Centralized Supply Chain Planning At IKEA

PROJECT REPORT

Anurag Gillella | Engineering operations and Logistics | December 2nd, 2016

ContentsINTRODUCTION..............................................................................................2

Literature review.............................................................................................2Methodology....................................................................................................6

Case Study.......................................................................................................9CASE Analysis...............................................................................................13

Discussion......................................................................................................15Conclusion and future research....................................................................18

References.....................................................................................................20

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INTRODUCTIONThis report is the breakdown and analysis of the paper “Centralized supply chain planning at IKEA” by Patrik Jonsson, Martin Rudberg and Stefan Holmberg. The aim of this report is to understand and analyze this paper which is concerned with when centralized supply chain planning is deemed necessary, what results to expect, and how to attain them. It considers a case study analysis of how IKEA, a worldwide leader in furniture retailing, has gone from decentralized to centralized planning of its network of suppliers, distribution centres (DCs), stores and forwarders. This transformed them from a crumbled management to a centralized, coordinated, supply chain planning. A centralized supply chain planning strategy interests common and standardized processes and working methods, centralized organization, and an integrated IT infrastructure with advanced planning and scheduling (APS) support, and may result in perks, such as visibility, improved transparency, and synchronized processes. Coordinating and managing a supply chain through centralized planning is, however, not a general solution and research determines different prerequisites for effective centralized planning. Even though the appropriate prerequisites for centralized supply chain planning exist, its implementation may result in complications or there may exist obstacles for its complete implementation. Established problems of centralized planning, for example, include incongruence of objectives and the enticement of individual organizations that result in fractured global supply chains. Most research on supply chain planning has studied individual process or organizational or IT perspectives, but not many have delved into a unified perspective to study all three and their effects. Such an approach should be notably helpful for developing an understanding of centralized supply chain planning effects and obstacles in complex supply chains such as IKEA’s, which has about 30,000 sales items, 1,400 suppliers, 30 central DCs and 280 stores globally. Supply chain planning in the retail sector has been studied earlier, but nothing in the same magnitude of a supply chain as of that of IKEA. Apart from detailing IKEA’s centralized supply chain planning concept, the purpose of this report is to analyze the prerequisites, effects and obstacles of implementing centralized supply chain planning at IKEA, and to delve into how the planning process, organization and planning system make up a centralized planning approach. This report begins with a literature review, focusing on the prerequisites for, approaches to, and effects of, implementing centralized supply chain planning, in a resulting conceptual research framework. Next are the case study, and case analysis. Finally, the conclusion of the paper and provide ideas for further research.

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Literature reviewMany facets of centralization have been studied separately, for example, the prerequisites for a supply chain to benefit from centralization, the expected effects on performance and possible application obstacles. The literature review pivots on these areas and winds up with a conceptual research framework for analyzing centralized supply chain planning, one that associates the necessary prerequisites, typical concepts and approaches as well as the effects and obstacles. The framework is used to wire in the two research questions of the paper and works as a format and a theoretical base for the discussion and empirical analysis.

1. Prerequisites for centralized supply chain planning:Classification of products are in two categories (functional/ innovative) and two supply chain categories (physical efficiency/ market responsive). Innovative products should be matched with a responsive supply chain whereas functional products benefit from a physically efficient supply chain. Literature suggests that centralized supply chain planning is suitable for companies selling functional products: working towards on time deliveries and cheap costs. Furthermore, successful implementation of a centralized supply chain requires that a company have full control of the supply chain by means of a high degree of vertical integration and/or with the assistance of a dominating organization. Additionally, the power and the competence of the implementing organization and the potential for creating a single planning domain are recognized as being important prerequisites (or contextual characteristics) for implementing this approach.

2. Centralized Supply Chain Planning:Concepts of centralized supply chain planning can be described in numerous ways. The report uses three perspectives: the planning processes, the planning organization and the planning system (software). These perspectives are considered dimensions of a centralized supply chain planning concept and could either expedite or impede its success.2.1. Planning process

Planning processes have mutual relationships and include various functions facilitated hierarchically throughout a supply chain. There are also relationships between different functional and organizational planning processes. Planning processes can be classified based on the magnitude of the planning horizon and on the supply chain process that should be supported

2.2. Planning OrganizationDecision making is often assembled in two categories in centralization. The first describes decisions about regular activities facilitating an organization’s output and is about the control of the hierarchy of authority. The second entails participation in decision

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making and is about centralization of decisions regarding the allocation of resources. Thus, the authority in centralized organizations dwells within corporate headquarters where managerial initiative and influence radiate from the centre to the periphery. A centralized planning organization and common working methods also expedite the introduction of standardized software support, which is necessary to support decision making in global supply chains.

2.3. Planning SystemsIn traditional Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems there are many drawbacks to coordinating a vertically focused but dispersed supply chain, in order to deal with these impediments, APS systems have been proposed as tools to support the coordination of global supply chains. An APS system is designed to deal with numerous sites and to encompass varied supply chain decisions in a central planning engine. Thus, distribution, stock replenishment, sourcing decisions and production can be stabilized in a centralized function aiming at optimal use of resources throughout the supply chain. Since APS systems used in supply chains must deal with multi-site environments and are based on standardized planning processes with a high degree of automation, the quality of master data and transaction data is critical. The planning data must be of high quality, and data collection and validation must, therefore, be conducted in fitting ways. Moreover, strong coordination between the divergent planning modules is obligatory to achieve steady plans for the different planning levels and various entities in the supply chain.

3. Effects from Centralized Supply Chain:The author’s research sources states that centralized supply chain planning have positive effects on business performance, especially in cost-focused supply chains. They also show that the performance effect may be explained by different underlying, related dimensions of centralization. This paper identifies four major dimensions concerning the effects of centralized supply chain planning

Coordination and IntegrationCentralization integration and coordination implies decision making on a high level and tight integration. The high level of control and coordination of activities are often identified as the main benefits.

Standardization:Which in the information systems literature is a means for utilizing the potential of centralized planning systems within and across organizations.

Specialisation:A centralized supply chain planning approach allows for a horizontally specialized organization, with more planning

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specialists co-located. There are likelihoods of it having a positive effect on the overall skills and possibilities of managing and advancing a planning process

Learning Effects:These can be traced in many change projects, but in a large supply chain knowledge and technology dissipation is argued to be aided by centralization.

Even though effects of centralized planning could be derived solely from either the planning process or the planning organization or the planning system, it is justifiable to believe that an approach that combines process, organization and planning system will result in the most positive effects.

4. Obstacles to centralized supply chain planning: Resistance to change:

Difficulties and problems have been identified when organizations implement and use centralized supply chain planning.

Lack of top management involvement:The centralized planning organizations’ loss to attain feedback to local conditions, difficulties in developing general management capabilities and cumbersome and costly central overheads can also hinder successful centralized planning.

Lack of user training and knowledge:Centralizing planning processes and systems often result in transferring planning tasks from the planner to the system, which can lead to disagreement and resistance. Human and organizational issues are often considered more significant obstacles for APS system success than are the technical issues

Technical Issues:Data quality problems and integration in the information system infrastructure are also identified as obstacles.

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MethodologyThe authors have studied and compared IKEA’s supply chain planning approach before and after the implementation of its centralized supply chain planning concept. The transformation has occurred in stages between 2000 and 2011. The ‘old’ planning approach entails to the situation pre-2003. Similarly, the ‘new’ concept refers to the situation post-2010.

IKEA’s supply chain characteristics is considered to be suitable for applying a centralized planning concept, thus, it was considered for testing and further developing the framework generalized in the literature review.

The case study depicts IKEA’s global supply chain planning concept and analyzes how the processes, organization and planning systems constitute a centralized planning concept.

The case analysis is the means to confer the characteristics of the centralized planning concept, focusing on the two research questions. The

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Figure.1. Conceptual research framework

empirical scope is the planning of the material flow of IKEA’s supply chain from supplier via distribution centres (DCs) to stores. The unit of analysis is its tactical and operational supply chain planning.

1. Data Collection:Various data collection methods have been employed, such as in-depth interviews, observations, and company documents. Three researchers collected the data, did the analysis and wrote the paper; two were external to IKEA and the third was employed at IKEA and was involved in the planning and rollout of the concept. The internal researcher’s task was to take field notes, collect relevant internal documents, catalogue a draft description of the two planning concepts (pre-2003 and post-2010) and provide the two principal researchers access to data and to people to interview so they could wrap up the case descriptions. The internal researcher based the draft case story on data from the following sources:

1) Steering group protocols, power point presentations, and other supporting internal documents generated between August 2006 and January 2010.2) Monthly status reports from the project from August 2006 to the

end of 2009.3) Final reports of the project phases 1–3 from August 2006.4) Final reports of the project phase 4 from January 2010.5) Personal field notes of the internal researcher collected during the entire project period from October 2002 to the end of 2010.

The interviewees included the project manager and demand and supply planners with experience in both the old and new planning concepts. The interviews supplemented further details to the draft case descriptions and validated them. In terms of investigating the effects of the new planning concept, quantitative performance data were generated from IKEA internal files (this data is confidential and is not presented in the paper). The perceived effects of the two concepts and the obstacles that IKEA encountered while applying the new concept were generated from the interviews, the observations of the internal researcher, and internal project reviews.

DimensionsData Sources

Prerequisites

Old Planning Concept

New Planning Concept

Effects Obstacles

Internal Documents and Presentations

X X X X X

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Observations

X X X X

Demand and Supply Planner Interviews

X X X X

Project Manager Interviews

X X X X X

Source: AuthorsTable.1.

2. Data Analysis:The conceptual framework, research questions and case descriptions of the old and new concepts were taken as input to the data analysis. The results of the analysis contain many proposed relationships. Therefore, the approach followed a theory-generation procedure. The process was not straightforward however. Preliminary analyses were carried out during the years of data collection, which resulted in several iterations in which new literature and empirical data were collected. These are the five main steps of the data analysis:

Writing up case descriptions of the old and new planning concepts, using the process, organization and planning system structure outlined in the literature review.

Describing IKEA’s supply chain context and relating it to the centralized supply chain planning prerequisites defined in the literature review.

Identifying, grouping and relating centralized planning effects. Identifying obstacles for implementing the new centralized

planning concept. Validating the final case descriptions and conclusions.

3. Participatory research:Because one of the researchers had been actively participating in the transition of the case company, facets of action research and participatory research have been used. Our approach is not an action research approach, as per its most strict definitions because there was not a feedback loop from the researchers’ data analysis to the IKEA project. The only feedback has been received via the internal researcher’s involvement. No one at IKEA, except for the interviewees and a senior manager, knew about the research project. The analysis has, thus, been collaborative in the context that the IKEA project manager, who knows the organization the best, has been involved. But it has not been collaborative in the sense that the research analysis has guided the

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IKEA implementation process. Since the research project was not an official IKEA project and was only known to a select few people at IKEA, we also believe that the Hawthorne effect is not a problem. Another possible validity problem of action research is the absence of impartiality on the part of the researcher, which can result in biased case stories. Having two external researchers made it possible to maintain objectivity. They have opted for an outside-in perspective always, questioning and validating the story generated by the internal researcher. They did not take part in internal project meetings, but did review internal documents, conduct interviews with IKEA staff and relate the IKEA case to the literature. Hence, we believe the participatory, action research-oriented involvement of the internal researcher has provided the author with important insights and a deep understanding of the IKEA planning concept and its effects and obstacles. The external researchers’ association and position have made it possible to maintain an objective perspective and generate valid case understanding.

Two questions stem from the framework, which is discussed in this report. When the supply chain is being centralized, what effects can be

expected? While implementing centralized supply chain what are the possible

obstacles?

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Case StudyThe case study describes IKEA’s global supply chain planning concept and explores how the processes, organization and planning systems make up a centralized planning concept.

1. IKEA’s Supply Chain Characteristics:IKEA’s supply chain has a global outreach in terms of sales and purchasing in all major regions of the world. The stores, which are classified into three geographical areas, are supplied through 30 distribution centres and by some 1,400 suppliers in 55 countries. Bulk of the sales volume is distributed directly from suppliers to stores. Many aspects contributed to IKEA having a planning environment that was apt for a centralized planning approach. It has a high pace of growth, planning to open 10–20 new stores every year and a goal to double sales every fifth year. Furthermore, given the many stores and warehouses and the fact that 20–25 % of its assortment can change from year to year, supply chain planning is a challenge. IKEA’s supply chain is somewhat vertically integrated and is primarily made-to-stock (MTS), with only a limited range that is made-to-(customer)orders. The entire supply chain is heavily dependent on forecasts and the products would typically be classified as functional.

2. Overview of The Old Planning Concept:When IKEA evaluated its old planning situation, IKEA identified several problems with its approach. The supply chain had a functional orientation with narrow transparency between functions and sub-processes, resulting in reactive and unsynchronized planning performance. Various planning systems (software) were being used in parallel. Planners did extensive manual work because of the absence of standardized software support and standardized working methods. This made it difficult to secure high planning information quality and stock balances, and lead times were considered capricious. Hence, there was a lack of trust and communication between different parts of the supply chain. Other supply chain performance problems were difficulties having the work force pay attention to data maintenance, absence of proper follow-up tools to monitor forecast deviations, hard to change mindsets among users, and no synchronization of order and stock data.

3. Overview of The New Planning Method:IKEA started a programme focused on implementing a new planning concept to take better control of its supply chain and to enhance delivery service and costs. This concept is an integrated, global planning process, which is defined in Figure 2, and is formally located in a central planning function called IKEA of Sweden. IKEA of Sweden supervises the IKEA

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universe and develops long-term marketing, logistics, and purchasing strategies. The global planning process starts with the sales and demand planning (1 in Figure 2) which sets the frames and generates future demand data for IKEA’s 12 business areas. The demand data is thenceforth input to the global materials planning process (2), which in turn drives the supplier capacity and load planning processes (3) and the planning of the distribution supply chain (transport, warehouse, and store planning; 4a-c in Figure 2)

IKEA developed its centralized planning concept in various stages (Figure 3). It first fixated on demand planning, with new demand planning software being completely implemented in 2003. It next aimed at improving materials planning, working first on the supplier-to-DC flow, with new fulfilment software being fully implemented in 2006. IKEA then expanded the fulfilment functionality to encompass the entire flow from supplier, via DC, to store (including direct deliveries); it fully implemented this in 2011. IKEA also conducted the specialization and centralization of the planning organization in stages. In 2007, IKEA separated the former supply planners group, which in the old planning concept had responsibility for both demand and materials planning, into two sets: demand planners, which has demand planning responsibilities and need planners, which has materials planning responsibilities. In

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Figure.2. IKEA’s global supply chain planning processes

2009, IKEA finalized the centralization of the demand and need planners within IKEA of Sweden.

3.1. New Planning ProcessesThe demand planning process (1 in Figure 2) contains two sub-processes: sales frame planning, which uses a long-term and top-down perspective, and tactical forecasting process, which uses a short-term and bottom-up perspective. Sales frame planning is done on five– year rolling horizon established on aggregate sales volumes and is updated three times per year. Tactical forecasting is done weekly on an 84-week rolling horizon based on selling volumes at the store level (i.e., SKU level). The two sub-processes are combined on a regular basis in a pyramid forecasting approach in which the plans are spawned in the two processes are harmonized into one set of figures, which are used as demand data for the entire supply chain. The demand planning process drives the supply planning processes, in conjunction with materials planning and supplier capacity and load planning. The materials planning process results in replenishment plans at stores and warehouses and from suppliers. Forecasts are netted in two levels: initially at the store level and later at the DC Group level. The netted volumes are divided between suppliers based on a self-styled Supplier Matrix that controls the split of volumes between different suppliers. A daily planning frequency is used for the near future, whereas the full planning horizon (84 weeks) is updated weekly. Hereupon, the supplier load planning process allots volumes on an 18-month horizon to make sure that committed volumes towards the suppliers are realized and that no supplier is overburdened. The suppliers tell IKEA their capacity limit, and IKEA sometimes commits to provide a supplier with a guaranteed volume. IKEA decides

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Figure.3. Implementation steps of IKEA’s global supply chain planning concept

whether to increase or decrease the suppliers’ volumes and when required to adjust supplier matrices. The weekly short-term supplier capacity planning at IKEA includes load levelling between weeks on a six-months horizon to always fulfil the dedicated volumes (which includes shifting volumes between different suppliers, if necessary), and stay within the capacity limits. Exceptions are generated when there is a capacity overload or the load is below the commitment levels.

3.2. New Planning Organization:The demand planning process involves three organizational units: business area management, corporate management and a central forecasting team at IKEA of Sweden. The sales frame planning begins with the overall sales forecast made by the corporate management; business area managers provide forecasts in terms of sales volumes, considering their business area’s growth plans and aspirations. The 30-odd demand planners are dynamic in the tactical forecasting process, each one forecasting for part of the assortment and also involved in the sales frame planning because they translate the harmonized forecast into a sales forecast on the SKU level. In addition, the demand planners are responsible for the global sales forecast accuracy, product range modifications, and advancement of the forecast methodologies. The approximately 70 need planners are responsible for matching the materials planning with the capacity planning for the entire supply chain. The need planners together with a few other organizational units (e.g., business area specialists), are also responsible for controlling service and stock levels in the stores and distribution centres while keeping track of the overall stock levels in the total supply chain. The primary focus is on the tactical planning level, while business area specialists focus on the operational planning and execution. The need planners have a crucial role in the global materials planning process of balancing the global requirement and capacity per supplier/category/material and are also responsible for administering with any exception and capacity actions.

3.3. New Planning System Software:To aid the demand and need planners in its integrated planning processes, IKEA implemented APS system software. All though, the planning processes is not solely dependent on the APS system, but rather a hybrid of ERP, APS, and legacy systems, with Access and Excel being used to support the planning processes. No standard planning software is used to support the sales frame planning. Regardless, the tactical forecasting process is supported by standardized APS system software. IKEA recently implemented new

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steps to better connect the sales planning process with the demand planning process, in which new working methods have been implemented and supported by the new planning system modules. The materials planning process and the supplier capacity and load planning process are also supported by standardized APS software. In a few cases, the process is conducted with the support of a load levelling function in the planning system and in some other cases performed manually by the need planners.

CASE AnalysisThe following section provides an analysis of the effects of the new centralized supply chain planning concept and the obstacles to its implementation.

1. Planning Processes Effects and Obstacles:The first step in developing the new centralized concept was to compose a standardized planning processes and establish standardized working methods that strived towards a common supply chain objective. With its sales frame planning already centralized and following adequately standardized working methods, IKEA was able to establish both supply chain integration and hierarchical for all supply chain planning processes. This change combined demand with supply all the way from the stores to the suppliers. The new processes increased forecast accuracy, reduced safety stock levels and increased supply chain visibility. In addition to vertically integrating the supply chain, the new planning processes also enhanced the hierarchical integration, which in combination with a centralized planning organization started the ball rolling for implementing standardized software support. This forced planners to adhere to established working methods. Despite the positive effects of centralization, supply plan accuracy was still meager in 2011. This happened mainly because the forecast accuracy was not high enough (especially for new products), manual interventions were made to plans and everyone did not establish and adhere to a standardized working methods.

2. Planning organization effects and obstaclesThe new organizational design and function is key for IKEA in carrying out its global planning concept in a standardized way. Centralizing the authority and control of the planning processes has given IKEA a global view of its supply chain. The formulation of the two centralized planner positions not only created the necessary specialist competence in demand and materials planning, but also made it cost efficient and

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practically feasible to implement the planning processes in a standardized way. It also led to common learning and continuous improvement of the processes and working methods within the group. It aroused discussions between demand and need planners about common objects and issues, further strengthening the holistic view of the supply chain. There are various examples of areas with proactive working schemes and a continuous and close dialogue occurring between need planners, demand planners, and other parts of the central organization, which allows potential problems and discrepancies from plan and working methods to be proactively identified and corrected. Furthermore, by adding the need planners, IKEA centralized responsibility for supply planning and demand attainment in one group of planners, reducing the imbalances and local sub-optimization in the supply chain. Some problems have transpired in implementing the new global planning concept and working methods, both for the central organization and for organizations and individuals not belonging to the central organization (e.g., store and sales representatives interacting with the processes). One difficulty was that the demand and need planners have different educational background and experience. Additionally, during implementation IKEA identified problems such as inadequate end-user training and support, insufficient knowledge and involvement on the part of line management, and the new systems not being the main operations for some of the organizations and individuals. Some people had difficulties adhering to a common and standardized way of working, partly because of difficulties adjusting to the new software. While some regional differences exist, most problems exist globally.

3. Planning Systems Effects and Obstacles:The planning system issues are akin to the planning software modules used and the quality of the input data. The demand planners use the demand planning module in the tactical forecasting process and the need planners employ the supply planning module in the materials planning and the supplier capacity planning process. The supply planning module also assists other roles in IKEA’s planning organization with accurate and timely information on various operations. The APS system modules offer the possibility of implementing frequent quantitative forecasting, of aggregating and disaggregating forecasts and of distribution requirements planning. It also has a user-friendly interface, which allows for customized visualization- and exception-based working methods. The forecasting software, jointly with organizational changes, made it possible for IKEA to scale down the number of forecasters from 120 to around 30 and at the same time, increase average forecast accuracy. The software implementation also expedited the implementation of a centralized planning organization and standardized planning processes. Furthermore, the software compelled the demand planners and need

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planners to adopt the standardized planning processes and working methods for a range of functions such as establishing time fences, forecasting methods, monitoring, etc.

Obstacles that can be related to the planning systems and their use mainly concern functionality. Thus, in-house developed legacy systems are still used and spreadsheets are used as planning tools in some less standardized processes and in the event the APS system modules’ functionality is not sufficient. Additionally, it was realized that some planners lacked knowledge about IKEA’s supply chain and how the supply chain itself had repercussion on the possibilities for planning effectively. Many data quality issues were also identified in the initial phases of the new concept’s implementation. Some persist, inhibiting the new concept’s positive effects. The most severe data quality problems are insufficient maintenance of lead time data, problems with in-transit and stock data synchronization, and scant quality of master data. The new planning systems, in combination with the new planning processes and organization, helped IKEA identify these, and other, problems and identify the means to solve these obstacles.

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DiscussionBased on the literature review and the case study, the conceptual research framework in Figure 1 is refined, with 14 relationships (Figure 4). This is discussed in this section.

1. The Prerequisites for Centralized Planning:IKEA has the prerequisites necessary to implement and benefit from a centralized planning concept, as shown in a comparison of the summary of the findings from the literature with those of the case study analysis (Table 2). Because IKEA’s products would be classified as functional, it could be argued that the company should strive for a physically efficient supply chain and vertical integration. Other arguments can be raised that the IKEA supply chain is not completely vertically integrated and that the supply chain includes many different organizations. Yet, the supply chain is fully integrated downstream and many of IKEA suppliers have IKEA as their sole or major customer or in some instances are owned, in part or in full, by IKEA. From a planning perspective, IKEA can act on its supply chain as being vertically integrated, which gives it the authority to put forth the rules and procedures for supply chain planning. Given these prerequisites, IKEA seemed well suited to implement a centralized supply chain planning approach.

Literature findings IKEA case study findingsFunctional products striving for a physically efficient supply chain

The products are functional and IKEA strives for an efficient, low cost supply chain.

Vertically integrated supply chain While not under full ownership, IKEA is vertically integrated through partnerships, partial ownership, and long-term contracts.

Dominating organization in a multi-site setting with partial or full ownership of manufacturing, warehouses and retailers

While not a single organization, it is a dominating organization with full ownership of warehouses and retailers, and partial ownership of suppliers (manufacturing).

Power and competence to enforce the implementation, especially concerning the importance of corporate staff

IKEA has the power and a high degree of competence with SCM, and the centralized planning organization plays an active role in the new concept.

One planning domain possessing all crucial planning information

The new centralized supply chain planning concept resulted in one

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planning domain.

Table.2.

2. The Centralized Planning Concept and Its Effects:Two research questions were asked by the authors in this paper, first being, first one being, “What effects can be expected when centralizing supply chain planning?”.This reports analyses the study, which shows that the redesigned planning processes improved supply chain integration (R2 in Figure 4), both in terms of the supply chain from suppliers to stores and in terms of hierarchical planning from strategic to tactical to operational planning. The new planning processes’ bi-directional integration has in turn created a supply chain in which supply better matches demand. An important benefit of this is improved supply chain visibility, even though data quality deficiencies sometimes limit its effect. The new planning processes have also created a higher degree of standardization (R3) through the establishment of standardized working methods and improved planning functionality, which in turn led to the possibility of implementing a higher degree of automated planning activities through the implementation of new planning systems (R4). Researchers of this topic have identified the links between information systems, standardization and performance. This study further shows that increased standardization in planning processes systems may lead to improved performance. The new planning organization further facilitated standardization (R5), which led to reduced number of planners and faster planning. Having the planning specialists (demand and need planners) work together in a co-located centralized organization created a higher degree of specialization (R6) and established an environment based on learning (R7). Such positive indirect learning effects were also identified. The standardization of working methods, work flows and processes also enhanced the possibilities of integration (R8), because all parties in the supply chain were forced to adhere to the same practices. Establishing the two new specialist planning roles and locating them in one place made it easier for IKEA to implement standardized working methods (R9). The concentration of planning responsibility also created a critical mass of specialists at one location, paving the way for additional learning effects (R10). Somewhat counterintuitively, standardization also had a positive impact on individual and organizational learning (R11). By standardizing working methods and enforcing their use, IKEA continuously improved its working methods, and enabled new ideas to be discussed and implemented. This is also likely facilitated by all planners being concentrated to one location. In summary, the implementation of the new centralized supply chain concept had positive effects in terms of integration, standardization, specialization and learning effects — issues

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that IKEA was striving to address in the process of improving its supply chain management

The effects on performance identified in the literature were all apparent in the IKEA case (R12), as is summarized in Table 3

Literature findings IKEA case study findingsBetter meet global supply chain objectives/common supply chain plans

IKEA today has one common supply chain plan that strives towards global IKEA objectives.

Increased supply chain efficiency More reliable plans lead to more efficient production, transportation and replenishment. The planning is also more efficient.

Low cost Measurable effects are that stock levels are down and that they have less obsolete inventory*. Besides this, IKEA has reduced the planning work force and provide better plans to suppliers leading to positive long-term effects on cost.

Higher delivery performance/on-time delivery

Delivery performance has increased*.

More transparent/visible demand patterns and improved forecast accuracy

Demand and forecasts are entered into a centralized planning system and forecast accuracy has increased*.

*Based on confidential IKEA internal operational measures of obsolete inventory, delivery performance and forecast accuracy in 2001 and 2011.

3. The Centralized Planning Concept and Its Obstacles:The second research question asks “What are the obstacles for implementing centralized supply chain planning?”

The main hurdles identified in the case analysis can be categorized into two main types: 1) human and organizational (R13), and 2) software and data (R14). Examples of the human and organizational obstacles include adversities in having everyone work in a standardized way as per the new process, in scrutinizing data management, and in altering the mindsets of employees. Lack of training, knowledge and management support were diagnosed as causes of these difficulties, but IKEA had also

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underestimated how demanding it would be to change the mindsets of its employees. The paramountcy of being able to change attitudes and of managing change has been stated in previous studies and is further emphasized in this paper. The task and involvement of the individuals assisting in the new planning approach has been identified as key for the success or failure of APS system implementations. Individuals were also vital facilitators or obstacles in carrying out IKEA’s supply chain planning concept. The software and data obstacles related to a lack of employee training in software functionality, inadequacies in data quality and data management methods, and a dearth of software support in a few areas. Lack of planning functionality can be serious but, is not considered the most significant hindrances in an APS system-based planning process change. Data quality deficits and limited IT infrastructure integration are more important obstacles. This study, consequently, supports previous studies in emphasizing the importance of good data quality and IT infrastructure integration for managing APS system-based supply chain planning.

Conclusion and future researchIKEA had the realization from a long time that even though the company was function rather well it suffered from serious problems in its supply chain planning. The old planning concept, which led to a fragmented supply chain built around local decision making, was sometimes counterproductive to corporate goals, thereby imperiling corporate growth plans. A considerable growth in sales would pose an even bigger challenge for management to make the fragmented supply chain work efficiently. Thus, a change was necessary, and based on its goal of having low-cost products and an efficient supply chain, IKEA conceptualized a new concept for centralized supply chain planning. In this report, the paper describes how IKEA has developed and implemented a centralized supply chain planning approach — a concept that has transformed them from a fragmented decentralized management to centralized, coordinated, supply chain planning (Figure 5). Through the case analysis of planning processes, organization and software system, the report encapsulating the research in the paper has identified necessary prerequisites for implementing centralized supply chain planning, but also effects that can be predicted from such an implementation. The results also expose typical obstacles that must be dealt with when implementing centralized supply chain planning.

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The results of the study of this report have several significances for practice and research. From a managerial perspective, the research in this paper indicates that centralized supply chain planning is important for a large and flourishing global supply chain that is striving for low-cost production and efficiency. Managers can also use the results of this study to analyze whether they have the necessary prerequisites handy for centralizing their supply chain planning and if so, considering the three perspectives of the planning processes, planning systems and planning organization when advancing their own concepts. Additionally, the research can help them in tracking the expected effects and obstacles of centralization. Addressing the research implications, the established prerequisites for centralized supply chain planning were as follows: functional products, vertical integration with a single (or dominating) organization having at least partial ownership of supply chain facilities, power and competence to administer the implementation and one planning domain occupying all critical planning information. The collection of direct effects of centralized supply chain planning is linked to the following factors: supply chain integration, standardization, specialization, and learning effects. The case study demonstrates how implementing centralized supply chain planning in an appropriate planning situation, achieving integration, standardization, specialization and learning, prompts to operational performance

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enhancements. Identified obstacles to successfully carrying out centralized supply chain planning mainly links to human and organizational issues, and to software and data issues. The authors have provided a theoretical framework (Figure 1) that can aid academics to analyze centralization of supply chain planning and practitioners to design centralization concepts. The authors have tested and refined the framework via a case study and identified fourteen relationships that explain the effects and obstacles of implementing a centralized supply chain planning (Figure 4). Further studies are required to enact a generally valid framework, or theory, for centralized supply chain planning. More case-based studies could develop, fine-tune and outline the identified centralized supply chain planning variables and relationships. The relationships also need to be tested through deductive approaches in wider empirical contexts, for example, through multiple case studies or surveys. Further studies on implementation and change processes are also needed to completely understand how to implement a centralized planning concept and to attain its potential benefits.

ReferencesPatrik Jonsson Martin Rudberg Stefan Holmberg, (2013),"Centralized supply chain planning at IKEA", Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, Vol. 18 Iss 3 pp. 337 – 350

Link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/SCM-05-2012-0158

All the inter-report references are cited in the original paper. (Above reference.)

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