Girls in Gangs and Girls in Gangs and Implications for Gender-Implications for Gender-

specific Programsspecific Programs

Dana Peterson, Ph.D.Dana Peterson, Ph.D.peterson@albany.edupeterson@albany.edu

Youth Violence Prevention Conference

University of Missouri-St. LouisApril 16, 2009

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements With appreciation to:With appreciation to:

– Dept. of Criminology & Criminal JusticeDept. of Criminology & Criminal Justice– College of Arts & ScienceCollege of Arts & Science– Continuing EducationContinuing Education– Des Lee Collaborative VisionDes Lee Collaborative Vision– Academics and practitioners working together Academics and practitioners working together

Some of the research presented was supported under Some of the research presented was supported under awards 94-IJ-CX-0058 and 2006-JV-FX-0011 from the awards 94-IJ-CX-0058 and 2006-JV-FX-0011 from the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. U.S. Department of Justice. Points of view in this U.S. U.S. Department of Justice. Points of view in this presentation are those of the author and do not presentation are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position of the U.S. necessarily represent the official position of the U.S. Department of Justice.Department of Justice.

Photos obtained from Photos obtained from http://www.knowgangs.com/photo/http://www.knowgangs.com/photo/

Girls in gangs

Risk factors and reasons for

joining

Leaving the gang

Presentation Overview

Logical conclusions

for programming

Known effective programs

““Gangster Girls”Gangster Girls” ““Mother of three dies after girl-gang attack” (May 13, Mother of three dies after girl-gang attack” (May 13,

2008, www.news.com)2008, www.news.com)

““Gang of 40 girls attacks two schoolchildren on bendy Gang of 40 girls attacks two schoolchildren on bendy bus” (June 6, 2008, Evening Standard)bus” (June 6, 2008, Evening Standard)

““Girls Record Brutal Attack On Teen To Allegedly Post Girls Record Brutal Attack On Teen To Allegedly Post On YouTube” (April 6, 2008, wftv.com)On YouTube” (April 6, 2008, wftv.com)

“Rival girl gangs in violent clash” (April 2, 2008, The Local)

“Girl gangs rise as new urban vandals” (May 12, 2008)

“The Feral Sex: The terrifying rise of violent girl gangs” (May 16, 2008, The Daily Mail)

Law Enforcement Agency Estimates of Female Gang Membership

Source: National Youth Gang Center (2007). National Youth Gang Survey Analysis. http://www.iir.com/nygc/nygsa/

Female gang membership Female gang membership in GREAT self-report datain GREAT self-report data

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1995 X-S8th gr

1996 Long8th gr

1995 Long7th gr

2007 Long7th gr

FemaleMale

Why the difference?Why the difference?

Reasons for discrepancies in sources:Reasons for discrepancies in sources:– Denial by law enforcement and/or LE Denial by law enforcement and/or LE

policiespolicies

– Type of activities that draw LE attentionType of activities that draw LE attention

– Younger age of many self-report samplesYounger age of many self-report samples Age of gang joiningAge of gang joining

Gang Girls’ DelinquencyGang Girls’ Delinquency(Deschenes & Esbensen 1999)(Deschenes & Esbensen 1999)

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

FemaleNonGang

MaleNonGang

FemaleGang

MaleGang

PropertyViolentDrug saleDrug use

Offending by Sex & Gang Offending by Sex & Gang typetype

(Peterson, Miller, & Esbensen, 2001)(Peterson, Miller, & Esbensen, 2001)

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

4

All M Maj F Maj M Mixed

Female-ViolFemale-PropMale-ViolMale-Prop

Sex Differences in Risk Factors Sex Differences in Risk Factors for Gang Joiningfor Gang Joining

Not much research systematically Not much research systematically compares females and malescompares females and males

– Most risk factors are similar for girls and Most risk factors are similar for girls and boysboys

– Some unique factors for girls, some for boysSome unique factors for girls, some for boys– Fewer risk factors for girls than for boysFewer risk factors for girls than for boys

Probably omitting important factors Probably omitting important factors specific to girlsspecific to girls

Risk Factors for Gang Risk Factors for Gang MembershipMembership(Klein & Maxson ’06)(Klein & Maxson ’06)

Lack of parental supervisn

Delinquentbeliefs

Delinquentpeers

Commitmtto deviant

peers

Problembehaviors(non-delq)

Negative Life events

GangMembership

Unique Risk FactorsUnique Risk FactorsFEMALESFEMALES MALESMALES

Esbensen & Esbensen & Deschenes ’98 Deschenes ’98 (MV, XS, (MV, XS, 88thth gr) gr)

Risk seekingRisk seekingLow school Low school

commitmentcommitmentFew prosocial peersFew prosocial peers

Lack of maternal Lack of maternal attachmentattachmentSocial isolationSocial isolation

Maxson & Whitlock Maxson & Whitlock ’02 ’02 (BV, XS, 13-15)(BV, XS, 13-15)

Community sportsCommunity sportsReceive school awardReceive school awardTeacher attachmentTeacher attachment

11 factors11 factors

Thornberry et al. ’03 Thornberry et al. ’03 (BV, L, 15-17)(BV, L, 15-17)

Neighborhood Neighborhood disorgan.disorgan.College aspirations College aspirations and expectationsand expectations

19 factors19 factors

GREAT II analyses GREAT II analyses (BV, L, 7(BV, L, 7thth gr) gr)

Poor prob-solving Poor prob-solving skillsskills

Impulsivity, risk-Impulsivity, risk-seeking, poor refusal seeking, poor refusal skills, low empathyskills, low empathy

Hawkins et al. ’09 Hawkins et al. ’09 (Girls Study Group)(Girls Study Group)(MV, L, 8-12 gr)(MV, L, 8-12 gr)

Presence of caring Presence of caring adultadultSchool successSchool success

Not examinedNot examined

What Reasons Do Girls What Reasons Do Girls Give? Give?

Pushes and PullsPushes and Pulls Early gang studies reveal girls joining Early gang studies reveal girls joining

for for – statusstatus– protectionprotection– Fun/access to boysFun/access to boys

Reasons for Gang JoiningReasons for Gang JoiningGREAT I

Cross-sectionalstudy (8th gr) Sp95

GREAT I longitudinal study

(7th gr) Fa95

GREAT II longitudinal study

(7th gr) Fa07“Circle allthat apply”

F M F M F M

Fun 49 43 47 41 33 35

Protection 46 47 44 43 37 37

Friend in 50 38 53 41 33 37

Respect 42 41 41 43 27* 47

Bro/sis 20 23 34* 13 30 24

Fit in 33 28 41* 13 16 47

To get $ 27 36 13 23 18 26

Forced 8 8 13 5 2 2

What Reasons do Girls Give? What Reasons do Girls Give? Pushes and Pulls (cont’d)Pushes and Pulls (cont’d)

((Maxson & Whitlock 2002)Maxson & Whitlock 2002)

FEMALESFEMALES MALESMALES

Family involved Family involved (73%)(73%)

Excitement (78%)Excitement (78%)

Friends involved Friends involved (62%)(62%)

Territory/protection Territory/protection (71%)(71%)

Get a reputation Get a reputation (58%)(58%)

Belonging (61%)Belonging (61%)

Reasons for Joining GangsReasons for Joining Gangs(Thornberry et al. 2003)(Thornberry et al. 2003)

““Select Select one”one”

FF MM BlackBlack HispHisp WhiteWhite

Family/Family/friendsfriends

6060 4949 5959 2626 6363

ProtectionProtection 1717 2020 1919 2222 22

Fun/actionFun/action 1212 1717 1111 3737 55

OtherOther 1212 1313 1010 1515 2929

No significant sex differences; Race/ethnic differences were found

What Reasons Do Girls Give? What Reasons Do Girls Give? (cont’d)(cont’d)

Problems in Girls’ Families Problems in Girls’ Families Domestic violenceDomestic violence Physical and Sexual abuse Physical and Sexual abuse NeglectNeglect Parental substance abuse/mental healthParental substance abuse/mental health Family gang involvementFamily gang involvement

– Jody Miller (2001); Mark Fleisher (1998)Jody Miller (2001); Mark Fleisher (1998)

““Liberation” v. “Social injury”: Liberation” v. “Social injury”: girls find both protection and increased risk in gangs girls find both protection and increased risk in gangs

(Curry 1998; Miller 2001; Peterson, Miller, & Esbensen (Curry 1998; Miller 2001; Peterson, Miller, & Esbensen 2001)2001)

Leaving the GangLeaving the Gang Gang is not (necessarily) “forever”Gang is not (necessarily) “forever”

Motherhood not the path for mostMotherhood not the path for most

Of gang females in Milwaukee Of gang females in Milwaukee (Hagedorn & (Hagedorn & Devitt)Devitt)::– 16% left due to pregnancy16% left due to pregnancy– 43.5% “just stopped”43.5% “just stopped”– 32% parents moved them to get away from gang32% parents moved them to get away from gang

Reasons for Leaving Gang

01020304050607080

Female

Male

Method of Leaving Gang

01020304050607080

Female

Male

Consequences for Leaving Gang

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Noconsequences

f riendhurt/ killed

beaten up byformer gang

familyhurt/ killed

lost gangf riends

f riend/ familythreatened

threatened beaten up byother gang

Female

Male

What does all this mean for What does all this mean for prevention & intervention?prevention & intervention?

Must take into account:Must take into account:– Age, gang compositionAge, gang composition

– Similarities and diffs in risk factors, Similarities and diffs in risk factors, reasons, and desistancereasons, and desistance

– Other issues specific to femalesOther issues specific to females

Prevention/Intervention Prevention/Intervention Implications: Implications:

Reasons for JoiningReasons for Joining General prevention/intervention with sex-General prevention/intervention with sex-

specific elementsspecific elements

Potential prevention responses:Potential prevention responses:– Affordable, available prosocial activities Affordable, available prosocial activities

(structured, supervised)(structured, supervised)– Attention to bullying/violence in schools and Attention to bullying/violence in schools and

neighborhoodsneighborhoods– Making good/healthy choices about peersMaking good/healthy choices about peers– Breaking cycle of familial gang involvementBreaking cycle of familial gang involvement– Empowerment-building experiences, youth-Empowerment-building experiences, youth-

centered communicationcentered communication

Prevention/Intervention Prevention/Intervention Implications:Implications:Risk FactorsRisk Factors

Potential prevention responses:Potential prevention responses:– Ameliorate effects of negative life events Ameliorate effects of negative life events – Address non-delinquent problem behaviorsAddress non-delinquent problem behaviors– Counter delinquent beliefs Counter delinquent beliefs – Peer factors: Associating with delinquent peers, Peer factors: Associating with delinquent peers,

attachment/commitment to deviant peers, attachment/commitment to deviant peers, unstructured unsupervised socializingunstructured unsupervised socializing

Female-specific components:Female-specific components:– Attention to issues of sexual abuse/assaultAttention to issues of sexual abuse/assault– School commitment, school success, college School commitment, school success, college

aspiration/expectationsaspiration/expectations

Strategies for InterventionStrategies for Intervention Address gang members as individualsAddress gang members as individuals Debunk gang mythsDebunk gang myths Potential intervention point: after violent Potential intervention point: after violent

eventevent Provide: Provide:

– Alternatives for gang activityAlternatives for gang activity– Caring adultsCaring adults– Safe environment, structure, consequencesSafe environment, structure, consequences– Meaningful role Meaningful role – Empowerment to make decisionsEmpowerment to make decisions– Respect, caring, consistencyRespect, caring, consistency

Other Issues to ConsiderOther Issues to Consider Female-specific issues (see Appendix):Female-specific issues (see Appendix):

– Victimization experiences (in & out of gang)Victimization experiences (in & out of gang)– Relationships (with boys, girls, adults)Relationships (with boys, girls, adults)– Media images & socializationMedia images & socialization– Mental Health/ PTSDMental Health/ PTSD– Internalizing & Externalizing BehaviorsInternalizing & Externalizing Behaviors– Developmental Issues Developmental Issues

What programs fit the bill for girls?What programs fit the bill for girls?

OJJDP Girls Study Group OJJDP Girls Study Group Program ReviewProgram Review

392 Programs nation-wide reviewed62 Female-specific programs identified

18 of those had been evaluated

Only 1 was gang program:Movimiento Ascendencia (Upward Movement)Movimiento Ascendencia (Upward Movement)

(Williams, Curry & Cohen 2002)(Williams, Curry & Cohen 2002)

None rated “effective” or “effective w/reservation”

Female-specific ApproachesFemale-specific Approaches– 3 common themes across promising programs 3 common themes across promising programs (Zahn (Zahn

& Mihalic, 2008)& Mihalic, 2008): : Self (Leadership & Life skills, Self-concept & Self-Self (Leadership & Life skills, Self-concept & Self-

efficacy/empowerment, Mental health, efficacy/empowerment, Mental health, Recreation/sports, Education)Recreation/sports, Education)

Relationships (Family involvement/mother-daughter Relationships (Family involvement/mother-daughter bonding, Communication skills, Relationship bldg)bonding, Communication skills, Relationship bldg)

Community (Cultural components, Community Community (Cultural components, Community involvement/referrals/support)involvement/referrals/support)

– Approaches for girls should address risk factors Approaches for girls should address risk factors and reasons for gang involvement, including or as and reasons for gang involvement, including or as well as mental health & maltreatment, family well as mental health & maltreatment, family dynamics, peer group, prosocial institutions (esp dynamics, peer group, prosocial institutions (esp school), with attention to developmental levelschool), with attention to developmental level

Concluding ThoughtsConcluding Thoughts Listen to what girls are telling usListen to what girls are telling us

Addressing even a few risk factors can have Addressing even a few risk factors can have modest effects on youths who experience modest effects on youths who experience multiple risk factors in multiple domains multiple risk factors in multiple domains (cumulative disadvantage)(cumulative disadvantage)

Keep in mind potential for “lagged effects”: Keep in mind potential for “lagged effects”: – What we do today may not = immediate results, What we do today may not = immediate results,

but do not give upbut do not give up– Lessons, values, skills we attempt to instill today Lessons, values, skills we attempt to instill today

may “take hold” and manifest years down the may “take hold” and manifest years down the roadroad

Appendix:Appendix:Girls TodayGirls Today

Context:Context:– Changing portrayals of women in mediaChanging portrayals of women in media– Socialization: Socialization:

Traditionally socialized females in caring for and serving others, Traditionally socialized females in caring for and serving others, putting self second putting self second

Some changes now: Socializing girls more like boysSome changes now: Socializing girls more like boys

Girls often put relationships above abstract rules & regulationsGirls often put relationships above abstract rules & regulations– e.g., “a young woman on probation will often violate a rule e.g., “a young woman on probation will often violate a rule

about curfew because she is ‘needed’ or even wanted by a about curfew because she is ‘needed’ or even wanted by a friend, a parent, her child, or a boyfriend. In her mind, she is friend, a parent, her child, or a boyfriend. In her mind, she is simply weighing the overall value of a relationship versus an simply weighing the overall value of a relationship versus an abstract rule placed by someone else.” In this situation, a abstract rule placed by someone else.” In this situation, a prob officer using a response that includes concerns about prob officer using a response that includes concerns about breaking rules and suffering consequences is not likely to breaking rules and suffering consequences is not likely to have an impact. Instead, the officer can use his/her have an impact. Instead, the officer can use his/her relationship with the girl to communicate: “’I know it isn’t relationship with the girl to communicate: “’I know it isn’t easy to see that curfew is important, but I have confidence in easy to see that curfew is important, but I have confidence in your ability to make good choices. I am depending on you your ability to make good choices. I am depending on you and have told others I believe you can do this.’ This forces and have told others I believe you can do this.’ This forces the girl into balancing one relationship over another” the girl into balancing one relationship over another” (Community Research Associates, 1998, p. 20).(Community Research Associates, 1998, p. 20).

Appendix: Appendix: Developmental Issues Specific for FemalesDevelopmental Issues Specific for Females

Relationships/communicationRelationships/communication– Healthy boundary-setting & assertivenessHealthy boundary-setting & assertiveness– Open communication & conflict resolutionOpen communication & conflict resolution

Puberty, esp early onset (emotional & Puberty, esp early onset (emotional & psychosomatic probs, behavior outside psychosomatic probs, behavior outside social norms)social norms)

Self-efficacy & self-imageSelf-efficacy & self-image– Positive self-talkPositive self-talk– Empowerment Empowerment – Combating sexualized images, stereotypesCombating sexualized images, stereotypes

HealthHealth– Screening for anemia, STDs, eating disorders, substance Screening for anemia, STDs, eating disorders, substance

abuse, hearing/vision problems, depression, anxiety, abuse, hearing/vision problems, depression, anxiety, PTSDPTSD

– Physical training and noncompetitive fitness recreationPhysical training and noncompetitive fitness recreation– Discussion of pubertal changes Discussion of pubertal changes – Explore issues of sexuality and sexual identityExplore issues of sexuality and sexual identity– Teach about nutrition and good personal hygieneTeach about nutrition and good personal hygiene– Health care info and accessHealth care info and access

ParentingParenting– Birth control, pregnancy informationBirth control, pregnancy information– Pre- and post-natal carePre- and post-natal care– Well-baby and day careWell-baby and day care– Parenting skills trainingParenting skills training

Appendix: Appendix: Developmental Issues Specific for Developmental Issues Specific for

FemalesFemales

Appendix: Appendix: Other Issues to ConsiderOther Issues to Consider

Life experiences:Life experiences:– Physical & especially sexual abusePhysical & especially sexual abuse– Witnessing conflict and violenceWitnessing conflict and violence

Mental health problemsMental health problems– Post-traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder

Internalizing reactions:Internalizing reactions:– Depression and attempted suicideDepression and attempted suicide– Low self-esteem and poor self-imageLow self-esteem and poor self-image– Eating disordersEating disorders– Drug abuse as escapeDrug abuse as escape

Externalizing reactions:Externalizing reactions:– Relational aggression and social manipulationRelational aggression and social manipulation– Physical violencePhysical violence

Appendix:Appendix:Issues regarding StaffIssues regarding Staff

Interviewing potential staff:Interviewing potential staff: Ask questions about the applicants’ interest in Ask questions about the applicants’ interest in

working with girls, experiences w/gender-specific working with girls, experiences w/gender-specific service delivery, and their knowledge about female service delivery, and their knowledge about female development.development.

Listening skills are essentialListening skills are essential Allow youths to develop the programs and activitiesAllow youths to develop the programs and activities Expect to commit yourself fully to the youth, to be Expect to commit yourself fully to the youth, to be

there for her; many youth in trouble have learned there for her; many youth in trouble have learned not to rely on others, especially adults, and are not to rely on others, especially adults, and are distrustful. Only if you show you will be there will distrustful. Only if you show you will be there will they eventually let down their guard.they eventually let down their guard.

““Commitment, caring, consistency, honesty, Commitment, caring, consistency, honesty, dependability”dependability”

Appendix:Appendix:Day-to-Day ProgrammingDay-to-Day Programming

Safe space, safe peopleSafe space, safe people Have girls-only areas availableHave girls-only areas available Have posters, books, magazines, videos, Have posters, books, magazines, videos,

etc. that celebrate women and their etc. that celebrate women and their achievements (in both girls and boys areas).achievements (in both girls and boys areas).

Model healthy, positive gender relationships Model healthy, positive gender relationships for all youth.for all youth.

When possible, run girls-only groups When possible, run girls-only groups – if groups must be mixed, ensure that the number if groups must be mixed, ensure that the number

of females equals, if not exceeds, the number of of females equals, if not exceeds, the number of males and that girls are given as much males and that girls are given as much opportunity to express themselves as boys.opportunity to express themselves as boys.

References & Resources•Chesney-Lind, Meda and John M. Hagedorn. (Eds.) 1999. Female Gangs in America: Essays on Girls, Gangs, and Gender. Chicago, IL: Lake View Press.

•Curry, G. David. 1991. “Responding to female gang involvement.” Pp. 133-153 in Chesney-Lind, Meda and John M. Hagedorn (Eds.), Female Gangs in America: Essays on Girls, Gangs, and Gender. Chicago, IL: Lake View Press.

•Deschenes, Elizabeth P. and Finn-Aage Esbensen. 1999. “Violence and Gangs: Gender Differences in Perceptions and Behavior.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15: 63-96.

•Esbensen, Finn-Aage and Elizabeth P. Deschenes. 1998. “A Multisite Examination of Youth Gang Membership: Does Gender Matter?” Criminology 36: 799-828.

•Esbensen, Finn-Aage, Elizabeth P. Deschenes, and L. Thomas Winfree, Jr. 1999. “Differences between Gang Girls and Gang Boys: Results from a Multisite Study.” Youth and Society 31(1): 27-53.

•Esbensen, Finn-Aage, Dana Peterson, Terrance J. Taylor, and Adrienne Freng. Forthcoming. Youth Violence: Understanding the Roles of Sex and Race/Ethnicity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

•Hawkins, S. R., P. W. Graham, J. Williams, and M. A. Zahn. 2009. “Resilient Girls—Factors that Protect Against Delinquency.” Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. http://girlsstudygroup.rti.org/docs/OJJDP_GSG_Resilience_Bulletin.pdf

•Maxson, Cheryl L. and Monica L. Whitlock. 2002. “Joining the Gang: Gender Differences in Risk Factors for Gang Membership.” Pp. 19-36 in Gangs in America, 3rd Edition, edited by C. Ronald Huff. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

•Miller, Jody (2001). One of the guys: Girls, gangs and gender. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

References & Resources

•Miller, Jody, & Brunson, Rodney K. (2000). Gender dynamics in youth gangs: A comparison of male and female accounts. Justice Quarterly, 17, 801-830.

•Moore, Joan and John Hagedorn. 2001. Female Gangs: A focus on research. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washington, DC: OJJDP. http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/ojjdp/186159.pdf

•Peterson, Dana, Miller, Jody & Esbensen, Finn-Aage. (2001). The impact of sex composition on gang member attitudes and behavior. Criminology, 39, 411-440.

•Peterson, Dana, Terrance J. Taylor, and Finn-Aage Esbensen. 2004. “Gang Membership and Violent Victimization.” Justice Quarterly 21(4): 793-816.

•Thornberry, Terrence P., Krohn, Marvin D., Lizotte, Alan J., Smith, Carolyn A., & Tobin, Kimberly. (2003). Gangs and delinquency in developmental perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.

•Williams, Katherine, G. David Curry, & Marcia I. Cohen. 2002. “Gang Prevention for Females.” Ch. 8, Pp. 225-263 in Winifred L. Reed and Scott H. Decker (eds.), Responding to Gangs: Evaluation and Research. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/190351.pdf

•Zahn, M.A., Brumbaugh, S., Steffensmeier, D., Feld, B.C., Morash, M., Chesney-Lind, M., Miller, J., Payne, A.A., Gottfredson, D.C., Kruttschnitt, C. “Violence by Teenage Girls: Trends and Context. “Washington, DC: OJJDP. http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/218905.pdf

•Zahn, M. A. and S. Mihalic. 2008. “Effective Programs for Girls: Blueprints and Girls' Only Programs.” Presentation at the 2008 Blueprints Pre-Conference on the Girls Study Group, Boulder, CO. http://girlsstudygroup.rti.org/docs/Blueprints_Program_Review_Zahn.pdf