getting there from here. remembering the future of digital...

Getting there from hereRemembering the future of digitalhumanitiesRoberto Busa Award lecture 20131

Willard McCarty

Kingrsquos College London UK and University of Western Sydney

Australia

AbstractIn this slightly modified version of my 2013 Roberto Busa Prize lecture I lookfrom the first four decades of digital humanities through its present toward apossible future I find a means to construct this future by paying close attentionto the enemy we need in order to grow the fear that closed down the horizons ofimaginative exploration during the years of the Cold War and that re-presentsitself now clothed in numerous techno-scientific challenges to the human

Not only science but also poetry and thinking con-

duct experiments These experiments do not simply

concern the truth or falsity of hypotheses rather

they call into question Being itself before or

beyond its determination as true or false These

experiments are without truth for truth is what is

at issue in them Whoever submits himself to

[them] jeopardizes not so much the truth of his

own statements as the very mode of his existence

he undergoes an anthropological change that is just

as decisive in the context of the individualrsquos natural

history as the liberation of the hand by the erect

position was for the primate or as was for the rep-

tile the transformation of limbs that changed it

into a bird

Giorgio Agamben lsquoBartelby or On

Contingencyrsquo (19991993)

For John Burrows salve

I am greatly honoured especially because this awardis given by the community of people among whom aquarter-century ago I found the intellectual homewhere I have thrived and prospered Irsquove thought

long and hard about what to say whether to presentnew results or to make something of how I got herefrom there Irsquove decided to do both new resultsbecause I suffer from intellectual claustrophobiaand want reactions to the cure Irsquom taking retrospec-tion because this occasion demands that a lsquolife oflearningrsquo be told as a meaningful story2

1 Retrospection

I begin with retrospection shaped by a moralI cannot describe anything remotely like a careerpath because there was none My trackless wander-ings were affected by far too many accidents though(I like to think) steadily driven by hunger for learn-ing Let me just say that I came to the PhD in Miltonstudies in 1976 with training in physics EnglishGerman and Latin literature and mathematics andyears spent as a programmer in Fortran and assem-bly language on some big machines Eight years ofobsessive devotion to John Miltonrsquos biblical and

Correspondence

Willard McCarty Kingrsquos

College London UK and

University of Western

Sydney Australia

Email WillardMcCarty

mccartyorguk

Literary and Linguistic Computing Vol 29 No 3 2014 The Author 2014 Published by Oxford University Press onbehalf of EADH All rights reserved For Permissions please email journalspermissionsoupcom

283

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classical sources earned me the degree in 1984 Theplan was to become a professor of English but thatdidnrsquot happen despite powerful help I spent adozen years in academic limbo While there I re-verted to computing moved into humanities com-puting (as we called it then)3 learned a lot aboutother peoplersquos research and fell into a prolongedstudy of Ovidrsquos Metamorphoses by which I hadbecome captivated Its structure fascinated meHow I wondered did the poem manage so success-fully to tease us with promise of structure yet alwayselude our grasp Like Father Busa before me Iturned to computing for help on a smaller scalebut for the same reasons

Markup seemed the obvious way to go StandardGeneral Markup Language (SGML) was the stand-ard Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) as yet unborn Icreated my own scheme rejecting SGML to makesure that my thinking would be as free from pre-existing theoretical commitments as possible4 I tar-geted names which I reasoned were literary enoughto tell me about structure verbal enough to handlewith a machine Names quickly became all devicesof language indicating persons About 60000 tagsresulted ie an average of 5 per line of poetry Iworked on it both alone and with research assist-ants5 in Toronto and then in London after movingthere in 1996 finally abandoning it when at last Irealized that markup was radically wrong for thejob indeed that no conceivable technology wouldprove remotely adequate But no matter those yearsof work had already led me to the vein of gold I havebeen following ever since an idea of what happenswhen Mr Turingrsquos implemented idea of mathemat-ical rigour meets the fluid metamorphic genius ofpoetry

Back up some years In April 1987 at theInternational Conference for Computers and theHumanities in Columbia South Carolina I metMichael Sperberg-McQueen whose eloquent rhet-oric stirred up the righteous discontent of colleagueswho like me were languishing on the academic per-iphery Humanist was the result6 I threw myself intoit never for a moment thinking it would pay offHow wrong I was Nearly a decade later in 1996Harold Short whom I met in Toronto because ofHumanist changed everything by seeing to it that I

was propelled quite unexpectedly across the Pondinto my first academic appointment which I stillhold Humanist continues to be my primary aca-demic forum

I promised you a moral to my story which I takefrom the great 12th-century Jewish philosopherMoshe ben Maimonrsquos Commentary on the Mishnah

hbham ala wut al ltywu ltta lkwhatever you do do it only out of love7

And from the physician Thomas FullerrsquosGnomologia (1732) I draw these helpful proverbsto hammer it home

He that hath Love in his Breast hath Spurs athis Heels (2160)Love will creep where it cannot go (3301)Love lives more in Cottages than Courts(3290) and finallyThe Soul is not where it lives but where itloves (4761)

To put the matter more personally and viscerallyI didnrsquot walk a career path but followed the smell offood on the wind And here I am to say thank youall for the friendship inspiration sustenance audi-ence and now this in the name of the great Jesuitscholar Roberto Busa Mille grazie

But I do wonder why me I am a quite old-fashioned scholar who works by himself shuns

collaborative teams and the grants that fuel them

who has written no code for decades knows not

TEI and teaches solely face to face For many

years I have insisted contrary to Ronald Reagan

when he worked as promo-man for General

Electric (Reagan 1961) that failure is our most im-

portant product partly for the shock-value as anti-

dote to the hype of pervasive techno-triumphalism

but also to stress that computing is an ongoing

never ending experimental process8 Irsquove argued

that the main thing is to fail so well that all you

can see is Jerome McGannrsquos lsquohem of a quantum

garmentrsquo (2004 201)mdasha phrase he used you may

recall to describe the intractable non-residual left-

overs markup cannot capture hence its potential for

illuminationMy struggle with the Metamorphoses laid ground-

work for my book Humanities Computing (2005)

W McCarty

284 Literary and Linguistic Computing Vol 29 No 3 2014

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Twenty years earlier Brian Cantwell Smith hadobserved that computers can only approximate real-ity according to a necessarily simplified hence in-correct model of it (Smith 1985) So I could see thatin principle my attempts to pin Ovid down werebound to fail But by the time I came to thinkabout Ovid two things had happened progresshad liberated digital computing from its confine-ment to mainframes giving me a little machine ofmy own to play with and I had met the greatAustralian ethnohistorian Greg Dening who intro-duced me to the present participle (cf Dening 2002and 1993) So I could see that Brian had fastened onthe wrong part of speech modelling not model hadto be the central idea In other words I rediscoveredthe essential truth of the hackersrsquo lsquoHands-onImperativersquo against the industrializing effects ofbatch-mode computing (Levy 20101984 28)And so the book But then as always intellectualclaustrophobia took hold By demonstrating theconceptual inadequacy of our tools modelling theMetamorphoses had left me nowhere to go Andmodelling itself was at once too pat an answer andunable to do more than work through consequencesof interpretation that had already happenedmdashelsewhere by other means

Coming to the end of my own road alerted me tothe others whose fate I shared and so to wonder ifI might figure a way out by finding out what it hadbeen like for them Hence my turn to history

2 A History of the Present From anEmotional Past

What I found and what I think it amounts to formsthe remainder of this lecture But I am going to tellyou particular kind of story which I learned aboutfrom Ian Hacking (to whom I owe so much) wholearned about it from Michel Foucault a lsquohistory ofthe presentrsquo Foucault called it because it sets out tolsquorecognize and distinguish historical objects inorder to illumine our own predicamentsrsquo9 Writingin 1940 with the Gestapo at his heels WalterBenjamin put the case more starkly just as weneed it to be

To articulate the past historically does notmean to recognize it lsquothe way it really wasrsquo(Ranke) It means to seize hold of a memoryas it flashes up at a moment of danger Inevery era the attempt must be made anew towrest tradition away from a conformism thatis about to overpower it Only that histor-ian will have the gift of fanning the spark ofhope in the past who is firmly convinced thateven the dead will not be safe from the enemyif he wins And this enemy has not ceased tobe victorious (19681955 255)

For us the danger is that our being of as well asin the humanities remain an unanswered even un-asked question It is the predicament Steve Ramsaydescribes in Reading Machines (2011) the almosttotal grip of hermeneutical inhibitions on digitalhumanities to the point of willful blindness to thecentrality of interpretation The primary historicalobject I want to bring into focus and call on for helpwith this predicament is the uncanny otherness ofcomputing its anomalous existential ambiguity Iwill argue that the surviving evidence of fear thisotherness once provoked and continues occasion-ally to stir up is a clue to a common ground withthe humanities beyond utilitarian value or socialimpact

But to avoid misunderstanding I must pause amoment to clarify what I mean by fear The diffi-culty I have begins with a reluctance I think we shareto admit fear or attribute it to anyone whom werespect in particular (given our profession) fear ofcomputing When the subject comes up as it will inthis lecture again and again reluctance may bolsterthe common assumption that the emotions are nat-ural or at least fixed psychological kinds and are aninterference to rather than component of intelli-gence In ordinary life we are wiser thus theOxford English Dictionary glosses the word as denot-ing lsquoall degrees of the emotionrsquo10 that (like theDevil) is known under so many names I need thecontinuum this implies to be able to make sense ofthe historical actors and actions that are the focus ofattention here and so cannot risk the assumptionthat fear has an objective taxonomy of clear-cut andstable distinctions It simply doesnrsquot as its historyand current research in psychology demonstrate11

Getting there from here

Literary and Linguistic Computing Vol 29 No 3 2014 285

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So in the following let us agree that fear has manyguises andmdashallow me to go out on a limbmdashthat thepresence of one degree of it does not preclude thepresence however hidden of others

I concentrate on fear rather than positive emo-tional response because dystopic visions of comput-ing and reactions to them tell us far more about thepsychological intellectual and professional disrup-tions it brought about (cf Hatfield 1928 10) Thesewere not just to the humanities and other techno-logically undereducated cohorts The fearfulthreat of profound change was felt likewise in thesciences Thus in the early 1970s the physicist LeonKowarski writing about lsquoThe Impact of Computerson Nuclear Sciencersquo expressed much the same ex-istential and cognitive worries as did his humanistcolleagues

The vision of these huge and costlymachines is in a way terrifying The era ofthe ingenious scientist seems to be pastThe machine will have to run just lsquobecause itis therersquo and according to its own rules Andfrom each runmdashthere will be not much sensein calling them experiments any moremdashtherewill be a rich harvest of recorded data like adeep-sea dredge There will be a lot ofattempts to judge such new situations by oldvalue criteria What is a physicist What is anexperimenter Is the man who accumulatesprint-outs of solved equations a mathematicalphysicist And the ultimate worry are we notgoing to use computers as a substitute forthinkingrsquo12

Furthermore I will argue the fear this threat pro-voked though negative is more than simply nega-tive it is in fearrsquos nature to fore-feel the unknownthe new the anomalous as I said the uncanny13

I begin where I will end in the digital huma-nities first by probing its professional literatureThen I will move outward in three stages expandingthe historical context as I go first to daily life duringthe early period then to the scientific programmefrom which computing arose then very briefly (andvery ambitiously) to an historical process thatAgamben with reference to our current preoccupa-tion calls the anthropological machine (20042002)

I shall concentrate on literary computing to sim-plify I hope not falsify the bigger picture

3 Shall We Come Rejoicing

Allow me first to moralize a bit more this time toadvance the cause of acquisitive hunger for learningThis hunger is obviously one of my besetting sinsBut I have a good reason for not repenting despitegood advice that I simply say what I think In factthis is the way I think by assembling scraps fromother disciplines and making a kind of intellectualquilt suitable for our radically interdisciplinary andquite immature amalgam of interests14 NelsonGoodman has observed that quotation is a tool ofworldmaking (1978 56) We have a world to make

Do you know the biblical story of Ruth theMoabite of her gleaning in Boazrsquos field in orderto feed her mother-in-law and herself So I sayare we Ruth-like as a young discipline migrantsin need of the food of others which is lying onthe ground ie in libraries and online freely forthe taking in seemingly endless and compellingabundance

Make no mistake we are surrounded bymature subtle civilizations of enquiry whose in-tellectual resources dwarf our own in volume var-iety and sophistication I think for example ofphilosopher Myles Burnyeatrsquos lsquoMessage fromHeraclitusrsquo (1985) or of G E R LloydrsquosCognitive Variations (2007 Inwood and McCarty2010) I wonder after catching my breath whenwill we be able to write with such deep and far-reaching power We may be smart with the windin our sails but raw intellect alone and popularityarenrsquot enough Being in possession of our ownisland of knowledge autonomous with our ownagenda (when at last we have one) conferencesand publications all that is necessary but notenough We need far more than the luck of themoment dozens of sessions at the MLATHATCamps everywhere millions of tweets thou-sands of blogs and so on and so forth15 We needresonance with the intellectual cultures of the artsand humanities just as a great organ needs anacoustically adequate space for its music to

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move the listener (There thatrsquos me saying exactlywhat I think)

We need the techno-sciences just as much morethan many of us realize more than some of us fearScientism is a problem but without the sciences wedenature the technological side of our discipline bysevering it from its epistemological roots We turnour backs on a literature full of wonders on intel-lectual excitement and real help We need to under-stand for example the implications of introducingexperimentmdashwhich is exactly what we domdashinto thehumanities16 And we need to recognize the otherlsquostyles of scientific reasoningrsquo as Hacking has calledthem (2002 2009) which have come into thehumanities via the back door of computing(McCarty 2008)

We have much to learn from the technologicallyaware artists such as Stelarc17 and Marcel-lı AntunezRoca18 who are far less confused about the sciencesthan we seem to be Both of them performed at therecent IEEE International Conference on Roboticsand Automation where a number of us spoke(please note at the invitation of the roboticists)on lsquoRobotics and the Humanitiesrsquo19 I was remindedof the 1968 Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition inLondon at which artists and engineers experi-mented with ideas so far ahead of their time theyremain mostly ahead of ours20

We have much to learn as well from the scholar-writers with strong scientific interests such asGillian Beer who works on Darwin (20091983)Laura Otis on 19th-century technology (2001)and A S Byatt (2005 2000) whose fascinationwith the sciences informs her fiction And near athand is the disciplinary bridge built by historiansphilosophers and sociologists of science opened tous in the early 1960s when in Hacking words phil-osophers lsquofinally unwrapped the cadaver [they hadmade of science] and saw the remnants of an his-torical process of becoming and discoveringrsquo (19831) To many of us alas there is still only the ca-daver Some hallucinate a zombie

Where and what are we amidst all this abun-dance Do we even know it exists Irsquove imaginedus as maritime explorers in an archipelago ofdisciplines peripatetic prowling the margins Irsquoveimagined us with the novelist David Malouf

adventurous youth discovering life and death in awild dangerous acre of bush (McCarty 2006) withGreg Dening lsquoon the edge of things in a great ringof viewersrsquo (1998 183) with historian Peter Galisonin the trading zone (Gorman 2010) or as Deningsays on the lsquobeaches of the mindrsquo (1998 85ndash8) Andthis is why I am so pleased to have been named atDigital Humanities 2013 the lsquoObi-Wan Kenobi ofdigital humanitiesrsquo21 to be honoured for the mar-ginal peripatetic life of learning I have been able tolead and continue deo volente to live with you

I am pleased to have been considered just for themoment now gone an eremitic elder possessed ofpowers beyond the ordinary kindly but serious andnot to be messed with I am thrilled to be linkedthrough Obi-Wan to Sir Alec Guinness who madethe part come alive (and had the good sense to shunthe connection later) When Sir Alec was inter-viewed on the BBC Radio 4 programme DesertIsland Discs in 1977 just prior to the release ofStar Wars he was asked what role he was playingin that film22 He answered lsquoI donrsquot know what Iplaymdasha wise oldmdashan allegedly wise old characterfrom outer spacersquo But however Obi-WanrsquoishI cannot agree to lsquowisersquo lsquooldrsquo I will not admit toand as far as I know I came into the world in theway of all flesh and was raised in a small Californiatown though (I understand from the locals) flyingsaucers have been seen in the area23

4 Courting Catastrophe

But now back to earth to the present to our world-building The raw material is abundantly to handWhat do we do with it What governs the design ofour quilt

After a talk at Cambridge in 2012 I was asked bythe historian of ancient science Geoffrey Lloyd oneof those questions I live to be asked where wouldwe be with our digital scholarship in 20 years Onwhat did I think our sights could be set most am-bitiously What I fumbled then to say I am stillfumbling with but herersquos another go

I spoke earlier of computingrsquos othernessmdasha moredramatic way of referring to the distancing effectJulia Flanders has gently called lsquoproductive uneasersquo



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(2009) She makes a strong case for the contributionof the digital humanities in foregrounding lsquoissues ofhow we model the sources we study in such a waythat [these issues] cannot be sidesteppedrsquo (2009 22)I know this to be true from long experience unableto sidestep them But what about those for whomdigital resources are made who arenrsquot themselvesmakers I know Irsquom not the first to find fault withprinciples of design that conceal the difficulties andprovide no means of struggling with them Thereare deep tough questions here as to how and atwhat level the essential struggle is enacted ButFlandersrsquo point remains the struggle is the point ofit all And we do not or should not emerge from itunscathed (Again and again I will insist on thisbeing scathed is paradoxically our salvation) Lovemay be lsquoan ever-fixed markrsquo we humans arenrsquot Ifwe are not changed in response to computing weimprison ourselves with it

This struggle is a nascent form of reasoning thatwe have done for millennia with tools But the po-tentialmdashhere is the answer to Lloydrsquos questionmdashisfor reasoning to evolve in concert with a radicallyadaptive tool something more than the steersmanrsquostiller that inspired cybernetics24 less perhaps than aconversational partnermdashbut almost that or perhapsexactly that As we get close to conversational ma-chines our attempts produce in Robert Hughesrsquofamous phrase lsquothe shock of the newrsquo25 We sharewith the roboticists the chance in WarrenMcCullochrsquos words to ride the shock-wave by enga-ging deliberately with lsquothat miscegenation of Art andScience which begets inanimate objects that behavelike living systemsrsquo (1968 9) I call the result cata-strophic in Stephen Jay Gouldrsquos evolutionary senseas that which punctuates the equilibrium of whichwe are a living part and so initiates developmentalchange26

Such catastrophe implies a deep not merelyutilitarian relationship between machine andhuman Again the artists are there In 1935 thePolish artist Bruno Schulz compared the work ofart to a baby in statu nascendi in the midst ofbeing born still operating lsquoat a premoral depthrsquolsquoThe role of artrsquo he wrote lsquois to be a probe sunkinto the namelessrsquo (19981935 368ndash70) Whatcomes out is uncannily us and other or to put

it another way an invitation to a becoming Soalso for technologies Those who attended theACH-ALLC conference at Queenrsquos in 1997 willhave heard the Canadian cognitive psychologistMerlin Donald describe how from earliest timeswe have externalized ourselves in tools that havethen remade us by changing what we can do howwe see the world and each other (Donald 1991)Thus the technological shape of early bioculturalcoevolution in concert with material affordancesas Gary Tomlinson has argued for music (2013)Laura Otis whom I mentioned earlier has tracedjust such an interrelation of inventor and inven-tion much closer to our own time in communi-cation technologies and ideas of humanneurophysiology from the mid-19th century(Otis 2001)

In the 20th century computer and brainformed just such a co-developmental relation orwhat Ian Hacking in a very different context callslsquolooping effectsrsquo (1995) from Alan Turingrsquos ab-stract machine in 1936 itself based on how abureaucrat would do his sums27 to WarrenMcCullochrsquos and Walter Pittrsquos model of thebrain as a Turing machine (1943) from theirneurophysiological model to John vonNeumannrsquos computer architecture (1945) whichhe inspired by McCulloch and Pitts describedin neurophysiological terms (Aspray 1990 40180ndash1) and from that architecture to a modularconception of mind which reflected it (eg Fodor1983) Back and forth back and forth In 1948von Neumann proposed that the problem of imi-tating natural intelligence might better be donelsquowith a network that will fit into the actualvolume of the human brainrsquo (1951 34 195848) At the time of writing the DARPASyNAPSE program is working toward preciselythat goal28 using neuromorphic hardware that re-flects current ideas of neurological plasticity29 Thepace of development is now so fast that neuro-physiological models of consciousness and archi-tectures of computing are a blurry chicken-and-egg But thatrsquos precisely my point the traffic be-tween self-conception and invention goes in aloop I want to ask what we can do to makethat loop go for us and for the humanities

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5 Stalemate

Another bit of autobiography to get us thereBy the time I was done with Humanities

Computing McGann had come up with somepowerful theories we might use to get us movingbeyond the forecourts of interpretation wherefrom the perspective of the interpretative disciplinesdigital humanities had stalled early in its develop-ment30 Being stuck myself I went for his gift-basketof theories but could not see any rationale forchoice Since theories to some degree set forth thedirection of future research and embody assump-tions about the world in which they operatechoice is crucial the wrong choice potentially ruin-ous To ask whether the research of a field should goin the direction expressed or implied by a theorypractitioners must have a good idea of where thefield has been They need history31

I decided to focus on the history of what I willcall the incunabular period from a beginning in thelate 1940s to the public release of the Web in 1991I had two reasons the period is neatly delimited butmore importantly it defines a time we have goodcause to believe was formative32 This gave me con-fidence to think that despite the dramatic changesbrought about by the Web I could determine atleast some parameters for a trajectory and so un-cover a range of genuine possibilities for the future

I found abundant raw material for such a historyin the professional literature33 but constraints oftime force me to give only the briefest sketch here

Within the incunabular period the relevantliterature in the Anglophone world defines a coreof three decades from the early 1960s to the early1990s These decades are bracketed by two pairs ofevaluative statements The authors of the first pairargued that the then dominant use of computing toalleviate drudgery was skewing the focus of researchtoward problems of drudgery and away from im-aginative exploration (Masterman 1962 Milic1966) The authors of the second pair summingup what had been done by 1991 argued that thefield had failed in its ambitions that its work hadbeen steadfastly ignored by mainstream scholars be-cause it was theory-poor (Potter 1991) or wronglydirected and should turn to what Franco Moretti

was almost a decade later to call lsquodistant readingrsquo(Olsen 1991)34 During those three decades Busawas among the very few who insisted that thepoint was not saving labour but lsquomore humanwork more mental effort to know more system-atically deeper and betterrsquo (1976 3) Few insistedalong with him that the point was not to design forefficient service but to realize that computing wassomething altogether new and to find out what thatwas The brilliant experiments of cybernetic artiststo which I referred earlier not just in London butalso in Zagreb Paris New York Sydney and else-where gave glimpses of what could be done withvery little Thus the poignancy of Busarsquos question in1976 on behalf of philology lsquoWhy can a computerdo so littlersquo

From his analytic philological perspective Busapointed to the sophistication of human languageHis response serves well to explain why the pion-eering work in computational stylistics first by JohnBurrows then also Hugh Craig David HooverTomoji Tabata Jan Rybicki and others and nowfor literary history by Matt Jockers (2013) andformer colleagues at the Stanford LitLab35 hasbeen long in the oven It is the great exception tothe stalemate that concerns me here It is excep-tional and really should rock our colleagues be-cause it has produced lsquomounting evidencersquo asBurrows has said that literature is probabilisticmdashhence that the most elusive of cultural qualitiesbehaves in roughly the same way as both the naturaland social worlds36 But the cause of this workrsquos ob-scurity to most of usmdashfear of the mathematicalmdashreturns us to the stalemate that concerns me hereWhat is it about numbers that frightens us awayWhat are we frightened of What does this fright tellus about our relationship to digital machinery

Let me work toward an answer by revising Busarsquosquestion not why can the computer do so little butwhy were those historical scholars doing so littlewith it What was stopping or inhibiting themWe know thanks to the cybernetic artists thatprimitive kit cannot be blamed and that the kititself had as much or more potential to inspireand excite creative work as it did to inhibit Weknow from those who experimented that the con-cerns of the humanities were a fertile ground for



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experiment with computing37 We know that at thetime a few saw what was not being done and weredistressed

As the evidence shows38 computer-using scho-lars commonly worried about lack of progress andits causes Blame for the problem was variouslyfixed But what matters historically and tells us farmore of use to us now is not the causes they as-signed but the fact of their persistent worrying re-peatedly from the early 1960s on Sensitivity to thisfact foregrounds the anomalous expressions of con-cern about computing not merely in the profes-sional literature of digital humanities but scatteredall across the academic and popular writings of thetime However directed to whatever subject theseexpressions of concern looked to an unknownfuture with varying degree of predictive assertive-ness and disquiet Then as now the popular pressexaggerated both and by doing that showed that anerve had been touched39 It is easy for the know-ledgeable practitioner to dismiss such reactions asParrish did in 1962 when he scorned the fearfulwho he alleged were indulging themselves lsquowithterrors that are meaningless to people who knowanything about computersrsquo (1962 2) But as Ihave suggested even techno-scientific competencewas no shield to the important and significant fearof the computer becoming human Supposed evi-dence formed as such in no small measure bythinking of the human in computational termsmade this becoming seem inevitable

In an old but still valuable lsquosynthetic geneticstudyrsquo of fear pioneering child psychologistG Stanley Hall wrote that the emotion is lsquonot pre-vision but only a highly generalized fore-feeling aprimitive Anlage of futurityrsquo I quote him not merelyto underscore congruence between two forward-looking kinds of imaginative activity computing(by design) and fear (by nature) Rather as I sug-gested earlier I want to complete my rescue of theemotion from dismissal as only purely negativetherefore unhelpful Thus his crucial point for mypurposes lsquobut for fear pain could do little of itsprodigious educative work in the animal worldFear is thus the chief spur of psychic evolutionrsquo(1914 149 my emph) I will return to human psy-chic evolution later For now let us agree that fear is

a treasure to the historian if a mixed blessing tothose afflicted

Fear was variously expressed in the professionalliterature of digital humanities fear of the distor-tions computing would work on the humanities iftaken seriously evinced by the work and words ofthose who did take it seriously40 fear of its mech-anization of scholarship41 parallel to the mechan-ization of which public intellectuals had beenwarning42 fear of its revolutionary force threaten-ing to cast aside old-fashioned ways of thinking asliterary scholar Stephen Parrish declared was aboutto happen43 and fear expressed in reassurancessuch as literary critic Alan Markmanrsquos that thecomputer is no threat to scholarship or a dehuma-nizing machine to be feared (1965 79) or historianFranklin Peguesrsquo in a review of the conference atwhich Parrish spoke that all would be well thatthe scholar still had a role to play and would notbe put out of work (1965 107) It was fundamen-tally an existential angst a lsquofear and tremblingrsquoas one scholar said (Nold 1975) quoting SoslashrenKirkegaard

How do we explain such evidence Here is wherethe harder task of history-writing begins in the firstof the two dilations I promised earlier outward fromthe professional literature heavily filtered by aca-demic decorum into the social setting in which ourpredecessors lived Blaming (as some have done) abogey-man of their particular dislikingmdashFrench crit-ical theory is a favourite among empiricistsmdashonlygrants it causal powers it did not have44 All werepart of the same world What was that world likeOur predecessors were ordinary people as we areliving more or less ordinary lives What was ordinarylife like for them

Readings can be taken in various ways eg fromimaginative literature of the time including sciencefiction or from the cinema Best for my purposesare the ambient bearers of information we canplausibly assume ordinary people including aca-demics would have encountered casually acciden-tally in daily life newspapers and magazinesneighbours shopkeepers radio and televisionThe abundance I must skip over is painful toomit as it conjures the scene so effectively Let merecommend that you seek out a few images that the

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complications of copyright and expense of repro-duction prevent me from offering you someutopic some dystopic with which the media werethen saturated45 First the utopic the computer de-picted in Saturday Evening Post for 16 December1950 in an advert lsquoOracle on 57th Streetrsquo showinga giant Sibylline figure sitting atop IBM WorldHeadquarters in Manhattan a scroll of printouttumbling from her outstretched arms the computeras lsquogiant brainrsquo (a viral phrase at the time) in BorisArtzybasheffrsquos Time Magazine cover for 2 April1965 the computer shown on the scale of theroom-sized ENIAC ejecting a greeting card with ared heart on it for the operator a woman alone inthe room on the cover of The New YorkerrsquosValentinersquos Day issue 11 February 1961 and in aMarvel Comic advert a childrsquos toy lsquomiracle of themodern space age an actual working digitalcomputerrsquo designed and marketed by EdmundCallis Berkeley author of Giant Brains orMachines that Think (1949) Then the opposite ofthese a photograph of the darkened control roomof the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment(SAGE) system with the Whirlwind computer atits core in effect a giant military cyborg for defenseof the United States against nuclear attack fictiona-lized in War Games (1983)46 the computer on thecover of Processed World 12 (1984) as hydra-like PCautomator of office-work attacking a woman at herdesk with its many tentacles while her boss looks ona looming mainframe tape drive in an advert for theElectronic Computer Programming Institute inthe Pittsburgh Press for 6 November 1966 proclaim-ing lsquoLet this machine give you a new career beforeit takes away your old onersquo and finally a photo-graph of woman inside a mainframe lookingstartled accompanying an article by Warren RYoung in Life Magazine for 3 March 1961lsquoThe Machines Are Taking Over Computersoutdo man at his work nowmdashand soon may out-think himrsquo Such images and sentiments werecommonplace

Granted neither emotional extreme jubilationor terror were at all likely to have been observedin persons who viewed these images What seemsmore likely would have been more the feeling ex-pressed in 1969 by the director of an intensive

summer programme for disadvantaged students atHarvard Yale and Columbia Gordon K Davieswho expressed lsquothe most typical anxiety concerningmanrsquos relation to computersrsquo the fear of oneselfbeing reduced to data processing cards He wrotelsquowe must be careful or we shall all become rect-angles of cardboard with holes punched in themrsquo(Davies 1969 283)

All of this whether at home or at work wasenframed and informed by the defining context ofcomputing in its infancy the Cold Warmdashso namedby George Orwell two months after the atom bombwas dropped on Nagasaki 9 August 194547 Againforced to be briefer than I would like I offer anothersampling of material typical of the time a vividlyillustrated Life Magazine article of 1950 based on aplan for survival of nuclear attack hatched byNorbert Wiener and two colleagues from theHistory Department at MIT with reference to thecontemporary British film Seven Days to Noon (LM1950) a 1961 article in Readerrsquos Digest reporting onthe widely publicized near miss of 5 October 1960when an incorrect software model caused therising moon to be falsely identified as a massiveSoviet missile attack48 a paper in 1985 for theSymposium on Unintentional Nuclear War inwhich Brian Cantwell Smith demonstrated that inprinciple no fool-proof system was possiblemdashthatthere would always be another such moon-rise ashe said49 Children on both sides of the Atlantic(I like Spencer Weart was one of these) practicedvariants of lsquoduck and coverrsquo diving under desks inschool to be ready for the bomb50 adults were in-structed via civil defence bulletins and films51

Stanley Kubrickrsquos Dr Strangelove (1964) told astory we recognized because we were almostliving it

6 What the Thunder Said

What do we make of all thisFirst the obvious that the Cold War gives us a

good if partial explanation for scholarsrsquo timidity inthe real or imagined presence of mainframe systemsthat were other to most humanists because they werephysically culturally alien and obviously complicit



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But it also helps to explain the curious departure ofthe scholarly mainstream from the kinds of enquirycomputing was most nearly suited for just at thetime when computers became available52 AnthonyKenny has speculated that the majority turned awayfrom computing to critical theory in fear of quan-tification (1992 9ndash10) Therersquos truth to that guessjust as there is reason behind practitionersrsquo oppos-ition to abstract theory but both underplay thepositive indeed visionary hunger for theorizing asa liberating practice (cf Hooks 1994 59) Studentswere as one said theory-hungry (Bowlby 2013 32)The evidence suggests that they and their theorizingprofessors did not so much flee from computing asrun toward and embrace new powerful means ofasking (in Terry Eagletonrsquos words) lsquothe most embar-rassingly general and fundamental questions re-garding [routine social practices] with awondering estrangement which we have forgot-tenrsquo53 (1990 34) The mechanizers had nothing forthem

The public release of the Web in 1991 coincidingalmost exactly with the end of the Cold War was aradical game-changer54 But as others have re-marked the Web did not address the stalemate inanalytical computing rather it shifted attention tothe great stocking of the virtual shelves The Webburied the problem rather than solved it and bybeing so very useful and saleable to colleaguesWeb-based resources did little to bring our discip-line in from the cold intellectually

Hence with the thrusting of digital humanitiesinto the limelight the old complaints and problemshave resurfaced unresolved first the internal rela-tion of theorizing to making and of scholarship totechnical skills second the external relation of digi-tal practices to the techno-sciences on the one handand to the non-technical humanities on the otherthird the still unknown basis for a lsquonormal dis-coursersquo (Rorty 1979 320) that would allow us tospeak coherently to each other and to others AlanLiu (2011) and Fred Gibbs (2011) have both askedthe question I am struggling here to answer whereis the criticism in the digital humanities Whereindeed The danger is temptation lsquoto trope awayfrom specificity and to generalize hyperbolic-ally through an extremely abstract mode of

discourse that may at times serve as a surrogatersquofor experience (LaCapra 1998 23) Ungroundedtheorizing is as much an enemy as no theorizingat all But the absence Liu and Gibbs illumine isthe theoretical poverty noted at the end of the incu-nabular period by Rosanne Potter in her survey ofprevious work (1991) This poverty vexes us still Itmay seem with all the activity we are witnessing somuch we cannot see it all that the long-awaitedrevolution has begun (Jockers 2013 3ndash4) But actu-ally itrsquos been proclaimed beforemdasheg by literarycritic Stephen Parrish at the first conference in thefield in 196455mdashbut then lsquopostponed owing to tech-nical difficultiesrsquo (Mahoney 2011 56) The truth isthat the great cognitive revolution for us has notbegun even once Natalia Cecire is right on whenshe argues that for humanities plus computing thecentral problematicmdashBachelardrsquos lsquomatrix or anglefrom which it will become possible and even neces-sary to formulate a certain number of precise prob-lemsrsquo (Maniglier 2012)mdashis that plus so far as shesays wersquove construed the joining to be merely addi-tive rather than transformative (Cecire 2011 55)The growing mass of well-presented data is continu-ing to change conditions of scholarly work and withthem (I suspect) much else but this is not address-ing the old problem of how we are of the huma-nities It does not help us with what that plus meanswhat it portends what it entails

Thatrsquos why Irsquove embarked on a history of thepresent Such a history demands use of the past topoint the way forward If long ago scholars came tothe cross-roads to that plus-sign and were frigh-tened either into retreating or into reducing thechallenges of the machine to something comfort-able like minimizing drudgery or mining data ifwe find now that we are still there wonderingwhat to do analytically but cannot despite healthyskepticism shake the sense that what we know to dois only a poor beginning then that old fright is atreasure to be used not just understood It directs usto the uncanny moment what matters is our re-sponse to it as Benjamin said What matters isour trajectory into the future

When Father Busa asked why the computercould do lsquoso littlersquo for philology he meant in rela-tion to the lsquomonumental servicesrsquo done elsewhere

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especially in the sciences In the mid 1960s in arti-ficial intelligence machine translation and huma-nities computing the honeymoon period camealmost simultaneously to an end56 All three suf-fered lsquonotorious disappointmentsrsquo as CambridgeLucasian Professor Sir James Lighthill said of ma-chine translation in 1972 (Lighthill 19731972 10)His sentence for AI can stand for them all lsquoIn nopart of the field have the discoveries made sofar produced the major impact that was thenpromisedrsquo57 (8) But note AI absorbed the shockand continued computational linguistics was bornout of machine translation and thrived digitalhumanities as a theoretical critically self-awareand persuasive discipline remained in potentia58

Changing the name from lsquohumanities computingrsquoand being popular with the boys and girls doesnot solve the fundamental problem

And so my second dilation from the social worldof digital humanists ca 1949ndash1991 to the worldfrom which digital computing arose that of thetechno-sciences first as we know them now thenas they have been since Bacon and Galileo

The extent of computingrsquos influence on thesesciences is unabashedly summarized by philosopherPaul Humphreys in his book ExtendingOurselves Computational Science Empiricism andScientific Method (2004)59 Because of computingHumphreys observes lsquoscientific epistemology is nolonger human epistemologyrsquo (2004 8) He con-cludes in language reminiscent of MiltonrsquosParadise Lost lsquoThe Copernican Revolution firstremoved humans from their position at the centerof the physical universe and science has now drivenhumans from the center of the epistemological uni-versersquo60 Whether he is right is for my purposesbeside the point What matters is his language spe-cifically his echo of Adam and Eversquos expulsion fromParadise61 Whatrsquos going on

The best known and most fruitful pronounce-ment of the kind is Sigmund Freudrsquos Twice in1917 he declared that scientific research had preci-pitated three great crises in human self-conceptionor as he put it three lsquogreat outragesrsquo (lsquogroszligeKrankungenrsquo)62 first as with Humphreys byCopernican cosmology which de-centered human-kind then by Darwinian evolution which de-

throned us setting in motion discoveries of howintimately we belong to life and finally by his ownpsychoanalysis which showed we are not even mas-ters of own minds Less often noticed is his sugges-tion (implicit in the German Krankung from kranklsquoill sick diseasedrsquo) that these dis-easings of mindcan be turned to therapeutic effect We are apt tosee only the physician here but Freud was in factshowing his inheritance from the whole moral trad-ition of the physical sciences At least from Baconand Galileo in the 17th century this tradition hadidentified the cognitively and morally curative func-tion of science acting against fanciful or capriciousknowledgemdashlsquothe sciences as one wouldrsquo Baconcalled it63 Science for them was a correctiverestorative force lsquothe moral enterprise of freedomfor the enquiring mindrsquo historian Alastair Crombiehas written64 We now know that in its origins sci-ence was not anti-religious its aim was restorationof cognitively diseased humankind to prelapsarianAdamic intelligence (McCarty 2012a 9ndash11) Thereligious language has gone from science (with theoccasional exception as we have seen) but themoral imperative remains Freudrsquos series of outragesis thus radically incomplete they do not stopwith him because the imperative to correct lsquothe sci-ences as one wouldrsquo is integral to the scientificprogramme

But the high moral purpose darkens when thescientific perspective is taken to be absolute redu-cing human imaginings to narcissism on a cosmicscale Consider for example cosmologist and NobelLaureate Steven Weinberg who like Freud takes aimat this narcissism proclaiming that we live in lsquoanoverwhelmingly hostile universersquo whose laws are lsquoasimpersonal and free of human values as the laws ofarithmeticrsquo lsquothat human life is a more-or-lessfarcical outcome of a chain of accidents reachingback to the first three minutesrsquo after the BigBang65 Or consider the words of geneticist andNobel Laureate Jacques Monod who aims at thesame target proclaiming lsquothat like a gypsy [man]lives on the boundary of an alien world that is deafto his music and as indifferent to his hopes as it isto his suffering or his crimesrsquo66 A BlakeanNobodaddy is in the pulpit gleefully telling usdeluded children to grow up and face facts



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However severe Weinberg and Monod may be theyare indicative of a much broader sense of a mount-ing attack of ourselves as scientists upon ourselves ashumans summed up by biological anthropologistMelvin Konner lsquoIt would seemrsquo he concludeslsquothat we are sorted to a pulp caught in a visemade on the one side of the increasing power ofevolutionary biology and on the other of therelentless duplication of human mental faculties byincreasingly subtle and complex machinesrsquo He askslsquoSo what is left of usrsquo (1991 120)

This question and the vision it encapsulates lieclose to the recent origins of the so-called posthu-man condition which is likewise both feared andcelebrated by cultural critics as the end to old con-ception of humanity67 I will return to it in amoment But note doesnrsquot Konnerrsquos questionsound familiar Isnrsquot it formally the same questionthat Flandersrsquo encoder constantly asks mindful ofthe lsquoproductive uneasersquo from which she struggles tolearn Isnrsquot it the same question Jerry McGann hasillumined by that reach for the lsquohem of a quantumgarmentrsquo when all else but the inexplicable anomalyhas been nailed down Again the claustrophobiawhich signals a world outgrown and a transformedone in the offing a catastrophe which punctuatesthe old equilibrium precipitating a new order ofthings a new idea of the human

The cultural criticism that Alan Liu says we lackconverges on much the same crisis of the human asthe sciences (though it does not spare them)lsquoA good many theorizations of the postmodernrsquoHans Bertens writes lsquosuggest that for some timenow we have been finding ourselves in the middleof a moral political and cognitive moholersquomdashDonDeLillorsquos fictional cosmic zone where physical law issuspendedmdashlsquoand indeed may never get out on theother sidersquo (1995 230) The question is again whatis left of and for us

And so to my third dilation ambitious in theextreme as I warned but promising so muchHere I can only indicate where I think it takes us

I have argued that we are situated at the posthu-manizing juncture where computing meets thehumanities and so replicates the larger culturaltransformation expressed in and through Turingrsquosmachine But the historical longue duree of

becoming human shows this juncture to be one ofmany punctuating catastrophes This is the storytold for example by Roger Smith in Being HumanHistorical Knowledge and the Creation of HumanNature (2007) It is the process sketched across themillennia by Giorgio Agamben in The Open Manand Animal (20042002) in which he cites CarolusLinnaeusrsquo 18th-century classification of us as humanby virtue of our perpetually coming to know our-selves homo nosce te ipsum And at the other end ofthe scale is our every momentrsquos lsquogoing on beingrsquo inthe anxious construction of self that AnthonyGiddens brilliantly describes in Modernity and Self-Identity (1991) This same anxiety is legible in theattempts such as Rene Descartesrsquo in 1637 to coun-teract perhaps the most psychologically corrosivediscovery of his age the Great Apes so physiologic-ally similar to humans physician Nicolaes Tulpwrote in 1641 lsquothat it would be difficult to findone egg more like anotherrsquo68 There is I think nomore powerful expression of this anxiety thanJonathan Swiftrsquos depiction of Lemuel Gulliverdriven insane after willingly embracing the lustfulbrutish nature he had denied was his in the form ofa female Yahoo in heat Ejected by the creatures ofperfect reason for copulating with her and so reveal-ing what he is he returns home to find himselfrepelled by the smell of lsquothat odious animalrsquo hiswife preferring the company and smell of hishorses and of the groom who takes care of them69

Marvin Minsky reminds us that in making anymodel of whatrsquos happening (as we do when wespeak of a cross-roads or plus-sign) we must neverforget that the modelling relation is terniary inother words that our plus-sign is three-dimensionalthat it signifies nothing independently of us70 weare individually personally morally psychologicallyinvolved We are attacked as Lionel Trilling said byforces we would be foolish to underestimate (19671961) But for us the catastrophic attack is no longeranimal Our digital machine has shifted the locus ofengagement

In 1970 the Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori(whom I mentioned earlier) proposed that asrobots become more recognizably anthropomorphicwe react more favourably to them until suddenlytheir resemblance to us becomes uncanny and so

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provokes a strongly negative reaction He called thisplunge into fright lsquothe uncanny valley phenomenonrsquo(Mori 20121970) Then and in a recent interviewMori has emphasized the benefit of remaining de-liberately in the uncanny valley so as better to knowwhat it means to be human (Kageki 2012) Those ofyou who have seen the Bollywood film Enthiran(2010) Spanish Eva (2011) the Swedish AktaManniskor (lsquoReal Humansrsquo 2012) or lsquoBe RightBackrsquo from the British Black Mirror (2013) willknow how current in our thoughts this valley re-mains For us in digital humanities the locus of en-gagement may well bemdashI think it must bemdashwith theembodied artificial intelligence of robots But mypoint for now is the uncanny valley which thatplus-sign denotes

This valley is our place of beginnings All discip-lines are that of coursemdashstarting points for amental expanding that is transgressive but not pos-sessive lsquoIt doesnrsquot matter so much what you learnrsquoNorthrop Frye wrote in On Education lsquowhen youlearn it in a structure that can expand into otherstructuresrsquo (1988 10) Our structure is the cross-roads of the techno-scientific and the humanisticThatrsquos where we begin whether we mine individu-ally for diamonds or collaboratively for coal(Kowarski 1972 29)

7 The Unknown RememberedGate

So how do we get there What do we do about thesituation I have depicted

lsquoTuringrsquos lsquolsquoMachinesrsquorsquo rsquo Wittgenstein wrote inthe mid to late 1940s lsquoare humans who calculatersquo(1980 191e sect1096) and thatrsquos exactly what we findwhen we go back to Turingrsquos paper of 1936 hisoriginating metaphor of lsquoa man in the process ofcomputing a real numberrsquo So we find ourselvesreduced to a lsquocomputerrsquo (as that man would thenhave been called and as we now call the device hebecame) In it we discover a bare-bones stamp of thehuman that can do so much that is so little AgainFr Busa asked why can it do so little Now I sug-gest we must ask how is all that it can do and allthat is imagined it will do still so little Or better

how do we come to know however able it becomesthat it is so little If it isnrsquot how do we make it so

These are the questions that constitute the nextstep toward a digital practice that is of as well as inthe humanities This next step is the learned prac-titionerrsquos open-eyed technologically informed im-aginative critical hands-on questioning of whathappens at the cross-roads of actual work wherecomputing scholar-practitioners and the huma-nities meet It opens up the shocking yet familiarotherness that is rough midwife to ourselves as willbe It defamiliarizes as Viktor Shklovsky said so torecover lsquothe sensation of things as they are perceivedand not as they are knownrsquo (19651917 12) Andwhile all that is going on digital humanities needsuse its 64 years of fumbling to gain leverage for agreat inductive leap to a vantage point from whichits disciplinary shape and trajectory sighted dimlyhere can be clearly seen The key to its futuremdashandin some measure the future of all the related huma-nitiesmdashis its history This history we mustremember

Remember not a tablet fetched from a store-house just as it was writtenmdasha metaphor from clas-sical antiquity that found at last a fitting referent indigital computing machinerymdashrather the creativestorytelling activity we now know it to be Thatrsquosthe difficult agenda item I leave you with to beginremembering what our predecessors did and did notdo and the conditions under which they worked soas to fashion stories for our future Remember thatthe struggle is the point of it all Remember thehumanities

ReferencesAborn M (1988) Machine cognition and the download-

ing of scientific intellect Annals of the American

Academy of Political and Social Science 495 135ndash43

Agamben G (19991993) Bartleby or on Contingency

In D Heller-Roazen (ed and trans) Potentialities

Collected Essays in Philosophy Stanford CA Stanford

University Press pp 243ndash71

Agamben G (20042002) In K Attell (trans) The Open

Man and Animal Stanford CA Stanford University

Press



at UB

Trier on A


Dow

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Agamben G (20092006) What is an Apparatus AndOther Essays Ed and trans D Kishik and SPedatella Stanford CA Stanford University Press

Agar J (2003) The Government Machine ARevolutionary History of the Computer CambridgeMA MIT Press

ALPAC [Automatic Language Processing AdvisoryCommittee] (1966) Language and MachinesComputers in Translation and Linguistics Report 1416Washington DC National Academy of SciencesNational Research Council httpwwwnapeduhtmlalpac_lmARC000005pdf (accessed 26 November2013)

Apter M J (1969) Cybernetics and art Leonardo 23257ndash65

Aspray W (1990) John von Neumann and the Origins ofModern Computing Cambridge MA MIT Press

Ball S J (20041998) The Cold War An InternationalHistory 1947ndash1991 London Arnold

Banz D A (1990) The Values of the Humanities and theValues of Computing In Miall D S (ed) Humanitiesand the Computer New Directions Oxford ClarendonPress pp 27ndash37

Baum J A C and Singh J V (eds) (1994) EvolutionaryDynamics of Organizations New York OxfordUniversity Press

Beer G (20091983) Darwinrsquos Plots EvolutionaryNarrative in Darwin George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction 3rd edn Cambridge CambridgeUniversity Press

Benjamin W (19681955) Illuminations Ed H ArendtTrans H Zohn New York Schocken Books

Berkeley E C (1949) Giant Brains or Machines ThatThink New York John Wiley amp Sons

Bertens H (1995) The Idea of the Postmodern A HistoryLondon Routledge

Bessinger J B Stephen M P and Harry F A (eds)(1964) Literary Data Processing Conference ProceedingsSeptember 9 10 11ndash1964 Armonk NY IBMCorporation

Bode K (2012) Reading by Numbers Recalibrating theLiterary Field London Anthem Press

Bode K and Robert D (eds) (2009) ResourcefulReading The New Empiricism eResearch andAustralian Literary Culture Sydney Sydney UniversityPress

Borning A (1987) Computer system reliabilityand nuclear war Communications of the ACM 30 112ndash31

Bourke J (2005) Fear A Cultural History London

Virago

Bowlby R (2013) Waiting for the Dawn to Come Rev

Reading for our Time lsquoAdam Bedersquo and lsquoMiddlemarchrsquo

Revisited By J Hillis Miller London Review of Books 35

32ndash4

Bozionelos N (2001) Computer anxiety Relationship

with computer experience and prevalence Computers

in Human Behavior 17 213ndash24

Brett G (1968) The computers take to art The Arts The

Times 2 August p 7

Brosnan M (1998) Technophobia The psychological

impact of information technology London Routledge

Brower B (1964) Of nothing but facts The American

Scholar 33 613ndash14 616 618

Brown J (1988) lsquoA is for Atom B is for Bombrsquo Civil

Defense in American Public Education 1948-1963 The

Journal of American History 75 68ndash90

Brown P Charlie G Nicholas L and Catherine M

(eds) (2010) White Heat Cold Logic British Computer

Art 1960-1980 Cambridge MA MIT Press

Bruner J (1956) Freud and the image of man American

Psychologist 11 463ndash6

Buonomano D V and Michael M M (1998) Cortical

plasticity From synapses to maps Annual Review of

Neuroscience 21 149ndash86

Burnyeat M F (20121982) Message from heraclitus In

Explorations in ancient and modern philosophy Vol II

Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 195ndash204

Burrows J (2010) Never Say Always Again Reflections

on the Numbers Game In McCarty W (ed) Text and

Genre in Reconstruction Effects of Digitization On Ideas

Behaviours Products amp Institutions Cambridge Open

Book Publishers pp 13ndash35

Busa R (1976) Why can a computer do so little ALLC

Bulletin 4 1ndash3

Busa R (1980) The annals of humanities computing

The index thomisticus Computers and the

Humanities 14 83ndash90

Byatt A S (2000) On Histories and Stories Selected

Essays Cambridge MA Harvard University Press

Byatt A S (2005) Fiction informed by science Nature

434 294ndash6

Cecire N (2011) When digital humanities was in vogue

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Choudhury S and Jan S (eds) (2012) Critical

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Cultural Contexts of Neuroscience Chichester Wiley-Blackwell

Connor W R (1991) Scholarship and technology inclassical studies In Katzen 1991 52ndash62

Corns T N (1986) Literary theory and computer-basedcriticism Current problems and future prospects InMethodes quantitatives et informatiques dans lrsquoetudedes textes Computers in literary and linguistic researchColloque International CNRS Universite de Nice 5ndash8June 1985 Geneve Slatkine-Champion

Corns T N (1991) Computers in thehumanities Methods and applications in the study ofEnglish literature Literary and Linguistic Computing 6127ndash30

Corns T N and Margarette E S (1987) Literature InInformation Technology in the Humanities ToolsTechniques and Applications Chichester EllisHorwood pp 104ndash15

Crombie A C (1994) Styles of Scientific Thinking in theEuropean Tradition The History of Argument andExplanation Especially in the Mathematical AndBiomedical Sciences And Arts 3 vols LondonDuckworth

Daigon A (1969) Literature and the schools The EnglishJournal 58 30ndash9

Danziger K (2008) Marking the Mind A History ofMemory Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Davies G K (1969) Describing men to ma-chines the use of computers in dealing with socialproblems Soundings An Interdisciplinary Journal 52283ndash98

Dening G (1993) The theatricality of history makingCultural Anthropology 8 73ndash95

Dening G (1998) ReadingsWritings MelbourneUniversity of Melbourne Press

Dening G (2002) Performing on the beaches of themind An essay History and Theory 41 1ndash24

Denning P (1986) The science of computingWill machines ever think American Scientist 74344ndash6

DeRose S J David G D Elli M and Allen H R(1990) What is text really Journal of Computing inHigher Education 1 3ndash26

de W F and Frans L (1997) Bonobo The ForgottenApe Berkeley University of California Press

Dinello D (2005) Technophobia Science Fiction Visionsof Posthuman Technology Austin University of TexasPress

Donald M (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind ThreeStages in the Evolution of Culture and CognitionCambridge MA Harvard Univ Press

Dreyfus H L (1965) Alchemy and Artificial IntelligencePaper P-3244 Santa Monica CA Rand CorporationhttpwwwrandorgpubspapersP3244 (accessed 26November 2013)

DSM-5 (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental Disorders 5th edn Washington DCAmerican Psychiatric Association

Dyer G Charlie H Robert R et al (2008) A sympo-sium on Fear Threepenny Review 115 14ndash17

Dyer R R (1969) The new philology An old disciplineor a new science Computers and the Humanities 453ndash64

Eagleton T (1990) The Significance of Theory BucknellLectures in Literary Theory 2 Oxford Basil Blackwell

Edwards P N (1996) The Closed World Computers andthe Politics of Discourse in Cold War AmericaCambridge MA MIT Press

Efron A (1966) Technology and the future of art TheMassachusetts Review 7 677ndash710

Eldredge N (2009) Material Cultural MacroevolutionIn Marie Prentiss A Kuijt I and Chatters J C (eds)Macroevolution in Human Prehistory EvolutionaryTheory and Processual Archaeology New YorkSpringer pp 297ndash316

Ernst J (1992) Computer poetry An act of disinter-ested communication New Literary History 23451ndash65

Ellul J (19641954) The Technological Society TransJohn Wilkinson Intro Robert K Merton New YorkRandom House

Eustace N Eugenia L Julie L Jan PWilliam M R and Barbara H R (2012) AHRConversation The Historical Study of EmotionsAmerican Historical Review 117 1487ndash531

Fernandez M (2008) Detached from history JasiaReichardt and Cyberntic Serendipity Art Journal 676ndash23

Flanders J (2009) The productive unease of 21st centurydigital scholarship Digital Humanities Quarterly 3 httpwwwdigitalhumanitiesorgdhqvol33000055000055html (accessed 26 November 2013)

Fodor J A (1983) The Modularity of Mind CambridgeMA MIT Press

Fogel E G (1964) The humanist and the computerVision and actuality In Bessinger Parrish and Arader



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1964 11ndash24 Rpt in The Journal of Higher Education362 (1965) 61ndash8

Fortier P A et al (1993) A New Direction for LiteraryStudies Special issue ed P A Fortier Computers andthe Humanities 27 5ndash6

Freud S (1920a1917) A General Introduction toPsychoanalysis G S Hall (trans) New York Boniand Liveright

Freud S (1920b1917) One of the difficulties of psycho-analysis J Riviere (trans) International Journal ofPsychoanalysis 1 17ndash23

Freud S (19551919) The lsquoUncannyrsquo In An InfantileNeurosis and Other Works Vol XVII of TheStandard Edition of the Complete Psychological Worksof Sigmund Freud In J Strachey et al (trans)London The Hogarth Press pp 217ndash52

Frye N (1957) Anatomy of Criticism Four EssaysPrinceton NJ Princeton University Press

Frye N (1988) On Education Toronto Fitzhenry andWhiteside

Fuller T (1732) Gnomologia Adagies and Proverbs WiseSentences and Witty Sayings Ancient and ModernForeign and British London for B Barker

Galison P (1987) How Experiments End ChicagoUniversity of Chicago Press

Galison P (1994) The ontology of the enemy Norbertwiener and the cybernetic vision Critical Inquiry 21228ndash66

Galison P (1996) Computer Simulations and theTrading Zone In Galison P and Stump D J (eds)The Disunity of Science Boundaries Contexts andPower Stanford CA Stanford University Presspp 118ndash57

Gere C (2008) Digital Culture 2nd edn LondonReaktion Books

Ghamari-Tabrizi S (2000) Simulating the unthinkableGaming future war in the 1950s and 1960s SocialStudies of Science 30 163ndash223

Gibbs F (2011) Critical discourse in digital humanitiesJournal of Digital Humanities 1 34ndash42

Giddens A (1991) Modernity and Self-IdentitySelf and Society in the Late Modern Age LondonPolity

Giddens A and Christopher P (1998) Conversationswith Anthony Giddens London Polity

Giedion S (1948) Mechanization Takes Command AContribution to an Anonymous History New YorkOxford University Press

Gigerenzer G Zeno S Theodore P Lorraine DJohn B and Lorenz K (1989) The Empire ofChance How Probability Changed Science AndEveryday Life Ideas in context CambridgeCambridge University Press

Gooding D (1990) Experiment and the Makingof Meaning Human Agency in Scientific Observationand Experiment Dordrecht Kluwer AcademicPublishers

Goodman N (1978) Ways of Worldmaking IndianapolisIN Hackett Publishing

Gorman M E (ed) (2010) Trading Zones andInteractional Expertise Cambridge MA MIT Press

Gould S J (1989) Wonderful Life The Burgess Shale andthe Nature of History New York W W Norton andCompany

Gould S J and Niles E (1977) Punctuated equilibriaThe tempo and mode of evolution reconsideredPaleobiology 3 115ndash51

Grant M (2010) After the Bomb Civil Defence andNuclear War in Britain 1945-1968 HoundmillsBasingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

Giddens A (1991) Fear panic and anxiety whatrsquos in aname Psychological Inquiry 2 77ndash8

Hacking I (1983) Representing and InterveningIntroductory Topics in the Philosophy of NaturalScience Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Hacking I (1990) The Taming of Chance Ideas inContext Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Hacking I (1995) Rewriting the Soul MultiplePersonality and the Sciences of Memory PrincetonPrinceton University Press

Hacking I (2002) lsquoStylersquo for Historians andPhilosophersrsquo In Historical Ontology Cambridge MAHarvard University Press pp 178ndash99

Hall G S (1914) A synthetic genetic study of fearChapter I and A Synthetic Genetic Study of FearChapter II The American Journal of Psychology 25149ndash200 321ndash92

Handlin O (1964) Man and Magic FirstEncounters with the Machine The American Scholar33 408ndash19

Hatfield H S (1928) Automation or the Future of theMechanical Man To-Day and To-Morrow LondonKegan Paul Trench Trubner amp Co

Hayles N K (1999) How We Became Posthuman VirtualBodies in Cybernetics Literature and InformaticsChicago University of Chicago Press

W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

Hennessy P (2002) The Secret State Whitehall and the

Cold War London Allen Lane

Herbert R L (20001964) Modern Artists on Art 2nd

edn Mineola NY Dover Publications

HMSO (1963) Advising the Householder on Protection

against Nuclear Attack Civil Defence Handbook No

10 London Her Majestyrsquos Stationery Office

Reproduction without the covers http wwwmgrfoun-

dationorglibropdf (accessed 27 November 2013)

Hockey S (2004) A History of Humanities Computing

In Schreibman Siemens and Unsworth 2004 3ndash19

Holland S and Gordon B (1992) Beauty and the beast

New approaches to teaching computing for humanities

students at the University of Aberdeen Computers and

the Humanities 26 267ndash74

Hollander J (2004) Fear Itself Social Research 71

865ndash86

Hooks B (1994) Theory as Liberatory Practice Teaching

to Transgress Education as the Practice of Freedom

London Routledge pp 59ndash75

Hoover D (2007) The End of the Irrelevant Text

Electronic Texts Linguistics and Literary Theory

Digital Humanities Quarterly 12 http wwwdigitalhu-

manitiesorgdhqvol0012

Hubbell J G (1961) lsquoYou Are Under Attackrsquo The

Strange Incident of October 5 Readerrsquos Digest 37ndash41

Hughes R (19911980) The Shock of the New Art and

the Century of Change Rev edn London Thames and

Hudson

Humphreys P (2004) Extending Ourselves

Computational Science Empiricism and Scientific

Method Oxford Oxford University Press

Humphreys P (2009) The philosophical novelty of

computer simulation methods Synthese 169 615ndash26

Husbands P Owen H and Michael W (eds) (2008)

The Mechanical Mind in History Cambridge MA

MIT Press

Hutchins E (1995) Cognition in the Wild Cambridge

MA MIT Press

Hymes D (1965) Introduction In Hymes D (ed) The

Use of Computers in Anthropology The Hague Mouton

amp Co

Inwood B and Willard M (2010) History and Human

Nature An essay by G E R Lloyd with invited responses

Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 35 3ndash4

Irizarry E (1988) Literary Analysis and the

Microcomputer Hispania 71 984ndash95

Jenkins W A (1962) Time that is Intolerant Elementary

English 39 84ndash90

Jockers M L (2013) Microanalysis Digital Methods

and Literary History Illinois IN Indiana University

Press

Juola P (2008) Killer Applications in Digital

Humanities Literary and Linguistic Computing 23

73ndash83

Kahn H (20071960) On Thermonuclear War New

Brunswick NJ Transaction Publishers

Kageki N (2012) An Uncanny Mind IEEE Robotics and

Automation Magazine June 112 106 108

Katzen M (ed) (1991) Scholarship and Technology in the

Humanities Proceedings of a Conference held at

Elvetham Hall Hampshire UK 9thndash12th May 1990

London British Library Research Bowker Saur

Keller E F (1991) Language and Ideology in

Evolutionary Theory Reading Cultural Norms into

Natural Law In Sheehan and Sosna 1991 85ndash102

Berkeley University of California Press

Kenner H (20051968) The Counterfeiters An Historical

Comedy Normal IL Dalkey Archive Press

Kenny A (1992) Computers and the Humanities Ninth

British Library Research Lecture London The British

Library

Klutsch C (2005) The Summer 1968 in London and

Zagreb Starting or End Point for Computer art

Proceedings of the 5th conference on Creativity amp

Cognition New Cross London 12ndash15 April 109ndash17

New York Association of Computing Machinery

Kohrman R (2003) Computer Anxiety in the 21st

Century When You Are Not in Kansas Any More

Association of College and Research Libraries

Eleventh National Conference Charlotte North

Carolina 10ndash13 April wwwalaorgacrlsitesalaorg

acrlfilescontentconferencespdfkohrmanpdf

Konner M (1991) Human Nature and Culture Biology

and the Residue of Uniqueness Sheehan and Sosna

1991 103ndash24

Kowarski L (1972) The Impact of Computers on

Nuclear Science In Computing as a Language of

Physics International Centre for Theoretical Physics

Trieste 27ndash37 Vienna International Atomic Energy

Agency

Kowarski L (1975) Man-Computer Symbiosis Fears

and Hopes In Mumford Enid and Sackman Harold

(eds) Human Choice and Computers Amsterdam

North Holland pp 305ndash12



at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

LaCapra D (1998) History and Memory after Auschwitz2nd edn Ithaca NY Cornell University Press

Leavis F R (1970) lsquoLiterarismrsquo versus lsquoScientismrsquo Themisconception and the menace Times LiterarySupplement 23 April 441ndash44 Rpt in Nor ShallMy Sword Discourses on Pluralism Compassionand Social Hope 135ndash60 London Chatto andWindus 1972

Leffler M P and David S P (1994) Origins of the ColdWar An International History London Routledge

Levy S (2010) Hackers Heroes of the ComputerRevolution Sebastopol CA OrsquoReilly Media Inc

Lindsay K C (1966) Art Art History and theComputer Computers and the Humanities 1 27ndash30

Lenhard J (2007) Computer Simulation TheCooperation between Experimenting and ModelingPhilosophy of Science 74 176ndash94

Lighthill S J (19731972) Artificial Intelligence A gen-eral survey Part I of Artificial Intelligence a papersymposium London Science Research Council wwwchilton-computingorgukinfliteraturereportslighthill_reportcontentshtm

Liu A (2011) Where is Cultural Criticism in the DigitalHumanities In Gold Matthew K (ed) Debates inthe Digital Humanities Minneapolis MN Universityof Minnesota Press pp 490ndash509

Liu A (2013) The Meaning of the Digital HumanitiesPMLA 128 409ndash23

Lloyd G E R (2007) Cognitive Variations Reflections onthe Unity and Diversity of the Human Mind OxfordClarendon Press

LM (1950) How US Cities Can Prepare for AtomicWar Life Magazine 18 December 77ndash86

LM (1957) Pushbutton Defense for Air War LifeMagazine 11 February 62ndash7

Lounsbury M and Marc J V (2002) Social Structureand Organizations Revisited Research in the Sociologyof Organizations 19 3ndash36

Mahoney M S (2011) Histories of ComputingThomas Haigh (ed) Cambridge MA HarvardUniversity Press

Malina R F (1989) Computer Art in the Context ofthe Journal Leonardo Leonardo (Supplemental issueVol 2 Computer Art in Context SIGGRAPHrsquo89 ArtShow Catalogue) 67ndash70

Markman A (1965) Litterae ex Machina Man andMachine in Literary Criticism The Journal of HigherEducation 36 69ndash79

Masco J (2009) Life Underground Building the BunkerSociety Anthropology Now 1 13ndash29

Masschelein A (2011) The Unconcept The FreudianUncanny in Late-Twentieth-Century Theory AlbanyNY State University of New York Press

Massumi B (1993) The Politics of Everyday FearMinneapolis MN University of Minnesota Press

Massumi B (2002) Parables for the Virtual MovementAffect Sensation Durham NC Duke University Press

Masterman M (1962) The intellectrsquos new eye In Freeingthe Mind Articles and Letters from The Times LiterarySupplement during MarchndashJune 1962 London TheTimes Publishing Company pp 38ndash44

Masterman M (1971) Computerized Haiku InReichardt Jasia (ed) Cybernetics Art and IdeasLondon Studio Vista pp 175ndash83

Masterman M and Robin M W (1970) The poetand the computer Times Literary Supplement 18667ndash8

Mazlish B (1967) The Fourth Discontinuity Technologyand Culture 8 1ndash15

Mazlish B (1993) The Fourth Discontinuity TheCo-Evolution of Humans and Machines New HavenYale University Press

McCarty W (2005) Humanities ComputingHoundmills Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan

McCarty W (2006) Treee Turf Centre Archipelago ndashor Wild Acre Metaphories and Stories for HumanitiesComputing Literary and Linguistic Computing 211ndash13

McCarty W (2008) Being Reborn The HumanitiesComputing and Styles of Scientific Reasoning InBowen William R and Siemens Raymond G (eds)New Technologies and Renaissance Studies Tempe AZIter Inc and the Arizona Center for Medieval andRenaissance Texts

McCarty W (2012a) The Residue of UniquenessHistorical Social ResearchHistorische Sozialforschung37 24ndash45

McCarty W (2012b) A Telescope of the Mind InGold Matthew K (ed) Debates in the DigitalHumanities Minneapolis MN University ofMinnesota Press pp 113ndash23

McCarty W (2013) Getting into the driverrsquos seat Revof Histories of Computing by Michael S MahoneyMetascience 22 99ndash104

McCorduck P (20041979) Machines Who Think APersonal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of

W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

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Artificial Intelligence Rev edn Nattick MA A K

Peters Ltd

McCulloch W S and Walter P (19891943) A Logical

Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous ActivityEmbodiments of Mind by Warren McCulloch 10ndash39

Cambridge MA MIT Press

McCulloch W S and Walter P (1968) Preface In

An Approach to Cybernetics by Gordon Pask LondonHutchinson

McDermott J (1969) Technology The Opiate of the

Intellectuals New York Review of Books 31 July

McEnaney L (2000) Civil Defense Begins at Home

Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the FiftiesPrinceton NJ Princeton University Press

McGann J (2004) Marking texts of many dimensions In

Schreibman Siemens and Unsworth 2004 198ndash217

McKenzie D F (1991) Computers and the humanities

a personal synthesis of conference issues In Katzen1991 157ndash69

Mead M (1970) Culture and Commitment A Study of

the Generation Gap New York Doubleday 1970

Menary R (2010) The Extended Mind Cambridge MA

MIT Press

Mesthene E G (1969) Technology and HumanisticValues Computers and the Humanities 4 1ndash10

Miall D S (1995) Humanities and the Computer New

Directions Oxford Clarendon Press

Midgley M (1985) Evolution as a Religion Strange Hopes

and Stranger Fears London Routledge

Milic L T (1966) The Next Step Computers and theHumanities 1 3ndash6

Miller J H (1991) Literary theory telecommunica-

tions and the making of history In Katzen 1991

11ndash20

Miller P (1962) The responsibility of mind in acivilization of machines The American Scholar 31

51ndash69

Minsky M L (19951968) Matter mind and models

httpwebmediamiteduminskypapersMatterMindModelshtml (accessed 27 November 2013)

Mitchell S O (1967) Larger implications of computer-

ization Journal of General Education 19 216ndash23

Monod J (19721970) Chance and Necessity An Essay on

the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology AustrynWainhouse (trans) London Collins

Moretti F (2000) Conjectures on World Literature New

Left Review 1 54ndash68

Morgan G (2006) Images of Organization Rev ednThousand Oaks CA Sage Publications

Mori M (20121970) The Uncanny Valley In Karl FMcDorman and Norri K (trans) IEEE Robotics andAutomation Magazine 19 98ndash100

Mumford L (1967 and 1970a) The Myth of the Machine2 vols New York Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Mumford L (1970b) The Megamachine New Yorker10ndash31 October

Nemerov H (1967) Speculative equations Poemspoets computers The American Scholar 36 394ndash414

Newell K B (1983) Pattern concrete and computerpoetry The poem as object in itself The BucknellReview 27 159ndash73

Nold E W (1975) Fear and trembling the humanistapproaches the computer College Composition andCommunication 26 269ndash73

OCD (1968) In Time of Emergency A Citizenrsquos Handbookon Nuclear Attack Natural Disasters H-14Washington DC Office of Civil Defense Departmentof Defense

Oliphant R (1961-2) The Auto-Beatnik the Auto-Critic and the Justification of Nonsense The AntiochReview 21 405ndash29

Orwell G (19681945) You and the Atom Bomb InOrwell Sonia and Angus Ian (eds) The CollectedEssays Journalism and Letters of George OrwellVolume IV London Secker amp Warburg pp 6ndash10

Otis L (2001) Networking Communicating with Bodiesand Machines in the Nineteenth Century Ann ArborMN University of Michigan Press

Parrish S M (1962) Problems in the Making ofComputer Concordances Studies in Bibliography 151ndash14

Parrish S M (1964) Summary In Literary DataProcessing Conference Proceedings September 9 10 11ndash 196 Jess B Bessinger Jr Stephen M Parrishand Harry F Arader 3ndash10 Armonk NY IBMCorporation

Pascual-Leone A Amedi A Fregni F andMerabet L B (2005) The plastic human braincortex Annual Review of Neuroscience 28 377ndash401

Pegues F J (1965) Editorial Computer Research in theHumanities The Journal of Higher Education 36105ndash8

Peirce C S (1998) The Essential Peirce SelectedPhilosophical Writing Vol 2 Peirce Edition ProjectBloomington IN Indiana University Press



at UB

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Dow

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Pickering A (2010) The Cybernetic Brain Sketches ofAnother Future Chicago IL University of ChicagoPress

Plamper J (2012) Geschichte und Gefuhl Grundlagen derEmotionsgeschichte Munchen Seidler

Plamper J and Benjamin L (2012) Fear Across theDisciplines Pittsburgh PA University of PittsburghPress

Pooley R C (1961) Automatons or English TeachersThe English Journal 50 168ndash73 209

Potter R G (1991) Statistical Analysis of Literature ARetrospective on Computers and the Humanities 1966ndash1990 Computers and the Humanities 25 401ndash29

Potter R G (1989) Literary Computing and LiteraryCriticism Theoretical and Practical Essays on Themeand Rhetoric Philadelphia University of PennsylvaniaPress

Prescott A (1999) Commentary In Coppock T (ed)Information Technology and Scholarship Applications inthe Humanities and Social Sciences Oxford OxfordUniversity Press pp 72ndash8

Purdy S B (1984) Technopoetics Seeing what literaturehas to do with the machine Critical Inquiry 11130ndash40

Ramsay S (2011) Reading Machines Toward anAlgorithmic Criticism Urbana University of IllinoisPress

Ramsay S Stefan S John B Geoffrey R andThomas N C (2003) Reconceiving Text AnalysisSpecial section of 4 articles and an afterword Literaryand Linguistic Computing 18 174ndash223

Reagan R (1961) Frontiers of Progress National SalesMeeting General Electric Corporation ApacheJunction Arizona 15ndash18 May wwwsmeccorgfron-tiers_of_progress_-_1961_sales_meetinghtmreagan(accessed 27 November 2013)

Reichardt J (1969) Cybernetic Serendipity New YorkFrederick A Praeger Inc

Reichardt J (1971) Cybernetics Art and Ideas LondonStudio Vista

Rommel T (2004) Literary Studies SchreibmanSiemens and Unsworth 2004 88ndash96

Rorty R (2004) Being that can be understood is lan-guage In Gadamerrsquos Repercussions ReconsideringPhilosophical Hermeneutics Ed Bruce KrajewskiBerkeley CA University of California Press

Rorty R (1979) Philosophy and the Mirror of NaturePrinceton Princeton University Press

Schofield M-P (1962) Libraries are for Books A pleafrom a lifetime customer ALA Bulletin 569 803ndash5

Schreibman S Ray S and John U (2004) ACompanion to Digital Humanities Oxford Blackwellwwwdigitalhumanitiesorgcompanion

Schulz B (19981935) An essay for S I Witkiewicz InJerzy F (ed) The Collected Works of Bruno SchulzLondon Picador

Shanken E A (2002) Art in the informationage Technology and conceptual art Leonardo 35433ndash8

Sheehan J J and Morton S (eds) (1991) TheBoundaries of Humanity Humans Animals MachinesBerkeley University of California Press

Shklovsky V (19651917) Art as Technique In Lee T Land Marion J R (eds and trans) Russian FormalistCriticism Four Essays 3ndash24 Lincoln NB Universityof Nebraska Press

Shore J (1985) The Sachertorte Algorithm and OtherAnecdotes to Computer Anxiety New York VikingPenguin

Smith B C (1985) Limits of correctness ACM SIGCASComputers and Society 14ndash151ndash4 18ndash26 Rpt 1995 InDeborah G J and Helen N (eds) Computers Ethics ampSocial Values 456ndash69 Englewood Cliffs NJ PrenticeHall

Smith R (2007) Being Human Historical Knowledge andthe Creation of Human Nature New York ColumbiaUniversity Press

Stinchcombe A L (1965) Social structure and organiza-tions In March J G (ed) Handbook of OrganizationsChicago IL Rand McNally amp Company pp 142ndash93

Tillyard E M W (1958) The Muse Unchained An in-timate account of the revolution in English studies atCambridge London Bowes amp Bowes

TLS (1962) Articles and Letters from The Times LiterarySupplement during MarchmdashJune 1962 London TimesPublishing Company

Tomlinson G (2013) Evolutionary studies in thehumanities The case of music Critical Inquiry 39647ndash75

Trilling L (19671961) On the teaching of modern litera-ture In Beyond Culture London Penguin pp 19ndash41

Tulp N (1641) Observationum Medicarum LibriTres Cum aeneis figuris Amsterdam LudovicusElzevirium

Turing A M (1936-7) On computable numbers withan application to the Entscheidungsproblem

W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 2230ndash65

USNampWR (1964a) Is the computer running wild USNews amp World Report 24 81ndash4

USNampWR (1964b) Machines Smarter than MenInterview with Dr Norbert Wiener Noted ScientistUS News amp World Report 24 84ndash6

Van Dyke C (1993) rsquoBits of information and tenderfeelingrsquo Gertrude stein and computer-generated proseTexas Studies in Literature and Language 35 168ndash97

von Neumann J (1945) First Draft of a Report on theEDVAC Contract W-670-ORD-4926 US ArmyOrdnance Department and the University ofPennsylvania Philadelphia PA Moore School ofElectrical Engineering Rpt IEEE Annals of the Historyof Computing 15 27ndash43

von Neumann J (1951) The General and Logical Theoryof Automata In Jeffress L A (ed) GeneralMechanisms in Behavior The Hixon Symposium NewYork John Wiley amp Sons pp 1ndash41

von Neumann J (1958) The Computer and the BrainMrs Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Lectures YaleUniversity New Haven Yale University Press

Weart S R (1988) Nuclear Fear A History of ImagesCambridge MA Harvard University Press

Weaver W (1961) The imperfections of scienceAmerican Scientist 49 99ndash113

Weinberg S (1974) Reflections of a working scientistDaedalus 103 33ndash45

Weinberg S (19831977) The First Three Minutes AModern View of the Origin of the Universe LondonFlamingo

White H (1980) The value of narrativity in the repre-sentation of reality Critical Inquiry 7 5ndash27

Whitfield S J (1996) The Culture of the Cold War 2ndedn Baltimore MD The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress

Wiener N (19611948) Cybernetics or control and com-munication in the animal and the machine 2nd ednCambridge MA MIT Press

Wiener N (19541950) The Human Use of HumanBeings Cybernetics and Society Boston MAHoughton Mifflin Co

Wittgenstein L (1980) Bemerkungen uber diePhilosophie der PsychologieRemarks on thePhilosophy of Psychology Ed and trans G E MAnscombe and G H von Wright Vol I OxfordBasil Blackwell

Zuboff S (1988) In the Age of the Smart Machine TheFuture of Work and Power Oxford HeinemannProfessional

Zwaan R A (1987) The computer in perspectiveTowards a relevant use of the computer in the studyof literature Poetics 16 553ndash68

Notes1 The Busa Award lecture was presented at the 2013

conference of the Alliance of Digital HumanitiesOrganizations Lincoln Nebraska 16ndash19 July forwhich see dh2013unledu Every effort has beenmade to preserve the informal qualities of the lec-ture for which as delivered see wwwyoutubecomwatchvfrac14nTHa1rDR680

2 For the autobiographical thread of this lecture mymodel is the inspirational American Council ofLearned Societiesrsquo Charles Homer Haskins lectureseries lsquoA Life of Learningrsquo wwwaclsorgpubshaskins

3 Henceforth to indicate the essential continuity (notidentity) for which I am arguing I will use the termlsquodigital humanitiesrsquo for the activity from 1949 to thepresent To dismiss the earlier period as somehowessentially different and so irrelevant is a seriousdamaging error As Agamben said quoting Deleuzelsquoterminology is the poetic moment of thoughtrsquo (20092006 1)

4 The final state of An Analytical Onomasticon to theMetamorphoses of Ovid is preserved at wwwmccartyorgukanalyticalonomasticon

5 I owe a great debt of gratitude to two in particularBurton Wright at Toronto for his persistent other-mindedness and to Monica Matthews at KingrsquosCollege London

6 See wwwdhhumanistorg7 lsquoIntroduction to Perek Helekrsquo on his 13 principles of

faith The Hebrew is thanks to Ms Debora Matos thetranslation is taken from the Maimonides HeritageCenterrsquos version at wwwmhcnyorgqt1005pdf

8 This is a serious qualification and represents I think anew departure for the humanities See esp Gooding1990 Galison 1987 see also McCarty 2008

9 Hacking 2002 202 cf 70 7110 OED n1 2a11 Distinctions eg between fear and anxiety are unclear

(Bourke 2005 189ndash92) except in quite specific cir-cumstances eg for psychiatric diagnosis (DSM-52013 makes lsquoanxietyrsquo the standard term) Note alsothat categories of emotion are not only blurred but



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nloaded from

also historically contingent see eg Plamper 2012Eustace et al 2012 and cf Danziger 2008 For gen-eral studies of fear see Plamper and Lazier 2012Dyer et al 2008 Bourke 2005 Hollander 2004Massumi 1993 Gray 1991 Hall 1914 Fear of com-puter technology is well documented in psychology(eg Bozionelos 2001 Brosnan 1998 and many ear-lier) postmodern and posthuman studies (Dinello2005 Hayles 1999) for automation (Zuboff 1988)and elsewhere Fear has been a constant companionof AI (McCorduck 2004) and of course robotics(Mori 20121970 Kageki 2012) to which I willreturn For the arts humanities and librarianshipsee Kohrman 2003 Holland and Burgess 1992Kenny 1992 Nold 1975 Daigon 1969 Efron 1966Pegues 1965 Handlin 1964 Brower 1964 Jenkins1962 Parrish 1962 Schofield 1962 See also note 30below

12 Kowarski 1972 38 and 1975 see also Aborn 1988 andDenning 1986 cf Galison 1996 139ndash40

13 See Hall 1914 For the uncanny in the context ofrecent automata see Galison 1994 242ndash3 on NorbertWienerrsquos wartime research with reference to Cavell19881986 on Freudrsquos analysis of E A HoffmannrsquosDer Sandmann (19551919) see also Mori 20121970and Kageki 2012 discussed below For more recentwork see Masschelein 2011

14 Such quilt-making at least in the preliminary stages ofresearch would seem to be a default condition now-adays See Richard Rortyrsquos exploration with referenceto Gadamer (Rorty 2004) for what Irsquove called goingwide rather than deep ie doing what we do as re-searchers in a fundamentally different way (McCarty2013) The dangers are I think both non-trivial andobvious

15 MLA abbreviates Modern Language AssociationTHATCamp The Humanities and Technology Camp

16 See note 817 See stelarcorg For a discussion of his work see

Massumi 2002 89ndash13218 See marceliantunezcom19 See wwwicra2013orgpage_idfrac14127220 Reichardt 1969 see also Brett 1968 Klutsch 2005

Fernandez 2008 For cybernetic art as a whole seeBrown et al 2008 Shanken 2002 Reichardt 1971for larger contexts see Apter 1969 Malina 1989Husbands et al 2008 Gere 2008 51ndash115 Pickering2010

21 Matthew Jockers has told the story of my creation(OED lsquocreatersquo 2a) as Obi-Wan in his blog entry for19 July at wwwmatthewjockersnet20130719obi-wan-mccarty for the background see Glen Worthyrsquos

blog at digitalhumanitiesstanfordeduobi-wan-mccarty-episode-1

22 wwwbbccoukradio4featuresdesert-island-discscastaway204bd479p009mszc

23 See eg wwwyoutubecomwatchvfrac14_RI99bG_-6Aand wwwyoutubecomwatchvfrac149FqoOvUymfEboth sightings close to my place of birth

24 Wiener 19611948 7 cf Hutchins 1995 Menary 201025 Hughes 19911980 cf the essays in Herbert 20001984

for the supporting words of the artists themselves andShlovsky 19651917

26 The theory from which evolutionary catastrophecomes is lsquopunctuated equilibriumrsquo first proposed byGould and Eldridge 1977 Note Gouldrsquos later synopsislsquoThe history of life is not a continuum of develop-ment but a record punctuated by brief sometimesgeologically instantaneous episodes of mass extinc-tion and subsequent diversificationrsquo (1989 54) Seealso Eldredgersquos cautionary remarks on the use of theevolutionary metaphor outside the biological sciences(Eldredge 2009)

27 lsquoWe may compare a man in the process of computinga real number to a machine which is only capable of afinite number of conditions rsquo (Turing 19367 5949) Note the relationship of Turingrsquos machine andits progeny to governmental bureaucracy in Agar2003

28 See wwwartificialbrainscomdarpa-synapse-program(5 May 13)

29 As the editors of Critical Neuroscience note in theirIntroduction lsquoEvidence of genomic and neural plasti-city forces scientists to rethink the primacy given tobiophysical levels of explanations and challenges us todestabilize the dichotomy of natureculture and in-stead address the fundamental interaction of mindbody and societyrsquo (Choudhury and Slaby 2012 34)see also the contributions throughout this volumeand Pascual-Leone et al 2005 Buonomano andMerzenich 1998

30 McGann 2004 Stalled development is attested fromthe early 1960s by a mixture of (1) persistent nervous-ness over lsquoevidence of valuersquo as the test of worth waslater to be called (McCarty 2012b 118) andinability to demonstrate any such evidence persua-sively (2) closely related agonizing over lack of influ-ence on mainstream disciplines and (3)preoccupation with the menial applications ofcomputing and so failure to deal with thetheoretical problem of a digital hermeneutics To1991 the best state-of-the-art summary (of literarycomputing) is Potter 1991 see also Masterman 1962Fogel 1964 Busa 1976 and 1980 Corns 1986 and 1987

W McCarty


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nloaded from

Zwaan 1987 Irizarry 1988 Potter 1989 DeRose et al1990 Corns 1991 Olsen 1991 Subsequently see theretrospective studies by Kenny 1992 Fortier et al1993 Miall 1995 McGann 2001 Ramsay et al2003 Rommel 2004 McGann 2004 Hoover 2007Juola 2008 McCarty 2008 Ramsay 2011 McCarty2012a Jockers 2013

31 The most recent attempts Hockey 2004 and the othercontributions to Schreibman et al 2004 Part IlsquoHistoryrsquo are but first steps toward a genuine historysee White 1980 on the distinction between chronologyand history For the dimensions of the problem ofwriting a history of computing see Mahoney 2011esp lsquoThe Histories of Computing(s)rsquo 55ndash73 for theimportance of history to the formation of a disciplinesee Frye 1957 15

32 On the formative effects of early developments insocial institutions see Stinchcombe 1965 Baum andSingh 1994 12 and sv lsquoimprintingrsquo cf Lounsburyand Ventresca 2002 Tillyard 1958 11ndash12

33 See eg the references in note 3034 For the revised and published version of Olsen 1991

see Olsen 1993 and note Fortierrsquos introductoryremarks in Fortier 1993 For lsquodistant readingrsquo seeMoretti 2000 Bode and Dixon 2009 Bode 2012Jockers 2013

35 See the series of pamphlets at httplitlabstanfordedupage_idfrac14255 and cf Liu 2013

36 Burrows 2010 On statistics across the disciplines seeGigerenzer et al 1989 Hacking 1990 see alsoHacking 1995

37 Automated poetry-writing seems to have made thebiggest stir but experiments in the other creativearts should not be ignored (for which see note 20above) For poetry see Masterman 1971 Mastermanand McKinnon Wood 1970 lsquoComputer poemsand textsrsquo in Reichardt 1969 53ndash62 includingScottish national poet Edwin Morganrsquos lsquoNote onsimulated computer poemsrsquo We can be reasonablycertain from his language that F R Leavisrsquo violentobjections to the very idea of computer-generatedpoetry (Leavis 1970) were aimed at Mastermanthey betray just the kind of underlying fear Ihave been arguing for though Leavis was alsoquite prescient See Oliphant 1961ndash2 Newell 1983Ernst 1992 Van Dyke 1993 Cf Weaver 1961Nemerov 1967

38 Note 3039 For example the weekly magazine US News and

World Report which in a pair of articles for 24February 1964 lsquoIs the Computer Running Wildrsquoand lsquoMachines Smarter than Menrsquo (an interview

with Norbert Wiener) hinted at if not predicted avery dark future (USNampWR 1964a and b)

40 Kenny 1992 9 McKenzie 1991 161 Banz 1990 28Mesthene 1969 Milic 1966

41 Prescott 1999 73 Mitchell 1967 22ndash3 Lindsay 196628 Hymes 1965 Mechanization of scholarship alsooccurs in highly positive contexts however eg inthe first six contributions to TLS 1962 noteMargaret Mastermanrsquos serious objections in thatvolume (Masterman 1962)

42 Purdy 1984 Leavis 1970 McDermott 1969 Mumford1967 and 1970a 1970b Pooley 1961 Ellul 19641954Wiener 19541950 136ndash62 Cf Husbands et al 2008Morgan 2006 11ndash31 Agar 2003 Zuboff 1988 Giedion1948

43 Parrish 1964 note commentary by Pegues 196544 An example is Hoover 2007 cf Miller 199145 Some glimpse of these may be obtained from

YouTube httpwwwyoutubecomwatchvfrac14nTHa1rDR680

46 See esp Edwards 1996 and note LM 1957 Ghamari-Tabrizi 2000

47 Orwell 19681945 9 On the Cold War see Ball20041998 Whitfield 1996 Hennessy 2002Grant 2010 Kahn 20071960 Leffler and Painter1994

48 Hubbell 1961 According to MacKenzie 2001 340 n 4this remains lsquothe best available account of the inci-dentrsquo For others see Borning 1987 wwwnuclearinfoorg

49 Smith 1985 rpt Johnson and Nissenbaum 1995 456ndash69 cf Shore 1985 161ndash84 on lsquoMyths of Correctnessrsquosee also Dyer 1985 reporting on the conference atwhich Smith 1985 was given

50 The phrase lsquoduck and converrsquo refers to the 1952 film ofthat title (wwwimdbcomtitlett0213381fullcredits)for an early draft of the script see wwwscribdcomdoc45799687Duck-and-Cover-Script See Weart1988 Brown 1988 McEnaney 2000 Masco 2009wwwconelradcom

51 Eg for the UK see HMSO 1963 for the US OCD1968 see also the Civil Defense Museumrsquos collec-tion wwwcivildefensemuseumcomdocshtml TheInternet Archive and YouTube are rich sources forthe many instructional films produced in bothcountries

52 Connor 1991 58ndash9 observes this curiosity for Classicsbut it is true for literary studies as a whole see Kenny1992 9ndash10 who cites Connor

53 Eagleton 1990 34 See also Hooks 1990 and the workof Raymond Williams and Richard Hoggart duringthe incunabular years



at UB

Trier on A


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nloaded from

54 The Berlin Wall fell 9 November 1989 the SovietUnion was officially dissolved by the signing of theBelavezha Accords 8 December 1991 Tim Berners-Lee proposed what later became the World WideWeb in March 1989 the Web was released to thepublic on althypertext 7 August 1991

55 Parrish who had attended C P Snowrsquos lsquoTwoCulturesrsquo lecture in 1959 and had sided with thescientists declared a consensus lsquothat we understandourselves to be living though the early stages of arevolution perhaps a quasi-scientific revolutionwhich cannot fail to touch us all in everything wedorsquo (1964 3ndash4) For the 1964 conference seeBessinger et al 1964 Pegues 1965

56 For machine translation see ALPAC 1966 for artificialintelligence Dreyfus 1966 for digital humanitiesMilic 1966 There were prior difficulties for all threebut it is interesting that prominent public declarationsor accusations of failure occurred in the US almostsimultaneously

57 Lighthill 19731972 10 8 See also lsquoControversyThe General Purpose Robot is a Miragersquo (lsquoTheLighthill Debatersquo YouTube in six parts) pittingLighthill in debate against Donald Michie(Edinburgh) John McCarthy (Stanford) andRichard Gregory (Bristol)

58 For a summary form of the argument for this state-ment see note 30

59 Cf Humphreys 2009 see also Lenhard 200760 Humphreys 2004 156 Mahoney shows that it is pos-

sible to avoid the apocalyptic biblical language lsquothe

artefact as formal (mathematical) system has becomedeeply embedded in the natural world and it is notclear how one would go about re-establishing trad-itional epistemological boundaries among the elem-ents of our understandingrsquo (2011 179)

61 On this sort of language see esp Keller 1991 andMidgley 20021989

62 Freud 19201917a and 19201917b cf Mazlish 1967 2as well as Mazlish 1993 and Bruner 1956 Note how-ever that I argue for a cyclical creative tragicomedywhereas Mazlish argues for a progressive teleologicalcomedy

63 id quod generat ad quod vult scientias in NovumOrganum Ixlix

64 Crombie 1994 8 for Bacon also see 1208ndash9 and1572ndash86

65 Weinberg 19831977 148 and 1974 43 respectivelysee Keller 1991 87ndash8

66 Monod 19721970 160 see Midgley 20021985 Keller1991

67 Hayles 1999 see also Bertens 1995 cf Giddens andPierson 1998 116f

68 lsquocum homine similitudinem ut vix ovum ovo viderissimilisrsquo Tulp 1641 356 p 274 cf de Waal 1997 7

69 See esp Hugh Kennerrsquos brilliant story of Gulliverrsquosplace in an intellectual history stretching throughCharles Babbage and Alan Turing to Andy Warholamong others (20051968)

70 Minsky 19951968 cf Peircersquos discussion oflsquothirdnessrsquo eg in his third Harvard lecture lsquoTheCategories Defendedrsquo (Peirce 1998 160ndash78)

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classical sources earned me the degree in 1984 Theplan was to become a professor of English but thatdidnrsquot happen despite powerful help I spent adozen years in academic limbo While there I re-verted to computing moved into humanities com-puting (as we called it then)3 learned a lot aboutother peoplersquos research and fell into a prolongedstudy of Ovidrsquos Metamorphoses by which I hadbecome captivated Its structure fascinated meHow I wondered did the poem manage so success-fully to tease us with promise of structure yet alwayselude our grasp Like Father Busa before me Iturned to computing for help on a smaller scalebut for the same reasons

Markup seemed the obvious way to go StandardGeneral Markup Language (SGML) was the stand-ard Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) as yet unborn Icreated my own scheme rejecting SGML to makesure that my thinking would be as free from pre-existing theoretical commitments as possible4 I tar-geted names which I reasoned were literary enoughto tell me about structure verbal enough to handlewith a machine Names quickly became all devicesof language indicating persons About 60000 tagsresulted ie an average of 5 per line of poetry Iworked on it both alone and with research assist-ants5 in Toronto and then in London after movingthere in 1996 finally abandoning it when at last Irealized that markup was radically wrong for thejob indeed that no conceivable technology wouldprove remotely adequate But no matter those yearsof work had already led me to the vein of gold I havebeen following ever since an idea of what happenswhen Mr Turingrsquos implemented idea of mathemat-ical rigour meets the fluid metamorphic genius ofpoetry

Back up some years In April 1987 at theInternational Conference for Computers and theHumanities in Columbia South Carolina I metMichael Sperberg-McQueen whose eloquent rhet-oric stirred up the righteous discontent of colleagueswho like me were languishing on the academic per-iphery Humanist was the result6 I threw myself intoit never for a moment thinking it would pay offHow wrong I was Nearly a decade later in 1996Harold Short whom I met in Toronto because ofHumanist changed everything by seeing to it that I

was propelled quite unexpectedly across the Pondinto my first academic appointment which I stillhold Humanist continues to be my primary aca-demic forum

I promised you a moral to my story which I takefrom the great 12th-century Jewish philosopherMoshe ben Maimonrsquos Commentary on the Mishnah

hbham ala wut al ltywu ltta lkwhatever you do do it only out of love7

And from the physician Thomas FullerrsquosGnomologia (1732) I draw these helpful proverbsto hammer it home

He that hath Love in his Breast hath Spurs athis Heels (2160)Love will creep where it cannot go (3301)Love lives more in Cottages than Courts(3290) and finallyThe Soul is not where it lives but where itloves (4761)

To put the matter more personally and viscerallyI didnrsquot walk a career path but followed the smell offood on the wind And here I am to say thank youall for the friendship inspiration sustenance audi-ence and now this in the name of the great Jesuitscholar Roberto Busa Mille grazie

But I do wonder why me I am a quite old-fashioned scholar who works by himself shuns

collaborative teams and the grants that fuel them

who has written no code for decades knows not

TEI and teaches solely face to face For many

years I have insisted contrary to Ronald Reagan

when he worked as promo-man for General

Electric (Reagan 1961) that failure is our most im-

portant product partly for the shock-value as anti-

dote to the hype of pervasive techno-triumphalism

but also to stress that computing is an ongoing

never ending experimental process8 Irsquove argued

that the main thing is to fail so well that all you

can see is Jerome McGannrsquos lsquohem of a quantum

garmentrsquo (2004 201)mdasha phrase he used you may

recall to describe the intractable non-residual left-

overs markup cannot capture hence its potential for

illuminationMy struggle with the Metamorphoses laid ground-

work for my book Humanities Computing (2005)

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at UB

Trier on A


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W McCarty


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Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


51ndash69



























at UB

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nloaded from

































W McCarty


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at UB

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Virago




32ndash4





Times 2 August p 7

























Bulletin 4 1ndash3







434 294ndash6





W McCarty


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W McCarty


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865ndash86












Hudson








MIT Press


MA MIT Press



amp Co










Press



73ndash83

















Library














1991 103ndash24





Agency







at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from


Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


51ndash69



























at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

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at UB

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W McCarty


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at UB

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W McCarty


at UB

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nloaded from



































at UB

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Dow

nloaded from


































W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

















865ndash86












Hudson








MIT Press


MA MIT Press



amp Co










Press



73ndash83

















Library














1991 103ndash24





Agency







at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from


Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


51ndash69



























at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

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nloaded from
































at UB

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W McCarty


at UB

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at UB

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nloaded from



















W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from


































W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

















865ndash86












Hudson








MIT Press


MA MIT Press



amp Co










Press



73ndash83

















Library














1991 103ndash24





Agency







at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from


Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


51ndash69



























at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from
































at UB

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Dow

nloaded from




















W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from



























at UB

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Dow

nloaded from



















W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

















865ndash86












Hudson








MIT Press


MA MIT Press



amp Co










Press



73ndash83

















Library














1991 103ndash24





Agency







at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from


Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


51ndash69



























at UB

Trier on A


Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from
































at UB

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Dow

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W McCarty


at UB

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at UB

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nloaded from



















W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from

































W McCarty


at UB

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Dow

nloaded from


Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


51ndash69



























at UB

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W McCarty


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at UB

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W McCarty


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at UB

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W McCarty


at UB

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Peters Ltd

















MIT Press









11ndash20


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at UB

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W McCarty


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W McCarty


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