment deletes Article 314 of the Constitution, whish had given protection to the I.C.S. Officers, condition of service and privileges and inserted a new Article 312A.

The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1972By the twenty-ninth Amendment Act, 1972 two Kerala Acts dealing with land reforms were included in the 9th Schedule to the Constitution. The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972By this amendment Article 133 was recast so as to redefine the Civil Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The result of this Amendment is that while any case involving an important question of law can reach the Supreme Court by way of appeal, a case however large the amount involved therein but involving no substantial point of law, would fail to reach the Supreme Court.

The Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 1973By this amendment, the strength of the Lok Sabha was increased from 525 to 545 members. This was done to accommodate the increase in population as revealed by the 1971 Census. Accordingly, Article 81(i)(a) was suitably amended. The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) Act, 1973The amendment Act was enacted to make few special provisions for the State of Andhra Pradash to satisfy the aspirations of the people of the Telangana region.

The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Act, 1974It amended Articles 101 and 190. Before this Amendment, the resignation of a member of legislature became effective the moment it was tendered. This position is now changed. A resignation becomes effective only after it has been accepted by the Presiding Officer of the House concerned who may refuse to accept the same if he is satisfied that the resignation is not voluntary or genuine. This precautionary provision appeared to be necessary to avoid the members of Parliament or state legislatures being forced to resign. 

The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974 By this amendment twenty State Acts concerning land ceiling and land tenure reforms were added to the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution. The Constitution (Thirty-fifth and Thirty-sixth Amendment) Acts, 1974-1975The 35th Amendment Act introduced and innovation in the Indian Constitution by conferring on Sikkim the status of an associate in the Indian Union. This was however, a short-lined experiment. The people of Sikkim desired to be and integral part of India. Accordingly, the Constitution Thirty-sixth Amendment Act was enacted in 1975 to confer full-fledged statehood on Sikkim. The Constitution (Thirty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1975The Amendment upgraded the status of Arunachal Pradesh as a Union Territory. Articles 239A and 240 were amended so as to authorize Parliament to create for Arunachal Pradesh a Legislature and Council of Ministers.  The Constitution (Thirty-eight Amendment) Act, 1975This Amendment Act was enacted during the emergency to make certain modification in the emergency provisions. The Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation was declared to be final and conclusive. A classificatory clause was added to Article 356(1) so as to make Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation there under as ‘final and conclusive’ which shall not be questioned in any court on any ground.

This Amendment also declared that the ‘satisfaction’ of the president and a State Governor to issue ordinances would be ‘final and conclusive’ and shall not be questioned in any court on any ground’. The Constitution (Thirty-ninth) Amendment) Act, 1975The voiding of the election the Lok Sabha of PM Indira Gandhi by the Allahabad High Court in 1975 on the pertion of Raj Narain led to the enactment of the 39th Amendment Act, 1975. it introduced changes in the method deciding election disputes relating to the four high official of the state, viz. President, Vice-President, Prime Minister and the Speaker. Under the new Article 71(2), Parliament by the law was to establish some ‘authority’ or ‘body’ for deciding such disputes, and its decisions have not be challengeable in any court. The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976The Amendment Act extended immunity to 64 Central and State statues by including them in the IX Schedule. These statues pertained to lad reform, Urban Ceiling and prevention of publication of objectionable matter. The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act, 1976The Constitution Forty-first Amendment Act, 1976 raised the age of retirement of the chairman and members of state public service Commissions from 60 to 62. The Constitution (Froty-second Amendment) Act, 1976The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act brought a number of changes in the Constitution. The Act inter-alia gave preponderance to the Directive Principles of State Policy over the Fundamental Rights. Established the supremacy of Parliament and curtailed the powers of Judiciary. The Act was first of its kind. Is was the most comprehensive Act and touched almost all the sensitive areas of the Constitution. The Amendment was meant to enhance enormously the strength of the Government.

The major Amendments made in the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act are:                             

Preamble The characterization of India as ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ has been

changed to ‘Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic’. The words ‘Unity of the nation’ have been changed to ‘Unity and integrity of the nation’.

Parliament and state legislatures : The life of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies was extended from 5 to 6 years.

Executive : It amended Article 74 to state explicitly that the President shall act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers in discharge of his functions.

Judiciary : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 32A in order to deny the Supreme Court the power to consider the Constitutional validity of a State law. Another new provision. Article 131A, gave the Supreme Court and exclusive jurisdiction to determine question relating to the Constitutional validity of a central law.

Article 144A and Article 128A, the creatures of Constitutional Amendment Act made further innovation the area of judicial review of the Constitutionality of legislation. Under Article 144A the minimum number of judges of the Supreme Court to decide a question of a Constitutional validity of a central or State law was fixed as at least seven and further, this required two-two-thirds majority of the judges sitting declare law as unconstitutional. While the power of the High Court enforce fundamental rights remained untouched, several restrictions were imposed on its power to issue writs ‘for any other purpose’.

Federalism : The Act added Article 257A in the Constitution to enable the Centre to deploy any armed force of the union, or any other force under its control. For dealing with any grave situation of law and order in any State.

Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles: A major change that was made by 42nd Constitutional Amendment was to give primacy to all directive principles over the fundamental right contained in Articles 14, 19 or 31. the 42nd Constitutional Amendment added a few more directive principles free legal aid, participation of workers in management of industries, protection for environment and protection of forests and wildlife of the country.

Fundamental Duties : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 51-A to create a new part called IV-A in the Constitution, which prescribed the fundamental duties to the citizens.

Emergency : Prior to 42nd Amendment Act, the President could declare emergency under Article 352 throughout the country and not in a part of the country alone. The Act authorised the President to proclaim emergency in any part of the country.

The dominant thrust of the Amendment was to reduce the role of courts, particularly, that of the High Courts. It also sought to strengthen Parliament in various ways which in effect, added to the power of the Central Government it drew enormous criticism particularly for it was pushed through during Emergency. The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977In 1977, the Emergency came to an end the Janata Party came into power. It made an election pledge that it would repeal the 42nd Amendment and restore the status quo ante. The 43rd Amendment repealed some of the provisions of the 42nd Amendment. Article 31D has also been omitted. The Constitution (Forty-forth Amendment) Act, 1978The 44th Amendment passed in 1978 undid most of the distortions introduced into the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution. The salient features of the Amendment Act are as follows :

1. It reduced the life of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies again to five years and thus restored the status quo ante.

2. It cancelled 39th Amendment which had deprived the Supreme Court of its

jurisdiction to decide disputes concerning election of the President and the Vice-President.

3. A new provision was added to Article 74(1) saying that the President cold require the council of ministers to reconsider its advice to him, either generally or otherwise and the President should Act in accordance with the advice tendered after such re-consideration.

4. Article 257A was omitted.5. It has been provided that an Emergency can be proclaimed only on the

basic of written advice tendered to the President by the cabinet.6. Right the property has been taken out from the list of Fundamental Rights

and has been declared a legal right. 

The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1980The purpose of the Amendment was to continue reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies for another 10 years, i.e., upto 1990. the same concession is extended to the Anglo-Indians who may have representation by nomination in these chambers. The Constitution (Forty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1982The Forty-sixth Amendment enables the State Governments to plug loopholes and realise sales-tax dues on the one hand and on the other aims at bringing about some uniformity in tax rates in case of certain items. The Constitution (Forty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1984This Amendment adds 14 State Acts dealing with land to the IX Schedule. The Constitution (Forty-eight Amendment) Act, 1984The purpose of the Amendment was to extend President’s rule in Punjab for two years. Under Article 356(5) President’s rule can last in a State for a maximum period of one year. But the conditions in Punjab did not permit holding of fresh elections and accordingly, extension of President’s rule became imperative. The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1984 the purpose of this Amendment is to take out the Tribal areas of Tripura from Schedule V and put them in Schedule VI. The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984This Amendment substitutes an expounded Article 33 for the old Article by the new Article 33, Parliament is authorised to curtail the fundamental rights of the members of the armed forces, forces charged with the maintenance of public order, intelligence organisations or telecommunication systems set up for any force or intelligence bureau, with a view to ensure the proper discharge of duties by and maintenance of discipline among those persons in the interest of country’s security. The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984 the Amendment effectuates some changes in Articles 330 and 332 with a view to provide for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha for Scheduled tribes in Meghalaya, Aruncahal Pradesh and Mizoram, as well as in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland and Meghalaya. The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985The amendment is designed to prevent the scourge of defection of members of Parliament and State legislatures from one political party to another. The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986The amendment Act elevated the Union Territory of Mizoram to the status of a State. The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment) Act,1986The Salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts have been

enhanced by the 54th Amendment Act, 1986. accordingly, a Judge of the Supreme Court gets a salary of Rs. 9,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice is Rs. 10,000 per mensem. A Judge of the High Court gets a salary of Rs. 8,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice of the High Courts is Rs. 9,000 per mensem. The Constitution (Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1986The Union Territory of Arunchal Pradesh was elevated to the status of a State by the 55th Amendment Act. The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1987 Constitution (56the Amendment) Act, 1987 inserting Article 394A, to make the Hindi text of the Constitution authoritative. The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1987The Constitution (57th Amendment) Act, 1987 with the Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act, 1987 lifts Goa from the status of Union Territory to that of the 25th State of the Union of India. The Constitution (Fifty-eight Amendment) Act, 1987The Amendment Act provides the reservation of seats for tribals in the Legislative Assemblies of Arunchal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland. The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988The Act empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab on the grounds that india’s integrity was threatened by internal disturbances. The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988The Amendment Act authoriese State Governments to increase the ceiling on professional tax from Rs. 250 to Rs. 2,500 per person per annum.

The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988The 61st Amendment reduces the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and Assembly election. The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment) Act, 1990The 62nd Amendment Act extends by 10 years the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies as well as nomination representatives of the Anglo-Indian community. The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment) Act, 1990The Amendment Act repealed the 59th Constitution amendment which empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab.

The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1990The Amendments Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months.                      

The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990Article 338 of the Constitution has been amended for the Constitution of a National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes consisting of a chairperson, vice-chairperson and five other members who shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.

The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1990The Act protects fifty-five State Acts relating to land reforms and ceiling on agricultural land holdings, enacted by States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Union Territory of Pondicherry, from challenge in courts, by including them in the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.

The Constitution (sixty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1991The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months i.e., upto may 10,1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-eight Amendment) Act, 1991The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s Rule in Punjab for further six months after May 1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991The Amendment Act seeks grant of Statehood to Delhi as ‘National Capital Territory of Delhi’. It also provides a 70 member assembly and a 7 member Council Ministers for Delhi.

The Constitution (Seventy Amendment) Act, 1992It facilitates for members of Delhi and Pondicherry assemblies to participate in the election of the President.

The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992The amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Napali, Manipuri and Konkani in the eight schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion of these three languages, the number of languages in the Eight Schedules goes up to 18.

The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992For restoring peace and harmony in the areas of the State of Tripura where disturbed conditions prevailed, Memorandum of Settlement was signed by the Government of India with Tripura National Volunteers on August 12,1988.

In order to implement the said Memorandum, Article 332 of the Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992 for making a temporary provision for the determination of the number of seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes in the State Assemble of Tripura, until the re adjustment of seats is made on the basis of the first census after the year 2000 under Article 170 of the Constitution

The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992The Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 was passed by the Parliament on December 22nd, 1992 which was notified by the Central Government through Official Gazette on April 20,1993 as it gote rectification by the State legislatures and was assented to by the President of India. After notification the Panchayati Raj institutions have now got Constitutional legitimacy.

After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IX has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh schedule called Eleventh schedule enumerating the powers and functions of Panchayti Raj Institutions has been incorporated. The Act provides for Gram Sabha, a three-tiermodel of Panchayati Raj, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women. The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992The Act provides constitutional status to urban local bodies. After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IXA has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh schedule called Twelfth schedule enumerating the powers and functions of urban local bodies has been incorporated. The Act provides Municipal Panchayat, Municipal Council and Municipal Corporation, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women.

The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1993

It has amended Article 323-B and added a new clause (h) providing for establishment of tribunals for rent control cases.

The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment) Act, 1994This Amendment Act raises the reservation quota of government jobs and seats for admission in the educational institutions in favour of socially and educationally backward classes to 69 per cent in Tamil Nadu. Further, the Amendment Act has been included in the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to exempt it from the purview of judicial scrutiny.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) Act, 1995This Amendment has added a new clause (4-a) to Article 16 of the Constitution which empowers the State to make any provisions for reservation in promotions in Government jobs in favour of SCs and STs, if it is of opinion that they are inadequately represented in the services under the State. This has been done to nullify the effect of the Supreme Court Judgment in the Mandal Commission Case (Indra Sawhney vs. Union of India) in which the Court has held that reservation in promotions cannot be made.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) act 1995This amendment has amended the Ninth schedule of the Constitution and inserted 27 Land Reform Act of Various States in the Ninth Schedule. After this the total number of Act included in the Ninth Schedule has gone upto 284. now these Acts cannot be challenged in the courts on the plea for the violation of Fundamental Rights.

The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment) Act 1999By this Act the Government has extended the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes as well as fro the Anglo-Indians in the House of the People and in the Legislative Assemblies of the States for another ten years.

The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000Based on the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commissions, an alternative scheme for sharing taxes between the Union and the State has been enacted by the Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000. Under the new scheme of devolution of revenue between Union and the States, 26 per cent out of gross proceeds of union taxes and duties is to be assigned to the States in lieu of their existing share in the income-tax, excise duties special excise duties and grants in lieu of tax on railway passenger fares.

The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Act, 2000By this amendment the unfilled vacancies of a year which reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for being filled up in that year in accordance with any provision of reservations made under Article 16 of the Constitution shall be considered as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years, and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the year in which they were filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty per cent reservation against total number of vacancies of that year.

The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment) Act, 2000The amendment provides that nothing in Article 335 shall prevent the State from making any provisions in favour of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for relaxation in qualifying marks in any examination or lowering the standards of evaluation for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of services or posts in connection with affairs of the Union or of a State.

The Constitution (Eighth-third Amendment) Act, 2000

The Act amended0 Article 243M of the Constitution to provide that no reservation in Panchayats need be made in favour of the Scheduled Castes in Arunachal Pradesh wholly inhabited by tribal population.

The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act, 2001The Act amended provisions to Article 82 and 170(3) of the Constitution to readjust and rationalise the territorial constituencies in the States, without altering the number of seats allotted to each State in the House of People and Legislative Assemblies of the States, including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Constituencies, on the basis of the population ascertained at the census for the year 1991 so as to remove the imbalance caused due to uneven growth of population/electorate in different constituencies.

The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2001This Act amended Article 16 (4A) of the Constitution to provide for consequential seniority in the case of promotion by virtue of rule of reservation for Government servants belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002With a view to making right to free and compulsory education a fundamental right, the Act inserts a new Article, namely, Article 21A conferring on all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years the right to free and compulsory education. The Act amends in Part-III, Part –IV and Part-IV(A) of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) Act, 2003The Amendment provides for readjustment of electoral constituencies, including those reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, based on the population census for the year 2001, without affecting the number of seats allocated to States in the legislative bodies.

The Constitution (Eighty-Eight Amendment) Act, 2003The Act amends Article 268, 270 and VIIth Schedule of the Constitution. It adds 92C just after 92B and makes provisions for Tax on Services.

The Constitution (Eighty- ninth Amendment) Act, 2003 The Act adds Article 338A and provides for the creation of National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003 The Act amends Article 332 and adds section (6) regarding representation in the Bodo Territorial Areas District in the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Ninety-one Amendment) Act, 2003The Act makes provisions for limiting the size of the Council of Ministers at the center and in the States and gives teeth to debar a defector from holding any remunerative political post for the remaining tenure of the legislature unless re-elected.

The Constitution (Ninety- two Amendment) Act, 2003The Amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Bodo, Dogari, Maithili and Sanhali in the VIII Schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion of these four languages, the number of languages in the VIII Schedule goes upto 22.

Ninety- third Amendment (2005)Providing reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes, besides the Schedules Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, in private unaided educational institutions. Ninety-fourth Amendment (2006)

The Constitution provides that there shall be Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may in addition be in charge of the welfare of the Scheduled Casts and backward classes or any other work in the State of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa

Major Constitutional Amendments : A Brief Survey

It will be appropriate here to describe the major Constitutional Amendment in chronological order.

The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951In June 1951, the Constitution (First Amendment) Act was passed, and the following Amendment in the Constitution were inserted : (i) To Article 15, a new clause (4) was added: (ii) clauses (2) and (6) of Article 19 were recast; (iii) After Article 31, Article 31A and 31B were inserted; (iv) For Original Article 85, a new Article was substituted; (v) In Article 87, clauses (1) and (2) were recast; (vi) For the Original Article 174, a new Article was substituted; (vii) In Article 176, clauses (1) and (2) were recast: (viii) Clause (1) of Article 341 was recast; and similarly, clause (1) of Article 342, sub-clause (a) of Article 342, sub clause (a) of clause (3) of Article 372, and clause (1) of Article 376 were also recast; (ix) After the Eight Schedule to the Constitution a Ninth Schedule was added and thirteen laws passed by State Legislatures were included in it so that those Acts might not be challenged in courts.

The main purpose of the Amendment was the removal of certain practical difficulties created by court decisions in several cases such as Kameshwar Singh vs. State of Bihar, Romesh Thapar vs. State of Madras, Brij Bhusan vs. State of Delhi and Motilal vs. Government of Uttar Pradesh. The issues involved in these cases were numerous, such as the scope of the fundamental right of freedom of speech, acquisition of Zamindari (land) of intermediaries, conflict between a citizen’s fundamental right to practise any profession, or to carry on any business or trade (Article 19) and state monopoly of any trade, and so on. The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952The Second Amendment amended Article 81 in order to remove the prescribed limit of 7,50,000 of the population for one member to be elected to the Lok Sabha. According to the original provision, at least on member was to be elected to the Lok Sabha for every 7,50,000 of the population. It was further provided that the maximum number of elected member to the Lok Sabha should not exceed 500. The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1954The Third Amendment brought about changes in the Seventh Schedule consisting of the three legislative lists and entry 33 of the Concurrent List was substituted by a new one. The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955Article 31 and 31A were amended by the Constitution Fourth Amendment Act. Clause (2) of Article 31 clause (1) of Article 31A were substituted by new clauses as. As a result of these, the adequacy of the quantum of compensation paid for the compulsory acquisition of property for ‘a public purpose’ could not be questioned in a court of law. It also amended Article 305 and the Ninth Schedule. The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955 The Constitutional Fifth Amendment Act amended Article 3. in the Constitution there was no time limit during which a State Legislature should express its boundaries, which the Centre may like to make. With the help of this amendment is was provided that the State will be required to express its views on such matters within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period, as the President may allow. 

The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956In this Act, the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution was amended and in the Union List, a new entry was added after entry 92 in the State List, a new entry was substituted for entry 54. it also amended Articles 269 and 286 dealing with inter-state Sales-tax.

The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956The Seventh Amendment brought about the most comprehensive changes so fair in the Constitution. This amendment was designed to implement the State Reorganisation Act. The Second and Seventh schedules were substantially amended for the purpose of the States Reorganization Act.  The Constitution (Eight Amendment) Act, 1959The Act extended the period of reservation seats in Lok Sabha and State Legislatures for the Anglo-Indians, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by another 10 years.

The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Act, 1960It provided for the transfer of certain territories of India to Pakistan under and agreement between India and Pakistan as a part of a comprehensive settlement of border disputes between the two countries.

The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1961The Tenth Amendment integrates the areas of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Union of India and provides for their administration under the regulation making powers of the President.

The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment) Act, 1961It amends Article 71 so as to make it clear that the election of the President or the Vice-President shall not be challenges on the ground of any vacancy for whatever reason in the appropriate electoral college. It also obviates the necessity of a joint meeting of the two Houses of Parliament (Article 66) by constituting them into an electoral college for the election of the Vice-President.

The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1962The main object of the Amendment was to add Union Territories of Goa, Daman and Diu to the Union of India and for this First Schedule of the Constitution was amended. The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1962 The Act provides the creation of Nagaland as the Sixteenth State of the Union. The Amendment provides also for the vesting of certain special responsibilities in the Governor of Nagaland.

The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1962The amendment provides for the incorporation of the former French Establishments in India, under the name Pondicherry, as an integral part of the territory of the Indian Union. it also amended Article 31 to increase, from a maximum 20 to 25, the number of seats assigned in the Lok Sabha for the Union Territories. The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1963The amendment raised the retirement age of High Court. Judge from 60 to 62 years. It also empowered the various High Courts to hear cases against to the Union Government. The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1963The Act seeks to enable Parliament to make laws provident penalty for any person questioning the sovereignty and integrity of India. Under the provisions of the this Amendment, a person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in Parliament

or in the Legislature of State unless, inter-alia, he maker or subscribes before a person authorised by the Election Commission an oath or affirmation that he will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution and will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India. The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964The Act amend the definition of the term ‘estate’ in Article 31A to include lands held under ryotwari settlement and also other lands in respect of which provisions are normally made in land reform enact-ments. It also amends the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to include therein 44 State enactment relation to land reforms in order to remove any uncertainty or dobut that may arise with regard to their validity. The Constitution (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 1966The amendment provides for the creation of new States, namely, Punjab and Haryana as a result of the reorganisation of the former State of Punjab and the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh.

The Constitution (Nineteenth Amendment) Act, 1966The Act modified Article 324 so as to terminate the jurisdiction of election tribunals to decide election disputes. The Amendment withdrew from the Election Commission the power of setting up election tribunals.

The Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966The Act inserts a new Article 233A immediately after Article 233 in order to validate the appointment of District Judges, which might not have conformed fully to the different Constitutional requirements, which were in existent prior to 1966. The Constitution (Twenty-first Amendment) Act, 1967It amended the Eight Schedule to the Constitution by including ‘Sindhi’ therein.                                    

The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969The amendment conferred legislative power on Parliament for the purpose of creating and autonomous Hill State within the State of Assam. Accordingly, Parliament passed the Assam Reorganization (Meghalaya) Act 1969 to set up the State of Meghalaya within the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Twenty-third Amendment) Act, 1969It deals with the questions of reservation of seat in Parliament and State Assemblies for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indian and further extend the period of reservation by another ten years, which means in effect thirty years from the commencement of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Twenty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1971It amends Article 13 and 368 with a view to removing all possible doubts regarding the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure thereof. It gets over the Golak Nath ruling and asserts the power of Parliament, denied to in the Golak Nath, to amend fundamental rights.

The Constitution (Twenty-fifth) Amendment Act, 1971The 25th amendment of the Constitution in 1971 added a new clause, Article 31C to the Constitution. Upto 1971, the position was that fundamental rights prevailed over the directive principles of State Policy and that a law enacted to implement a directive principle could not be valid if it conflicted with a fundamental right. Article 31C sought to change this relationship to some extent by conferring primacy on Articles 39(b) and 39(c) over Articles 14, 19 and 31. The Constitution (Twenty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1971It abolishes Articles 291 and 362 of the Constitution and also inserts a new Article

362A after Article 363. the cumulative effect of these changes is the end of the recognition granted to the former rulers of Indian States and the abolition of Privy Purses. The Constitution (Twenty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1971The Act was enacted to implement the decision to establish the Union Territory of Mizoram. It empowered Parliament to create a legislature and Council of Minister for the new territory.

The Constitution (Twenty-eight Amendment) Act, 1972The amendment deletes Article 314 of the Constitution, whish had given protection to the I.C.S. Officers, condition of service and privileges and inserted a new Article 312A.

The Constitution (Twenty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1972By the twenty-ninth Amendment Act, 1972 two Kerala Acts dealing with land reforms were included in the 9th Schedule to the Constitution. The Constitution (Thirtieth Amendment) Act, 1972By this amendment Article 133 was recast so as to redefine the Civil Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The result of this Amendment is that while any case involving an important question of law can reach the Supreme Court by way of appeal, a case however large the amount involved therein but involving no substantial point of law, would fail to reach the Supreme Court.

The Constitution (Thirty-first Amendment) Act, 1973By this amendment, the strength of the Lok Sabha was increased from 525 to 545 members. This was done to accommodate the increase in population as revealed by the 1971 Census. Accordingly, Article 81(i)(a) was suitably amended. The Constitution (Thirty-second Amendment) Act, 1973The amendment Act was enacted to make few special provisions for the State of Andhra Pradash to satisfy the aspirations of the people of the Telangana region.

The Constitution (Thirty-third Amendment) Act, 1974It amended Articles 101 and 190. Before this Amendment, the resignation of a member of legislature became effective the moment it was tendered. This position is now changed. A resignation becomes effective only after it has been accepted by the Presiding Officer of the House concerned who may refuse to accept the same if he is satisfied that the resignation is not voluntary or genuine. This precautionary provision appeared to be necessary to avoid the members of Parliament or state legislatures being forced to resign. The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974 By this amendment twenty State Acts concerning land ceiling and land tenure reforms were added to the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution. The Constitution (Thirty-fifth and Thirty-sixth Amendment) Acts, 1974-1975The 35th Amendment Act introduced and innovation in the Indian Constitution by conferring on Sikkim the status of an associate in the Indian Union. This was however, a short-lined experiment. The people of Sikkim desired to be and integral part of India. Accordingly, the Constitution Thirty-sixth Amendment Act was enacted in 1975 to confer full-fledged statehood on Sikkim. The Constitution (Thirty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1975The Amendment upgraded the status of Arunachal Pradesh as a Union Territory. Articles 239A and 240 were amended so as to authorize Parliament to create for Arunachal Pradesh a Legislature and Council of Ministers.  

The Constitution (Thirty-eight Amendment) Act, 1975This Amendment Act was enacted during the emergency to make certain modification in the emergency provisions. The Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation was declared to be final and conclusive. A classificatory clause was added to Article 356(1) so as to make Presidential ‘satisfaction’ to issue a proclamation there under as ‘final and conclusive’ which shall not be questioned in any court on any ground.

This Amendment also declared that the ‘satisfaction’ of the president and a State Governor to issue ordinances would be ‘final and conclusive’ and shall not be questioned in any court on any ground’. The Constitution (Thirty-ninth) Amendment) Act, 1975The voiding of the election the Lok Sabha of PM Indira Gandhi by the Allahabad High Court in 1975 on the pertion of Raj Narain led to the enactment of the 39th Amendment Act, 1975. it introduced changes in the method deciding election disputes relating to the four high official of the state, viz. President, Vice-President, Prime Minister and the Speaker. Under the new Article 71(2), Parliament by the law was to establish some ‘authority’ or ‘body’ for deciding such disputes, and its decisions have not be challengeable in any court. The Constitution (Fortieth Amendment) Act, 1976The Amendment Act extended immunity to 64 Central and State statues by including them in the IX Schedule. These statues pertained to lad reform, Urban Ceiling and prevention of publication of objectionable matter. The Constitution (Forty-first Amendment) Act, 1976The Constitution Forty-first Amendment Act, 1976 raised the age of retirement of the chairman and members of state public service Commissions from 60 to 62. The Constitution (Froty-second Amendment) Act, 1976The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act brought a number of changes in the Constitution. The Act inter-alia gave preponderance to the Directive Principles of State Policy over the Fundamental Rights. Established the supremacy of Parliament and curtailed the powers of Judiciary. The Act was first of its kind. Is was the most comprehensive Act and touched almost all the sensitive areas of the Constitution. The Amendment was meant to enhance enormously the strength of the Government.

The major Amendments made in the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act are:                             

Preamble The characterization of India as ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ has been changed to ‘Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic’. The words ‘Unity of the nation’ have been changed to ‘Unity and integrity of the nation’.

Parliament and state legislatures : The life of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies was extended from 5 to 6 years.

Executive : It amended Article 74 to state explicitly that the President shall act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers in discharge of his functions.

Judiciary : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 32A in order to deny the Supreme Court the power to consider the Constitutional validity of a State law. Another new provision. Article 131A, gave the Supreme Court and exclusive jurisdiction to determine question relating to the Constitutional validity of a central law.

Article 144A and Article 128A, the creatures of Constitutional Amendment Act made further innovation the area of judicial review of the Constitutionality of legislation.

Under Article 144A the minimum number of judges of the Supreme Court to decide a question of a Constitutional validity of a central or State law was fixed as at least seven and further, this required two-two-thirds majority of the judges sitting declare law as unconstitutional. While the power of the High Court enforce fundamental rights remained untouched, several restrictions were imposed on its power to issue writs ‘for any other purpose’.

Federalism : The Act added Article 257A in the Constitution to enable the Centre to deploy any armed force of the union, or any other force under its control. For dealing with any grave situation of law and order in any State.

Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles: A major change that was made by 42nd Constitutional Amendment was to give primacy to all directive principles over the fundamental right contained in Articles 14, 19 or 31. the 42nd Constitutional Amendment added a few more directive principles free legal aid, participation of workers in management of industries, protection for environment and protection of forests and wildlife of the country.

Fundamental Duties : The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 51-A to create a new part called IV-A in the Constitution, which prescribed the fundamental duties to the citizens.

Emergency : Prior to 42nd Amendment Act, the President could declare emergency under Article 352 throughout the country and not in a part of the country alone. The Act authorised the President to proclaim emergency in any part of the country.

The dominant thrust of the Amendment was to reduce the role of courts, particularly, that of the High Courts. It also sought to strengthen Parliament in various ways which in effect, added to the power of the Central Government it drew enormous criticism particularly for it was pushed through during Emergency. The Constitution (Forty-third Amendment) Act, 1977In 1977, the Emergency came to an end the Janata Party came into power. It made an election pledge that it would repeal the 42nd Amendment and restore the status quo ante. The 43rd Amendment repealed some of the provisions of the 42nd Amendment. Article 31D has also been omitted. The Constitution (Forty-forth Amendment) Act, 1978The 44th Amendment passed in 1978 undid most of the distortions introduced into the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment of the Constitution. The salient features of the Amendment Act are as follows :

1. It reduced the life of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies again to five years and thus restored the status quo ante.

2. It cancelled 39th Amendment which had deprived the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction to decide disputes concerning election of the President and the Vice-President.

3. A new provision was added to Article 74(1) saying that the President cold require the council of ministers to reconsider its advice to him, either generally or otherwise and the President should Act in accordance with the advice tendered after such re-consideration.

4. Article 257A was omitted.5. It has been provided that an Emergency can be proclaimed only on the

basic of written advice tendered to the President by the cabinet.6. Right the property has been taken out from the list of Fundamental Rights

and has been declared a legal right. 

The Constitution (Forty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1980The purpose of the Amendment was to continue reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies for another 10 years, i.e., upto 1990. the same concession is extended to the Anglo-Indians who may have representation by nomination in these chambers.

 The Constitution (Forty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1982The Forty-sixth Amendment enables the State Governments to plug loopholes and realise sales-tax dues on the one hand and on the other aims at bringing about some uniformity in tax rates in case of certain items. The Constitution (Forty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1984This Amendment adds 14 State Acts dealing with land to the IX Schedule. The Constitution (Forty-eight Amendment) Act, 1984The purpose of the Amendment was to extend President’s rule in Punjab for two years. Under Article 356(5) President’s rule can last in a State for a maximum period of one year. But the conditions in Punjab did not permit holding of fresh elections and accordingly, extension of President’s rule became imperative. The Constitution (Forty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1984 the purpose of this Amendment is to take out the Tribal areas of Tripura from Schedule V and put them in Schedule VI. The Constitution (Fiftieth Amendment) Act, 1984This Amendment substitutes an expounded Article 33 for the old Article by the new Article 33, Parliament is authorised to curtail the fundamental rights of the members of the armed forces, forces charged with the maintenance of public order, intelligence organisations or telecommunication systems set up for any force or intelligence bureau, with a view to ensure the proper discharge of duties by and maintenance of discipline among those persons in the interest of country’s security. The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984 the Amendment effectuates some changes in Articles 330 and 332 with a view to provide for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha for Scheduled tribes in Meghalaya, Aruncahal Pradesh and Mizoram, as well as in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland and Meghalaya. The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985The amendment is designed to prevent the scourge of defection of members of Parliament and State legislatures from one political party to another. The Constitution (Fifty-third Amendment) Act, 1986The amendment Act elevated the Union Territory of Mizoram to the status of a State. The Constitution (Fifty-fourth Amendment) Act,1986The Salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts have been enhanced by the 54th Amendment Act, 1986. accordingly, a Judge of the Supreme Court gets a salary of Rs. 9,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice is Rs. 10,000 per mensem. A Judge of the High Court gets a salary of Rs. 8,000 per mensem and the salary of the Chief Justice of the High Courts is Rs. 9,000 per mensem. The Constitution (Fifty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1986The Union Territory of Arunchal Pradesh was elevated to the status of a State by the 55th Amendment Act. The Constitution (Fifty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1987 Constitution (56the Amendment) Act, 1987 inserting Article 394A, to make the Hindi text of the Constitution authoritative. The Constitution (Fifty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1987The Constitution (57th Amendment) Act, 1987 with the Goa, Daman and Diu Reorganisation Act, 1987 lifts Goa from the status of Union Territory to that of the

25th State of the Union of India. The Constitution (Fifty-eight Amendment) Act, 1987The Amendment Act provides the reservation of seats for tribals in the Legislative Assemblies of Arunchal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland. The Constitution (Fifty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1988The Act empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab on the grounds that india’s integrity was threatened by internal disturbances. The Constitution (Sixtieth Amendment) Act, 1988The Amendment Act authoriese State Governments to increase the ceiling on professional tax from Rs. 250 to Rs. 2,500 per person per annum.

The Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988The 61st Amendment reduces the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and Assembly election. The Constitution (Sixty-second Amendment) Act, 1990The 62nd Amendment Act extends by 10 years the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies as well as nomination representatives of the Anglo-Indian community. The Constitution (Sixty-third Amendment) Act, 1990The Amendment Act repealed the 59th Constitution amendment which empowered the Government to impose emergency in Punjab.

The Constitution (Sixty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1990The Amendments Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months.                      

The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990Article 338 of the Constitution has been amended for the Constitution of a National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes consisting of a chairperson, vice-chairperson and five other members who shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.

The Constitution (Sixty-sixth Amendment) Act, 1990The Act protects fifty-five State Acts relating to land reforms and ceiling on agricultural land holdings, enacted by States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Union Territory of Pondicherry, from challenge in courts, by including them in the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.

The Constitution (sixty-seventh Amendment) Act, 1991The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s rule in Punjab for further six months i.e., upto may 10,1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-eight Amendment) Act, 1991The Amendment Act seeks to extend President’s Rule in Punjab for further six months after May 1991.

The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991The Amendment Act seeks grant of Statehood to Delhi as ‘National Capital Territory of Delhi’. It also provides a 70 member assembly and a 7 member Council Ministers for Delhi.

The Constitution (Seventy Amendment) Act, 1992

It facilitates for members of Delhi and Pondicherry assemblies to participate in the election of the President.

The Constitution (Seventy-first Amendment) Act, 1992The amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Napali, Manipuri and Konkani in the eight schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion of these three languages, the number of languages in the Eight Schedules goes up to 18.

The Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992For restoring peace and harmony in the areas of the State of Tripura where disturbed conditions prevailed, Memorandum of Settlement was signed by the Government of India with Tripura National Volunteers on August 12,1988.

In order to implement the said Memorandum, Article 332 of the Constitution (Seventy-second Amendment) Act, 1992 for making a temporary provision for the determination of the number of seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes in the State Assemble of Tripura, until the re adjustment of seats is made on the basis of the first census after the year 2000 under Article 170 of the Constitution

The Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992The Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 was passed by the Parliament on December 22nd, 1992 which was notified by the Central Government through Official Gazette on April 20,1993 as it gote rectification by the State legislatures and was assented to by the President of India. After notification the Panchayati Raj institutions have now got Constitutional legitimacy.

After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IX has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh schedule called Eleventh schedule enumerating the powers and functions of Panchayti Raj Institutions has been incorporated. The Act provides for Gram Sabha, a three-tiermodel of Panchayati Raj, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women. The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act, 1992The Act provides constitutional status to urban local bodies. After part VIII of the Constitution a separate part IXA has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh schedule called Twelfth schedule enumerating the powers and functions of urban local bodies has been incorporated. The Act provides Municipal Panchayat, Municipal Council and Municipal Corporation, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women.

The Constitution (Seventy-fifth Amendment) Act, 1993 It has amended Article 323-B and added a new clause (h) providing for establishment of tribunals for rent control cases.

The Constitution (Seventy-sixth Amendment) Act, 1994This Amendment Act raises the reservation quota of government jobs and seats for admission in the educational institutions in favour of socially and educationally backward classes to 69 per cent in Tamil Nadu. Further, the Amendment Act has been included in the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to exempt it from the purview of judicial scrutiny.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) Act, 1995This Amendment has added a new clause (4-a) to Article 16 of the Constitution which empowers the State to make any provisions for reservation in promotions in Government jobs in favour of SCs and STs, if it is of opinion that they are inadequately represented in the services under the State. This has been done to nullify the effect of the Supreme Court Judgment in the Mandal Commission Case (Indra Sawhney vs. Union of India) in which the Court has held that reservation in

promotions cannot be made.

The Constitution (Seventy-eight Amendment) act 1995This amendment has amended the Ninth schedule of the Constitution and inserted 27 Land Reform Act of Various States in the Ninth Schedule. After this the total number of Act included in the Ninth Schedule has gone upto 284. now these Acts cannot be challenged in the courts on the plea for the violation of Fundamental Rights.

The Constitution (Seventy-ninth Amendment) Act 1999By this Act the Government has extended the reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes as well as fro the Anglo-Indians in the House of the People and in the Legislative Assemblies of the States for another ten years.

The Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000Based on the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commissions, an alternative scheme for sharing taxes between the Union and the State has been enacted by the Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000. Under the new scheme of devolution of revenue between Union and the States, 26 per cent out of gross proceeds of union taxes and duties is to be assigned to the States in lieu of their existing share in the income-tax, excise duties special excise duties and grants in lieu of tax on railway passenger fares.

The Constitution (Eighty-first Amendment) Act, 2000By this amendment the unfilled vacancies of a year which reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for being filled up in that year in accordance with any provision of reservations made under Article 16 of the Constitution shall be considered as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding year or years, and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the year in which they were filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty per cent reservation against total number of vacancies of that year.

The Constitution (Eighty-second Amendment) Act, 2000The amendment provides that nothing in Article 335 shall prevent the State from making any provisions in favour of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for relaxation in qualifying marks in any examination or lowering the standards of evaluation for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of services or posts in connection with affairs of the Union or of a State.

The Constitution (Eighth-third Amendment) Act, 2000The Act amended0 Article 243M of the Constitution to provide that no reservation in Panchayats need be made in favour of the Scheduled Castes in Arunachal Pradesh wholly inhabited by tribal population.

The Constitution (Eighty-fourth Amendment) Act, 2001The Act amended provisions to Article 82 and 170(3) of the Constitution to readjust and rationalise the territorial constituencies in the States, without altering the number of seats allotted to each State in the House of People and Legislative Assemblies of the States, including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Constituencies, on the basis of the population ascertained at the census for the year 1991 so as to remove the imbalance caused due to uneven growth of population/electorate in different constituencies.

The Constitution (Eighty-fifth Amendment) Act, 2001This Act amended Article 16 (4A) of the Constitution to provide for consequential seniority in the case of promotion by virtue of rule of reservation for Government servants belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002With a view to making right to free and compulsory education a fundamental right, the Act inserts a new Article, namely, Article 21A conferring on all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years the right to free and compulsory education. The Act amends in Part-III, Part –IV and Part-IV(A) of the Constitution.

The Constitution (Eighty-seventh Amendment) Act, 2003The Amendment provides for readjustment of electoral constituencies, including those reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, based on the population census for the year 2001, without affecting the number of seats allocated to States in the legislative bodies.

The Constitution (Eighty-Eight Amendment) Act, 2003The Act amends Article 268, 270 and VIIth Schedule of the Constitution. It adds 92C just after 92B and makes provisions for Tax on Services.

The Constitution (Eighty- ninth Amendment) Act, 2003 The Act adds Article 338A and provides for the creation of National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (Ninetieth Amendment) Act, 2003 The Act amends Article 332 and adds section (6) regarding representation in the Bodo Territorial Areas District in the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Ninety-one Amendment) Act, 2003The Act makes provisions for limiting the size of the Council of Ministers at the center and in the States and gives teeth to debar a defector from holding any remunerative political post for the remaining tenure of the legislature unless re-elected.

The Constitution (Ninety- two Amendment) Act, 2003The Amendment facilitates for the inclusion of Bodo, Dogari, Maithili and Sanhali in the VIII Schedule of the Constitution. With the inclusion of these four languages, the number of languages in the VIII Schedule goes upto 22.

Ninety- third Amendment (2005)Providing reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes, besides the Schedules Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, in private unaided educational institutions. Ninety-fourth Amendment (2006)The Constitution provides that there shall be Minister in charge of tribal welfare who may in addition be in charge of the welfare of the Scheduled Casts and backward classes or any other work in the State of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa

Union Budget 2011-12 Highlights

Finance Minister Mr. Pranab Mukherjee on February 28, 2011 presented the Union Budget 2011-12 in the Parliament.

● Fiscal deficit target at 4•6% for 2011-12, down from 5•1% estimated for 2010-11.● Government expects economy to grow at 9% in 2011-12.● Government debt : About 44•2% of GDP, well below Finance Commission target.● Expenditure up 3% at Rs. 12•58 lakh crore in 2011-12.● Gross tax receipt at Rs. 9•3 lakh crore.● Personal tax rates : Minimum exemption raised to Rs. 1,80,000 from Rs. 1,60,000.● Windfall for seniors : For those above 80 (known as very senior citizens) income up to Rs. 5,00,000 free from tax.● Senior citizen age entitlement cut from 65 to 60, entitled income upto Rs. 2,50,000 free from tax.● Women tax payers tax free income raised to Rs. 1,90,000.● Direct Taxes Code implementation from April 1, 2012.● Rs. 30,000 crore tax-free bonds this year; exemptions for individual investors extended by one more year.● Housing interest rate becomes cheaper with ceiling hiked from Rs. 20 lakh to Rs. 25 lakh.● Service tax rate retained at 10 per cent.● Service tax on medical treatment in mid and large hospitals (above 25 beds).● No change in fuel prices.● Inflation to ease next year.● IT surcharge : Reduced to 5% from 75% but MAT hiked to 18•5% from 18%.● Air travel : Costlier by Rs. 50 –250 with hike in service tax.● Excise duty unchanged at 10 per cent.● 130 items brought under central excise.● Iron ore export duty hiked to 20 per cent.● Auto parts : Duty concession on import of batteries of electric vehicles and critical parts/assemblies of hybrid vehicles.● 10% unified rate of excise duty on readymade garments.● ‘Nutrient-based’ subsidy scheme for urea makers to be considered.● Fertilisers : Investment in new fertiliser plants gets tax concession.● Self-assessment scheme for Customs duty payments.● Goods and Services Tax may come in 2011-12.● Disinvestment adds 50 lakh new retail investors.● Disinvestment to raise Rs. 40,000 crore.● Mutual funds can accept foreign money.● Foreign investors may directly invest in mutual funds.● Corporate bonds : FII limit hiked for both infrastructure and other categories.● Reducing edible oil imports.● Rs. 18,000 crore for RIDF-XVII.

● More funds for micro and small units.● Relief for indebted handloom weavers.● Boost to rural housing.● Mortgage Risk Guarantee Fund for providing credit to weaker section.● Funds for Self-sufficiency in pulses.● More mega food parks.● Anganwadi worker’s salaries doubled.● Rs. 500 crore to National Skill Development Fund.● Insurance for unorganised sector workers in hazardous mining and associated industries.● Rs. 400 crore for bringing green revolution in the east.● Defence allocation raised 11•6% to Rs. 1•64 lakh crore

Highlights of Economic Survey 2010-11

Following are the highlights of Economic Survey for the fiscal year 2010-11, presented in Parliament on February 25, 2011 by the Finance Minister Mr. Pranab Mukherjee :

● Economy to grow at 8•6% in 2010-11 and 9% in the next fiscal 2011-12.● Gross Fiscal Deficit stands at 4•8 per cent of GDP in 2010-11 down from 6•3 per cent last year.● Agriculture to grow at 5•4% in 2010-11, showing 14•2% share in real GDP in 2010-11● Inflation expected to be 1•5% higher than what it would be if the economy were not on growth path.● Economy sees broad-based growth; rebound in farm and continued momentum in manufacturing, private services.● Fundamentals strong with growing savings and investments, rapid rise in exports.● Industrial output grows by 8•6 per cent; manufacturing sector registers 9•1 per cent.● Exports in April-December 2010 up 29•5 per cent; imports up 19 per cent.● Trade gap narrowed to US $ 82•01 billion in April-December 2010.● Food inflation, higher commodity prices and volatility in global commodity markets cause of concern.

● Inflation continues to be high; need to monitor emerging trends in inflation on a sequential monthly basis.● To check food inflation, the government should improve delivery mechanisms by strengthening institutions and addressing corruption.● Savings rate has gone upto 33•7 per cent, while the investment rate is up at 36•5 per cent of GDP.● Rising food inflation underlines need for larger investment in farming, enroute to 2nd Green Revolution.● Net bank credit grows by 59 per cent.● Social programme spending stepped up by 5 percentage points of GDP over past 5 years.● Production of foodgrains estimated at 232•1 mn tonnes.● Forex Reserves estimated at US $ 297•3 billion.● Accelerated investments needed in infrastructure to address delays, cost overruns, regulatory impediments.● Telecom sector did exceedingly well; role of services sector as the potential growth engine laudable.● Policies needed to promote new areas such as accounting, legal, tourism, education, financial and other services

Highlights of Rail Budget 2011-12

Union Railway Minister Mamta Banerjee on February 25, 2011 presented her third consecutive railway budget in the Parliament. Budget, having theme ‘Aam Aadmi’ proposes no hike on passenger fares and freight rates.

BUDGET HIGHLIGHTS:

● No increase in passengers fares or freight rates.● Earnings for 2010-11 set to exceed Rs. 1 lakh crore.● Working expenditure during 2011-12 estimated at Rs. 87,000 crore.● Outlay of Rs. 57,630 crore for 2011-12, the highest investment in one year.● Rs. 10,000 crore to be raised through railway bonds.● Budget combines strong economic focus with inclusion.● Will develop business-oriented policies to aid industry.● 85 public-private partnership proposals received.● Single-window system to take the forward.● Decided to set-up rail-based industries.● Passing through a difficult phase.● 97 per cent increase in expenditure in 2010-11 due to implementation of Sixth Pay Commission report.● Loss of Rs. 3,500 crore in 2010-11.● Ten-year backlog of 1•75 lakh jobs being addressed; 16,000 ex-servicemen to be given jobs in railways.● Safety first priority; accident rate has come down.● Anti-collision device, successful in North West Frontier Railway, to be extended to three more zonal railways.● Railways always been a soft target but law and order a state subject. If railways are blocked in one region, this has a snowballing effect in other parts of the country.● Will add 180 km of rail lines in 2011-12.● All-India security helpline set up.● Centre for excellence in software to be set up at Darjeeling.● Fund to be created for socially desirable projects.● Rail linkage to Gujarat from Delhi-Mumbai freight corridor.● Integrated suburban network to be set up in Mumbai, Chennai, Ahmedabad and other cities; suburban system of Hyderabad to be strengthened.● Mumbai suburban system’s EMU coaches to be increased from 9 to 12.● Pradhan Mantri Rail Vikas Yojana to be launched.● Industrial park to be set up in Nandigram, West Bengal.● Railways to set up factory in Jammu and Kashmir.● To set up Metro coach factory at Singur, West Bengal.● Work on upgrading 442 stations to be completed by March 31.● Work on wagon factory in Orissa to begin after land is acquired.● Manipur capital Imphal to be soon connected to railway network

Census 2011 in India

The provisional report of the Census of 2011 in India, at a glance—

Total population: 1,210,193,422Male population: 623,724,248Female population: 586,469,174

Density: 382 per sq. km.Sex ratio: 940 females per 1000 males|

Decadal Growth Rate (2001-2011)Total: 18, 14, 55,986 (17.64 %)Male: 9, 15, 01,158 (17.19 %)Female: 8, 99, 54,828 (18.12 %)

Population (0-6 years)Total: 15, 87, 89,287 (13.12 %)Girls: 7, 58, 37,152 (12.93 %)Boys: 8, 29, 52,135 (13.30 %)

Sex ratio: 914 females per 1000 males

LiteracyTotal: 77, 84, 54,120 (74.04 %)Females: 33, 42, 50,358 (65.46 %)Males: 44, 42, 03,762 (82.14 %)

State/UT Code

India/State/Union Territory #

Total populationPersons Males Females

1 2 3 4 5

  INDIA 1,210,193,422 623,724,248 586,469,174

01 Jammu & Kashmir 12,548,926 6,665,561 5,883,365

02 Himachal Pradesh 6,856,509 3,473,892 3,382,617

03 Punjab 27,704,236 14,634,819 13,069,417

04 Chandigarh # 1,054,686 580,282 474,404

05 Uttarakhand 10,116,752 5,154,178 4,962,574

06 Haryana 25,353,081 13,505,130 11,847,951

07 NCT of Delhi # 16,753,235 8,976,410 7,776,825

08 Rajasthan 68,621,012 35,620,086 33,000,926

09 Uttar Pradesh 199,581,477 104,596,415 94,985,062

10 Bihar 103,804,637 54,185,347 49,619,290

11 Sikkim 607,688 321,661 286,027

12 Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 720,232 662,379

13 Nagaland 1,980,602 1,025,707 954,895

14 Manipur 2,721,756 1,369,764 1,351,992

15 Mizoram 1,091,014 552,339 538,675

16 Tripura 3,671,032 1,871,867 1,799,165

17 Meghalaya 2,964,007 1,492,668 1,471,339

18 Assam 31,169,272 15,954,927 15,214,345

19 West Bengal 91,347,736 46,927,389 44,420,347

20 Jharkhand 32,966,238 16,931,688 16,034,550

21 Orissa 41,947,358 21,201,678 20,745,680

22 Chhattisgarh 25,540,196 12,827,915 12,712,281

23 Madhya Pradesh 72,597,565 37,612,920 34,984,645

24 Gujarat 60,383,628 31,482,282 28,901,346

25 Daman & Diu # 242,911 150,100 92,811

26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli # 342,853 193,178 149,675

27 Maharashtra 112,372,972 58,361,397 54,011,575

28 Andhra Pradesh 84,665,533 42,509,881 42,155,652

29 Karnataka 61,130,704 31,057,742 30,072,962

30 Goa 1,457,723 740,711 717,012

31 Lakshadweep # 64,429 33,106 31,323

32 Kerala 33,387,677 16,021,290 17,366,387

33 Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 36,158,871 35,980,087

34 Puducherry # 1,244,464 610,485 633,979

35 Andaman & Nicobar Islands # 379,944 202,330 177,614

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)

 SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) was initially constituted on April 12, 1988 as a nonstatutory body through a resolution of the Government for dealing with all matters relating to development and regulation of securities market and investor protection and to advise the Government on all these matters. SEBI was given statutory status and powers through an ordinance promulgated on January 30, 1992.

The statutory powers and functions of SEBI were strengthened through the promulgation of the Securities Laws (Amendment) ordinance on January 25,

1995 which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament. In terms of this Act, SEBI has been vested with regulatory powers over corporates in the issuance of capital, the transfer of securities and other related matters. Besides, SEBI has also been empowered to impose monetary penalties on capital market intermediaries and other participants for a range of violations.

SEBI is managed by six members—one chairman (nominated by Central Government), two members (officers of central ministries), one member (from RBI) and remaining two members are nominated by Central Government. The office of SEBI is situated at Mumbai with its regional offices at Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai. In 1988 the initial capital of SEBI was Rs. 7•5 crore which was provided by its promoters (IDBI, ICICI, IFCI). This amount was invested and with its interest amount day-to-day expenses of SEBI are met. All statutory powers for regulating Indian capital market are vested with SEBI itself.

Functions of SEBI

1. To safeguard the interests of investors and to regulate capital market with suitable measures.

2. To regulate the business of stock exchanges and other securities market. 3. To regulate the working of Stock Brokers, Sub-brokers, Share Transfer Agents, Trustees,

Merchant Bankers, Underwriters, Portfolio Managers etc. and also to make their registration. 4. To register and regulate collective investment plans of mutual funds. 5. To encourage self-regulatory organisations. 6. To eliminate malpractices of security markets. 7. To train the persons associated with security markets and also to encourage investors'

education. 8. To check insider trading of securities. 9. To supervise the working of various organisations trading in security market and also to

ensure systematic dealings. 10. To promote research and investigations for ensuring the attainment of above objectives

Foreign Trade Policy 2009–14

 Commerce Minister Mr. Anand Sharma on August 27, 2009 released The Foreign Trade Policy for the period 2009-14. Five year trade policy remains silent on export target for the year 2009-10 but policy aims at achieving an annual export growth of 15 per cent annually with an annual target of $ 200 billion by March 2011. Policy reveals the data that exports were worth $ 168•7 billion in 2008-09 because India’s exports have been falling in annual terms since October 2008 when global recession gave rise to credit squeeze in developed nations, resulting falling export’s size from Indian market. India’s exports remained down by 31•3 per cent in quarter ended in June 2009 from a year earlier. With revival indications in global front, policy hopes that the Indian economy would return on high export growth path of around 25 per cent by 2014.

In its new trade policy, the government relaxed and extended two flagship schemes for exporters, the Export Promotion Capital Goods Scheme (EPCGS) and the Duty Entitlement Passbook Scheme (DEPS) and extended other stimulus measures in a bid to reserve the decline in exports and double outbound sales of goods and services in next five years.

Commerce Ministry has also taken a conscious view to expand and diversify India’s export markets, especially in the emerging markets of Africa, Latin America, Oceania and CIS countries. The new policy has shifted focus to 26 new countries to counter the demand slump in traditional markets.

The new foreign trade policy clearly gives the message to double India’s exports of goods and services by 2014 and double its share in global trade by 2020.

The salient highlights of new foreign trade policy 2009-14 are as follows :● Duty entitlement passbook scheme extended till December 2010.● Extension of sops for exportoriented units till March 2011.● Export target of $ 200 billion set for 2010-11.● Growth target of 15 per cent for next two years, 25 per cent thereafter.● Inter-ministerial group to address issues raised by exporters.

● Obligation under export promotion capital goods scheme relaxed.● Permission for tax refund scheme for jewellery sector.● No fee on grant of incentives to cut transaction costs.● Steps to help exporters reduce transaction costs.● Plan for diamond bourses in the country.● Single-window scheme for farm exports.● Re-export of unused leather allowed subject to 50 per cent duty.● Minimum value addition for tea reduced to 50 per cent from 100 per cent.● Export units allowed to sell 90 per cent of goods in domestic market.● Provision for state-run banks to provide dollar credits.● Twenty-six new markets added to focus market scheme.● Sops under focus market scheme hiked from 2•5 per cent to 3 per cent.● Number of duty-free samples for exporters raised to 50 pieces from 15.● New directorate of trade remedy measures to be set up.● Zero duty under technology upgrade scheme

Reserve Bank of India

It is the Central Bank of the country. The Reserve Bank of India was established in 1935 with a capital of Rs. 5 crore. This capital of Rs. 5 crore was divided into 5 lakh equity shares of Rs.100 each. In the beginning the ownership of almost all the share capital was with the non-

government shareholders. In order to prevent the centralisation of the equity shares in the hands of a few people, the Reserve Bank of India was nationalised on January 1, 1949.

The general administration and direction of RBI is managed by a Central Board of Directors consisting of 20 members which includes 1 Governor, 4 Deputy Governors, 1 Government official appointed by the Union Government of India to give representation to important stratas in economic life of the country. Besides, 4 directors are nominated by the Union Government to represent local boards.

New Departments Constituted in RBI   On July 6, 2005 Reserve Bank of India has constituted a new department, named Financial Market Department for surveillance on financial markets. The Deputy Governor of RBI Mr. Rakesh Mohan will look after this newly created department. Besides this new department Mr. Rakesh Mohan has been given responsibility of Monetary Policy Department.   The Constituted new Financial Market department will seperate the activities of debt management and monetary operations in future. This department will also perform

the duties of developing & monitoring the instruments of money market and also monitoring the government securities and foreign money markets.

 Apart from the central board there are 4 local boards also and their head offices are situated in Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and New Delhi. 5 members of local boards are appointed by the Union Government for a period of 4 years. The local boards work according to the instructions and orders given by the Central Board of Directors, and from time to time they also tender useful advice on important matter. The head office of Reserve Bank of India is in Mumbai. At present Dr D Subbarao is the Governor of Reserve Bank of India.

Functions of Reserve Bank

1. Issue of Notes –The Reserve Bank has the monopoly of note issue in the country. It has the sole right to issue currency notes of various denominations except one rupee note. The Reserve Bank acts as the only source of legal tender money because the one rupee note issued by Ministry of Finance are also circulated through it. The Reserve Bank has adopted the Minimum Reserve System for the note issue. Since 1957, it maintains gold and foreign exchange reserves of Rs. 200 crore, of which at least Rs. 115 crore should be in gold.

2. Banker to the Government–The second important function of the Reserve Bank is to act as the Banker, Agent and Adviser to the Government. It performs all the banking functions of the State and Central Government and it also tenders useful advice to the Government on matters related to economic and monetary policy. It also manages the public debt for the Government.

3. Banker's Bank–The Reserve Bank performs the same function for the other banks as the other banks ordinarily perform for their customers. It is not only a banker to the commercial banks, but it is the tender of the last resort.

4. Controller of Credit–The Reserve Bank undertakes the responsibility of controlling credit created by the commercial banks. To achieve this objective it makes extensive use of quantitative and qualitative techniques to control and regulate the credit effectively in the country.

5. Custodian of Foreign Reserves–For the purpose of keeping the foreign exchange rates stable the Reserve Bank buys and sells the foreign currencies and also protects the country's foreign exchange funds.

6. Other Functions–The bank performs a number of other developmental works. These works include the function of clearing house arranging credit for agriculture, (which has been transferred to NABARD) collecting and publishing the economic data, buying and selling of Government securities and trade bills, giving loans to the Government buying and selling of valuable commodities etc. It also acts as the representative of Government in I.M.F. and represents the membership of India.

 Printing of Securities and Minting in India

1. India Security Press (Nasik Road)–Postal Material, Postal Stamps, Non-postal Stamps, Judicial and Non-judicial Stamps, Cheques, Bonds, NSC, Kisan Vikas Patra, Securities of State Governments, Public Sector Enterprise and Financial Corporations.2. Security Printing Press (Hyderabad)–Established in 1982 for meeting the demand for postal material by Southern States. It also fulfils the demand for Union Excise Duty Stamps of the Country.3. Currency Notes Press (Nasik Road)–Since 1991, this press prints currency notes of Rs. 1, Rs. 2, Rs. 5, Rs. 10, Rs. 50, and Rs. 100. (Earlier printing of Rs. 50 and Rs. 100 currency notes was not done here).4. Bank Notes Press (Dewas)–Currency notes of Rs. 20, Rs. 50, Rs. 100 and Rs. 500 are printed here.5. Modernised Currency Notes Press–Two new modernised currency notes press are under establishment at Mysore (Karnataka) and Salboni (West Bengal).6. Security Paper Hoshangabad (Established in 1967-68) makes production of Bank and Currency notes paper.7. Coins are minted at four places–Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Noida

Highlights of 11th Five Year Plan of India

 

Income and Poverty● GDP growth target of 9% p.a.● Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year.● To enhance domestic investment from 35•9% of GDP in 2006-07 to an average of 36•7% of GDP in plan period.● To raise industrial growth rate from 9•2% in the 10th plan to between 10% and 11%.

● Manufacturing sector is targeted to grow at 12% p.a.● Create 58 million new work opportunities.● Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.● Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 per cent.● Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.

Education

● Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52•2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-12.● Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school, and by regular testing monitor effectiveness of education to ensure quality.● Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or more to 85%.● Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage points.● Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from the present 10% to 15% by the end of the 11th Plan.

Health● To raise public health spending to 2% of GDP during plan period.● Reduce infant mortality rate (IMR) to 28 and maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to 1 per 1000 live births.● Reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by the end of the plan.● Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip-backs by the end of the 11th Plan.● Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its present level.● Reduce anemia among women and girls by 50% by the end of the 11th Plan.

Women and Children● Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17. ● Ensure that at least 33 per cent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all government schemes are women and girl children.● Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work.

Infrastructure● To achieve telecom subscriber base of 600 million and a rural teledensity of 25%.● Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and round-the-clock power by the end of the Plan.● Ensure all weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and above (500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant habitation by 2015.● Connect every village by telephone by November, 2007 and provide broadband connectivity to all village by 2012.● Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction for rural poor to cover all the poor by 2016-17.

Environment● Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.● Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.● Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.● Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17Twelfth Finance Commission (2005-10)

The Twelfth Finance Commission (TFC) was appointed on November 1, 2002to make recommendations regarding the distribution between the Union and the States

of net proceeds of shareable taxes, the principles which should govern the grants-in-aid of the revenues of States from the Consolidated Fund of India and the measures needed to augment the Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement the resources of local bodies in the State on the basis of the recommendations made by the Finance Commission of the State. The terms of reference mandated the Commission to review the state of the finances of the Union and the States and suggest a Plan by which the Governments, collectively and severally, restore budgetary balance, achieve macroeconomic stability and debt reductionalong with equitable growth. Furthermore, the Commission was also asked to suggestcorrective measures for debt sustainability and to review the Fiscal Reform Facility introduced by the Central Government.

The Commission submitted its report on November 30, 2004 covering the period 2005-10. On Feb. 2, 2005 Union Government accepted all recommendations of 12th Finance Commission.

The Commission recommended debt relief to States linked to fiscal reforms, doing awaywith the present system of Central assistance to State plans in the form of grants and loansand transfer of external assistance to States on the same terms and conditions asattached to such assistance by external funding agencies. The TFC raised the shareof States in shareable Central taxes from 29.5 per cent to 30.5 per cent. Total transfersto States recommended by the TFC amount to Rs.7,55,752 crore over the five year period2005-10. Of this, transfers by way of share in Central taxes and grants-in-aid amount toRs.6,13,112 crore and Rs.1,42,640 crore, respectively. The total transfers recommended by the TFC are higher by 73.8 per cent over those recommended by the Eleventh Finance Commission (EFC). Within the total transfers, while the share in Central taxes is higher by 62.9 per cent, grants-inaid recommended by the TFC are higher by 143.5 per cent over those recommended by the EFC

Recommendations of the Twelfth Finance Commission

Restructuring Public Finances

Centre and States to improve the combined tax-GDP ratio to 17.6 per cent by 2009-10. Combined debt-GDP ratio, with external debt measured at historical exchange rates, to be brought down to

75 per cent by 2009-10. Fiscal deficit to GDP targets for the Centre and States to be fixed at 3 per cent. Revenue deficit of the Centre and States to be brought down to zero by 2008-09. Interest payments relative to revenue receipts to be brought down to 28 per cent and 15 per cent in the case

of the Centre and States, respectively. States to follow a recruitment policy in a manner so that the total salary bill, relative to revenue expenditure,

net of interest payments, does not exceed 35 per cent. Each State to enact a fiscal responsibility legislation providing for elimination of revenue deficit by 2008-09

and reducing fiscal deficit to 3 per cent of State Domestic Product. The system of on-lending to be brought to an end over time. The long term goal should be to bring down

debt-GDP ratio to 28 per cent each for the Centre and the States.

Sharing of Union Tax Revenues

The share of States in the net proceeds of shareable Central taxes fixed at 30.5 per cent, treating additional excise duties in lieu of sales tax as part of the general pool of Central taxes. Share of States to come down to 29.5 per cent, when States are allowed to levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco.

In case of any legislation enacted in respect of service tax, after the notification of the eighty eighth amendment to the Constitution, revenue accruing to a State should not be less than the share that would

accrue to it, had the entire service tax proceeds been part of the shareable pool. The indicative amount of overall transfers to States to be fixed at 38 per cent of the Centre’s gross revenue

receipts.

Local Bodies

A grant of Rs.20,000 crore for the Panchayati Raj institutions and Rs.5,000 crore for urban local bodies to be given to States for the period 2005-10.

Priority to be given to expenditure on operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of water supply and sanitation, while utilizing the grants for the Panchayats. At least 50 per cent of the grants recommended for urban local bodies to be earmarked for the scheme of solid waste management through public-private partnership.

Calamity Relief

The scheme of Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) to continue in its present form with contributions from the Centre and States in the ratio of 75:25. The size of the Fund worked out at Rs.21,333 crore for the period 2005-10.

The outgo from the Fund to be replenished by way of collection of National Calamity Contingent Duty and levy of special surcharges.

The definition of natural calamity to include landslides, avalanches, cloud burst and pest attacks. Provision for disaster preparedness and mitigation to be part of State Plans and not calamity relief.

Grants-in-aid to States

 The present system of Central assistance for State Plans, comprising grant and loan components, to be done away with, and the Centre should confine itself to extending plan grants and leaving it to States to decide their borrowings.

Non-plan revenue deficit grant of Rs.56,856 crore recommended to 15 States for the period 2005-10. Grants amounting to Rs.10,172 crore recommended for the education sector to eight States. Grants amounting to Rs.5,887 crore recommended for the health sector for seven States. Grants to education and health sectors are additionalities over and above the normal expenditure to be incurred by States.

A grant of Rs.15,000 crore recommended for roads and bridges, which is in addition to the normal expenditure of States.

Grants recommended for maintenance of public buildings, forests, heritage conservation and specific needs of States are Rs. 500 crore, Rs.1,000 crore, Rs.625 crore, and Rs.7,100 crore, respectively.

Fiscal Reform Facility

 With the recommended scheme of debt relief in place, fiscal reform facility not to continue over the period 2005-10.

Debt Relief and Corrective Measures

Central loans to States contracted till March,2004 and outstanding on March 31, 2005 amounting to Rs.1,28,795 crore to be consolidated and rescheduled for a fresh term of 20 years, and an interest rate of 7.5 per cent to be charged on them. This is subject to enactment of fiscal responsibility legislation by a State.

A debt write-off scheme linked to reduction of revenue deficit of States to be introduced. Under this scheme, repayments due from 2005-06 to 2009-10 on Central loans contracted up to March 31,2004 will be eligible for writeoff.

Central Government not to act as an intermediary for future lending to States, except in the case of weak States, which are unable to raise funds from the market.

External assistance to be transferred to States on the same terms and conditions as attached to such assistance by external funding agencies.

All the States to set up sinking funds for amortization of all loans. States to set up guarantee redemption funds through earmarked guarantee fees.

Others

 The Centre should share ‘profit petroleum’ from New Exploration and Licensing Policy (NELP) areas in the ratio of 50:50 with States where mineral oil and natural gas are produced. No sharing of profits in respect of nomination fields and non-NELP blocks.

Every State to set up a high level committee to monitor the utilization of grants recommended by the TFC. Centre to gradually move towards accrual basis of accounting