geyser phe

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Strokkur geyser, Iceland

Steam phase eruption of Castle Geyser

demonstrates primary and secondary

rainbows and Alexander's band in

Yellowstone National Park

GeyserFrom Wiki pedia, the free encyclopedia

A geyser (US /ˈɡaɪzәr/; UK /ˈɡiːzә/ or /ˈɡaɪzә/[1][2]) is a springcharacterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected

turbulently and accompanied by steam.

The formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeologicalconditions, which exist in only a few places on Earth, so theyare a fairly rare phenomenon. Generally all geyser field sitesare located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect isdue to the proximity of magma. Generally, surface water worksits way down to an average depth of around 2,000 metres(6,600 ft) where it contacts hot rocks. The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent (ahydr othermal explosion).

Over one thousand known geysers exist worldwide. At least1,283 geyser s have erupted in Yellowstone National Park,Wyoming, United States, and an average of 465 geysers are

active there in a given year.[3][4] A geyser's eruptive activitymay change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition withinthe geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot

springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention.[5]

Jet-like eruptions, often referr ed to as geysers, have beenobserved on several of the moons of the outer solar system. Dueto the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have beenobserved near the south pole of Saturn's moon Enceladus, whilenitrogen eruptions have been observed on Neptune's moonTriton. There are also signs of carbon dioxide eruptions fromthe southern polar ice cap of Mars. In the latter two cases,instead of being driven by geothermal energy, the eruptionsseem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state greenhouse effect.

Contents

1 Name

2 Form and function

3 Eruptions

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Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone Nationa

Park

4 General categorization

5 Biology of geysers

6 Major geyser fields and their distribution

6.1 Yellowstone National Park, U.S.

6.2 Valley of Geysers, Russia

6.3 El Tatio, Chile

6.4 Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand

6.5 Iceland

6.6 Extinct and dormant geyser fields

7 Misnamed geysers

7.1 Artificial geysers

7.2 Cold-water geysers

7.3 Perpetual spouter

8 Commercial uses of geysers

9 "Geysers" elsewhere in the Solar System

10 See also

11 Notes

12 References

13 External links

NameThe word geyser comes from Geysir , the name of an erupting spring at Haukadalur, Iceland; that name, inturn, comes from the Icelandic verb geysa, "to gush", the verb itself from Old Norse.

Form and function

Geysers are temporary geological features. Geysers are

generally associated with volcanic areas.[6] As the water boils,

the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam andwater to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. Theformation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic

terrain.[6]

Intense heat

The heat needed for geyser formation comes from

magma that needs to be near the surface of the earth. The

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1. Steam rises from

heated water

2. Pulses of water swell

upward

3. Surface is broken 4. Ejected water spout

upward and falls back

down into the pipe

fact that geysers need heat much higher than normally found near the earth's surface is the reason

they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas. The pressures encountered at the areas where

the water is heated makes the boiling point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric

pressures.

Water

The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel underground through deep, pressurized fissures inthe Earth's crust.

A plumbing system

In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system is required. This includes a

reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.[6] The

plumbing system is made up of a system of fractures, fissures, porous spaces and sometimes cavities

Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of pressure before an eruption.

Eruptions

Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through theground until it meets rock heated by magma. The geothermally heated water then rises back toward thesurface by convection through porous and fractured rocks. Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs intheir subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow

tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock.[7]

As the

geyser fills, thewater atthe top of thecolumncools off,

but becauseof the

narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler waterabove presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the waterin the reservoir to become superheated, i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard-

pressure boiling point.[7]

Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With thisrelease of pressure, the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column. The

resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent.[6]

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1. Fountain geyser (erupting from

the pool)

2. Old Faithful geyser (cone

geyser having mound of

siliceous sinter) in Yellowstone

National Park erupts

approximately every 91 minutes

The rocks in the nearby region produce a material called geyserite. Geyserite—mostly silicon dioxide(SiO2), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on

the surface. The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allowthe pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are

normally under the geyser fields.[7]

Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends;

heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The durationof eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Icelanderupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the United States erupts for up to

10 minutes every 8–12 hours.[7]

General categorization

There are two types of geysers: fountain geysers which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and cone geysers which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (alsoknown as geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. OldFaithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser.Grand Geyser, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, (although Geysir in Iceland is taller, it is not

predictable), also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser.[8]

The intense transient forces insideerupting geysers are the main reason fotheir rarity. There are many volcanicareas in the world that have hot springsmud pots and fumaroles, but very fewwith geysers. This is because in most

places, even where other necessaryconditions for geyser activity exist, therock structure is loose, and eruptionswill erode the channels and rapidlydestroy any nascent geysers.

Most geysers form in places where theris volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolvein hot water and forms mineral deposits

called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over

time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling thegeyser to persist, as mentioned in the previous section.

Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can go dormant or extinct. Many geysershave been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due todewatering by geothermal power plants. The Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity anddormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often onspecial occasions—by the addition of surfactants to the water.

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Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright

colors of Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone

National Park

Distribution of major geysers in the world.

Biology of geysers

The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact thatdespite the apparently harsh conditions, life is oftenfound in them (and also in other hot habitats) in theform of thermophilic prokaryotes. No known eukaryote

can survive over 60 °C (140 °F).[9]

In the 1960s, when the research of biology of geysersfirst appeared, scientists were generally convinced thatno life can survive above around 73 °C maximum(163 °F)—the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteinsand deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed.The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was

placed even lower, around 55 °C average (131 °F).[9]

However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and thatsome bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of water. Dozens of such bacteria are

known.[10] Thermophiles prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C (122 to 158 °F), whilst hyperthermophilesgrow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C (176 to 230 °F). As they have heat-stable enzymes thatretain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that

are important in medicine and biotechnology,[11] for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics,detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation

products (for example ethanol is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for

biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus.[12] The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imaginationabout life on other celestial bodies, both within and beyond the solar system.

Major geyser fields and their distribution

Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing. The combination

exists in few places on Earth.[13][14]

Yellowstone National Park, U.S.

Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containingthousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located mostly inWyoming, USA, with small portions in Montana and

Idaho.[15] Yellowstone includes the world's tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin), as well as the renowned Old Faithful Geyser, Beehive Geyser, Giantess Geyser, Lion Geyser,

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A geyser bubbling at El Tatio geyser

field

Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, Castle Geyser, Sawmill Geyser, Grand Geyser, Oblong Geyser, GiantGeyser, Daisy Geyser, Grotto Geyser, Fan & Mortar Geysers, & Riverside Geyser, all in the Upper Geyser

Basin which alone contains nearly 180 geysers.[14]

Valley of Geysers, Russia

The Valley of Geysers ("Dolina Geiserov" in Russian) located in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia is the

only geyser field in Eurasia and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area wasdiscovered and explored by Tatyana Ustinova in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area alongwith many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous volcanicactivity. The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt a

angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.[14] O

June 3, 2007, a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley.[16] It was then reported that a therma

lake was forming above the valley.[17] Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat,exposing some of the submerged features. Velikan Geyser, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the

slide and has recently been observed to be active.[18]

El Tatio, Chile

The name "El Tatio" roughly translates as "the grandfather". ElTatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded bymany active volcanoes in Chile, South America at around 4,200metres (13,800 ft) above mean sea level. The valley is home toapproximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers, and is the third largest geyser field in the

world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only 6 metres (20 ft) high, butwith steam columns that can be over 20 metres (66 ft) high. Theaverage geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about 750 millimetres

(30 in).[14][19]

Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand

The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's North Island. It is 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by50 km wide (31 mi) and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth's crust. Mount Ruapehu marks its

southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano (85 km or 53 mi beyond White Island) isconsidered its northeastern limit.[20] Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermaldevelopments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone. It began erupting i1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach 160 metres (520 ft) and some superbursts are known to have reached 500

metres (1,600 ft).[14] Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as littleas 5 kilometres (3 mi) thick. Beneath this lies a film of magma 50 km wide (31 mi) and 160 km long

(99 mi).[21]

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Geysir Hot Spring Area

Iceland

Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland, it is home tosome famous geysers in the world. Geysers and hot springs aredistributed all over the island. Many of the geysers are located inHaukadalur. Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozenother areas on the island. The Great Geysir , which first erupted inthe 14th century, gave rise to the word geyser . By 1896, Geysir wasalmost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to

begin again, occurring several times a day, but in 1916, eruptions all but ceased. Throughout much of the 20th century, eruptions, usuallyfollowing earthquakes, did happen from time to time. Some man-made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions wereforced with soap on special occasions. Earthquakes in June 2000subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly. The nearby Strokku

geyser erupts every 5–8 minutes to a height of some 30 metres (98 ft).[14][22]

Extinct and dormant geyser fields

There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada—Beowawe and Steamboat Springs—but they weredestroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reducedthe available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be

sustained.[14]

Many of New Zealand’s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealandgeysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is

Whakarewarewa at Rotorua.[23] Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the Ohakuri

hydroelectric dam in 1961. The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The TaupoSpa field was lost when the Waikato River level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The Rotomahanafield was destroyed by the Mount Tarawera eruption in 1886.

Misnamed geysers

There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-drivengeysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them eruptSuch geysers are not true geysers but are yet referred as such as they all emit water under pressure.

Artificial geysers

In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted withimpermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. The vents of such geysers are artificial, butare tapped into natural hydrothermal systems. These so-called artificial geysers, technically known aserupting geothermal wells, are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is anexample. The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century. According to Dr. JohRinehart in his book A Guide to Geyser Gazing (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search fo

water. He had actually "simply opened up a dead geyser".[24]

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Geyser Andernach (Germany), the

world's highest cold-water geyser

Cold-water geyser

Wallender Born

(Germany)

Cold-water geysers

Cold-water geysers' eruption is similar to that of their hot-water counterparts, except that CO2 bubbles driv

the eruption instead of steam. In cold-water geysers, CO2-laden water lies in a confined aquifer, in which

water and CO2 are trapped by less permeable overlying strata. This water and CO2 can escape this strata

only in weak regions like faults, joints, or drilled wells. A drilled borehole provides an escape for the pressurized water and CO

2 to reach the surface. The magnitude and frequency of such eruptions depend on

various factors such as plumbing depth, CO2 concentrations, aquifer yield etc. The column of water exerts

enough pressure on the gaseous CO2 so that it remains in the water in small bubbles. When the pressure

decreases due to formation of a fissure, the CO2 bubbles expand. This expansion displaces the water and

causes the eruption. Cold-water geysers may look quite similar to their steam-driven counterparts; howeveoften CO2-laden water is more white

and frothy.[25] The best known of theseis probably Crystal Geyser, near Green

River, Utah.[26] There are also two cold-water geysers in Germany, Wallender Born (a.k.a. Brubbel ) and AndernachGeyser (de) (a.k.a. Namedyer Sprudel ),and one in Slovakia, Herľany.

Perpetual spouter

This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly withoutstopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers,

but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered

true geysers.[27]

Commercial uses of geysers

Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation, heating and tourism. Many geothermareserves are found all around the world. The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commerciallyviable geyser locations in the world. Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used toheat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitableclimate. Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland

In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in thGeysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area (KGRA(http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDF)) near Calistoga, Californiathrough a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program. The Department is

obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development.[28]

"Geysers" elsewhere in the Solar System

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_River,_Utahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andernachhttp://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geysir_Andernachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geysir_Andernach_2009.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallender_Bornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her%C4%BEanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calistoga,_Californiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_Geyserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andernach_Geyser&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Dioxidehttp://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678-VCD58M/6817678.PDFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallender_Born

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The geyser Strokkur in Iceland; as a

tourist spot.

There are several bodies elsewhere in the Solar System where jet-like eruptions, often termed "geysers" an"cryogeysers", have been observed or are believed to occur. Unlike geysers on Earth, these representeruptions of gas, together with entrained dust or ice particles, without liquid.

Geyser-like plumes of water vapor, together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components(such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrocarbons and silicates), have been observed erupting fromvents associated with the "tiger stripes" in the south polar region of Saturn's moon Enceladus by the Cassinorbiter. The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain, but they are believed to be

powered at least in part by tidal heating resulting from orbital eccentricity due to a 2:1 mean-motion orbitaresonance with the moon Dione.[29] These jets are believed to be the source of Saturn's E Ring.

One of the great surprises of the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989 was the discovery of geyser-likeeruptions on its moon Triton. Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface, and

depositing material up to 150 km downwind.[30] These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen,together with dust. All the geysers observed were located close toTriton's subsolar point, indicating that solar heating drives theeruptions. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consistsof a semi-transparent layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate, which creates a kind of "solid greenhouse effect", heatingand vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure

breaks the surface at the start of an eruption. Voyager 's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material

laid down by geyser activity.[31]

Similar solar-heating-driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the south polar cap of Mars each spring.Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed, theyleave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the dryice, representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and aspider-like pattern of grooves created below the ice by the out-

rushing gas.[32]

See also

Hydrothermal explosion

Mudpot

Hot spring

Notes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_(moon)#Cryovolcanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration#Tidal_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_icehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger_Stripes_(Enceladus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_explosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsolar_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudpothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_springhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrainment_(physical_geography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strokkur,_Iceland.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Mars#Polar_capshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_spidershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_resonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn#E_Ring

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Dark streaks deposited by geysers on

Triton

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Glennon, J.A., Pfaff, R.M. (2003). The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field,

Antofagasta Region, Chile, Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8.

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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Geyser .

Wikisource has the text of the 1879 AmericanCyclopædia article Geysers.

Monthly 12.

External links

Geysers and How They Work by Yellowstone National Park

(http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm)

Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)(http://www.geyserstudy.org/)

GeyserTimes.org (http://www.geysertimes.org)

Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions

(http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/)

About Geysers by Alan Glennon (http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/)

Cold Water Geysers by Alan Glennon (http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/crystalgeyser/)

Geysers, The UnMuseum (http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm)

Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources (http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html)

The Geology of the Icelandic geysers by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist

(http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html)

Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems by Meg Streepey

(http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html)

National Geographic (http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?

ar_a=1)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geyser&oldid=654501138"

Categories: Geysers Volcanic landforms Springs (hydrology)

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