The earth’s structure: The Earth has four main layers : the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.1.1: The Unstable Earth (The Earth’s Structure)

KPI Name: To know the structure of the earth and to know why its unstable

The earth’s crust: - The earth’s crust is broken up into plates, called tectonic plates. - There are two types of tectonic plate oceanic and continental. - Oceanic plates carry the oceans. They are thinner but more dense than

continental plates. - Continental plates carry the land. They are thicker but less dense than

oceanic plates.

The inner core is extremely hot (5,500°C ). It is a very dense solid made from iron and nickel.

The outer core is 2,000 km thick and is a liquid.

The mantle is semi-molten and about 3,000 km thick. The closer the mantle is to the core, the more liquid it is.

The crust is the rocky outer layer. It is thin compared to the other sections, approximately 5 to 70 km thick. If the Earth was scaled down to the size of an apple, the crust would be about the thickness of the apple skin.

- Heat from the core causes convection currents in the mantle. These cause the mantle to move as it heats and cools.

- These currents slowly move the crust around. - In some places the crust is destroyed. In other places new crust is

formed.

Key words and terms: Crust: The rocky outer layer of the earth, made up of oceanic and continental crust. Mantle: Semi-molten rock, moving beneath the earth’s crust. It is the movement (convection currents) in the mantle which cause tectonic plates to move Outer core: A 2000km thick liquid made up largely of iron and nickel. Inner Core: A dense solid of extreme temperature (5,500°C) made up of iron and nickel. Tectonic plates: Huge plates (oceanic and continental) that make up the earth’s crust, and which move because of convection currents. Convection currents: Currents in the mantle which cause the tectonic plates to move, caused by extreme heat from the earth’s core. Dense: When something is closely packed together. Molten: Something which is melted and has become a liquid.

Boundary Movement Diagram Example Landforms

Destructive The plates either collide or the oceanic plate subducts under the continential plate.

The Nazca plate being forced under the South American plate.

Volcanoes Fold mountains Earthquakes

Constructive The plates move apart.

The African plate and the South American plate.

Volcanoes

Conservative The plates move alongside each other.

The Pacific plate and the North American plate.

Earthquakes

Plate boundaries: - The Earth’s crust is broken into different plates,

which sit on the Earth’s mantle. - These plates move because of convection

currents. - The plates move in different directions and meet

at plate boundaries. - As the plates move, parts of the crust are

destroyed and in other areas new crust is created.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.1.2: The Unstable Earth (Plate boundaries)

KPI Name: To describe conservative, constructive and destructive plate boundaries.

Different types of plate boundary: - There are three different types of plate boundary: destructive, constructive and conservative. Which type they

are depends on how the plates move at this boundary. - Different plates boundaries have different landforms, such as volcanoes and fold mountains.

Key words and terms: Plate boundaries: Where two or more tectonic plates meet. Conservative: A plate boundary where two plates slide past one another. Constructive: A plate boundary where two plates are moving apart. Destructive: A plate boundary where two plates are colliding. Magma: Molten rock from the mantle before it reaches the surface of the earth. Lava: Molten rock released from the earth’s core by a volcano. Fold Mountains: Mountains formed at collision zones, where two continental plates move towards each other. Volcano: A vent in the earth’s crust from which lava, ash and gas is released. Earthquake: A sudden shaking of the ground, caused by movement in the earth’s crust.

Composite Shield

Diagram

Shape Steep sides. Gentle sides.

Plate boundary

Form at destructive plate boundaries. Form at constructive plate boundaries.

Lava Thick lava. Thin, runny lava.

Eruptions Eruptions happen less often but are usually violent. The eruption consists of ash, pyroclastic flow and lava.

Eruptions happen often but they are usually quite gentle. The eruption is mainly lava, with little pyroclastic flow.

Example Mount Vesuvius in Naples, Italy. Mount St. Helens, USA

Mauna Loa in Hawaii. La Cumbre, The Galapagos Islands

Volcanoes: - Volcanoes are a vent in the earth’s crust from which lava, ash and gas is released. - Most volcanoes form at destructive and constructive plate boundaries. - Volcanoes do not form at conservative boudaries. - If a volcano forms at a plate boundary, they are either composite or shield volcanoes. - Of these two types, volcanoes can be active, dormant or extinct.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.1.3: The Unstable Earth (Composite and shield volcanoes)

KPI Name: To describe conservative, constructive and destructive plate boundaries.

Composite and shield volcanoes: There are a number of key differences between composite and shield volcanoes.

Key words and terms: Magma chamber: A large underground pool of magma. Lava: Magma, once it reaches the surface. Crater: A bowl-shaped basin in the top of the volcano. Vent: The central tube which magma travels through. Cone: A hill produced around a volcano by the eruption of lava and ash. Pyroclastic flow: A mass of hot ash, gases and lava fragments which is ejected from a volcano at great speeds. Active: Volcanoes which erupt frequently. Dormant: Volcanoes which have not recently erupted by which can still erupt. Extinct: A volcano which is unlikely to ever erupt again.

Mount St. Helens, USA, 1980: (MDC) In 1980, Mount St. Helens, a composite volcano in a rural area in the Northeast of the USA, erupted. Effects: - More then 200 homes were destroyed. - 57 died as a result of the eruption. - 185 miles of roads and 15 miles of railways were

damaged. - Damage to to property was estimated at $1.1 billion. Responses and PPP: - Seismographs began closely monitoring the volcano

roughly 3 months before the eruption. - Hundreds of tourists and scientists flocked to the area.

However, the government imposed an exclusion zone around the volcano to prevent loss of life.

- The US government issued $950 million in emergency funds to help recovery efforts.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.1.4: The Unstable Earth (The effects of a volcanic eruption and PPP)

KPI Name: To explain the effects of a volcanic eruption. To be able to describe a case study of a volcanic eruption.

Key words and terms: Economic: Anything to do with money or which affects the ability of people or a country to make money. Social: Anything which affects people and families. Envrionmental: Anything which affects animals, plants or ecosystems in the area. Prediction: Attempting to know when a volcanic eruption will happen. This can be done by measuring earthquakes, gas levels around the volcano and the temperatures around the volcano. Preparation: Creating and communicating a plan to deal with a possible eruption. This could include creating an exclusion zone, or making sure people have access to supplies. Protection: Trying to reduce the damage people suffer during a volcanic eruption. This could include building houses in safe areas.

Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2002: (LDC) In 2002, Nyiragongo, a composite volcano near the of Goma in the DRC, erupted, causing lava to flow into its city centre. Effects: - Roughly 130,000 people were made homeless. - 300,000 people were evacuated from the area. - Approximately 100 people died as a result of the eruption. - The lava destroyed roughly 80% of the city’s infrastructure

(roads, electricity services, sewage pipes). - Cholera and other diseases spread as people did not have

access to clean water.

Responses and PPP: - Due to unrest in the country, the volcano was not

properly monitored and the eruption was unexpected. - There was no clear plan in place in case of an eruption. - A huge amount of foreign aid was sent to the DRC to help

people cope. - It took years for Goma’s economy to recover, even with

the support of aid agencies.

The effects of a volcanic eruption: - It is important to note that volcanic eruptions can have both positive and negative effects. - These effects can also be grouped into economic, social and environmental effects. - The extent of the negative effects on a country often depends on the ability of the country to predict, prepare for and

protect people from the eruption (PPP).

Positive: Negative: The dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions attracts tourists. This brings income to an area.

Lives can be lost.

The lava and ash deposited during an eruption breaks down to provide valuable nutrients for the soil. This creates very fertile soil which is good for agriculture

If the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption mix with rain water or melting snow, fast moving mudflows are created. These flows are called lahars.

The high level of heat and activity close to a volcano can provide opportunities for generating geothermal energy.

Lava flows and lahars can destroy settlements and areas of woodland or agriculture.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.2.1: The Unstable Earth (Tectonic plate boundaries and earthquakes)

KPI Name: I understand the three kinds of tectonic movement and how they link to earthquake activity, using key terminology.

Key words and terms: Earthquake: The shaking or vibration of the earth’s crust due to pressure at a plate boundary. Mantle: The semi-molten layer below the earth’s crust. Crust: The thin, rocky outer layer of the earth. It is broken into many different plates. Plate boundary: The point where two tectonic plates meet. Destructive plate boundary: Where two plates meet and they are moving towards each other. Constructive plate boundary: Where two plates meet and they are moving away from each other. Conservative plate boundary: Where two plates meet and they are moving alongside each other (either in the same or opposite directions).

Plate boundaries and earthquakes: - The Earth’s crust is broken into different plates, which sit on the Earth’s mantle. - The plates move in different directions and meet at plate boundaries. These three boundaries are called

destructive, constructive or conservative plate boundaries (see knowledge organsier 8.1.2 for further detail).

- Earthquakes can happen at any plate boundary. - Plates do not always move smoothly alongside, under or beside each other. They sometimes get stuck.

When this happens pressure builds up and, when this pressure is released, an earthquake occurs. - Every earthquakes has an epicentre and a focus. - The focus is the point in the earth’s crust where the pressure between the two plates is released. It is

underground. - The epicentre is the point on the surface of the crust, above the focus.

Earthquakes on conservative plate boundaries: - Earthquakes can occur at all plate boundaries. However,

conservative plate boundaries clearly show how earthquakes happen.

- The San Andreas Fault is part of the plate boundary between the Pacific plate and the North American plate.

- The Pacific plate moves slightly faster than the North American plate. This means that, even though the plates are moving in the same direction, they can get stuck, causing a build up of pressure.

- This build up and release of pressure caused two major earthquakes during the last century, in 1906 and in 1989.

- However, this area experiences constant small earthquakes, with Los Angeles experiencing 10 earthquakes per day on average!

- Because of this movement, Los Angeles should be in line with San Francisco in roughly 20 million years.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.2.2: The Unstable Earth (Measuring and predicting earthquakes)

KPI Name: I can explain how earthquakes are predicted and measured.

Key words and terms: Seismometer: A machine which detects and records vibrations in the earth’s crust. Richter Scale: A scale which is used to measure the strength of earthquakes. It uses the strength of vibrations to class earthquakes between 1 and 10. Mercalli Scale: A scale which is used to measure the damage of earthquakes. It uses the damage caused to class earthquakes between 1 and 12. Subjective: Something which changes according to people’s perceptions or opinions.

Predicting earthquakes: - Scientists can currently forcast the likelihood of an earthquake in the long term (over years and decades). However, it is almost

impossible to predict earthquakes in the short term. - However, there are ways that scientists can monitor tectonic activity to help them forcast earthquakes:

- Scientists can look at the history of earthquakes in the area and try to identify patterns about them. - Some scientists argue that a higher level of radon gas being released into the atmosphere is a sign of an impending

earthquake. - An increase in minor earthquakes, measured using a seismometer, often suggests an impending, larger earthquake.

Intensity Shaking Description/Damage

I Not felt Not felt except by a very few.

II Weak Felt only by a few persons at rest,especially on upper floors of buildings.

III Weak Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck.

IV Light Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows and doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked.

V Moderate Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some windows broken. Unstable objects overturned.

VI Strong Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved. Damage slight.

VII Very strong Slight damage in buildings of good design and construction; moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built structures.

VIII Severe Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments.

IX Violent Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.

X Extreme Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.

Measuring earthquakes: - Each year scientists record over 20,000 earthquakes. Most of these earthquakes are small and are not noticed by ordinary people. - Earthquakes are measured according to two different scales: the Richter scale and the Mercalli scale. - Some argue that the Mercalli scale is not as reliable as the Richter scale because it is subjective and can vary according to where

you are. The Mercalli Scale (without the final 2 levels):

The Richter Scale:

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.2.3: The Unstable Earth (The effects of an earthquakes and PPP)

KPI Name: I can demonstrate how the impact of an earthquake in an MDC or LDC is influenced by the extent of prediction, preparation and response.

Chile, 2010: (MDC) In 2010, Chile experienced an earthquake measuring 8.8 on the richter scale originating from the boundary between the South American and Nazca plates. Effects: - 500 people died. - 500,000 buildings were destroyed, including minor damage

to a major airport. - Communication networks and power went down after the

earthquake. Responses and PPP: - Chile has a history of earthquakes, meaning that most

buildings were ‘earthquake proof’ and people were trained in how to survive earthquakes.

- Within 10 days power was restored to affected areas. - Roads were repaired very quickly. - Chile put in place a house rebuilding scheme which was paid

for by the Chilean government.

Haiti, 2010: (LDC) In 2010, Haiti experienced an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the richter scale originating from the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. Effects: - 220,000 people died. - 1 million people were made homeless and the main port,

airport and roads were severely damaged. - 2 million people had no food or clean water. - Many homes and businesses were looted because of a

lack of government presence. Responses and PPP: - Haiti has no history of earthquakes. As a result, their

buildings were not prepared and people were not drilled. - Other countries, such as the USA, sent aid to help.

However, the damaged airport found it difficult to cope. - Due to a weak and poor government people are still

living in camps almost 10 years after the earthquake.

Key words and terms: Infrastructure: The basic physical facilities in an area, such as electricity, running water, roads and buildings such as hospitals. Aid: Money or resources which is given to a country by another country or an organisation. Prediction: Attempting to know when an earthquake will happen. This can be done by measuring vibrations in the crust and by studying previous major earthquakes. Preparation: Creating and communicating a plan to deal with a possible earthquake. This could include creating an exclusion zone, or making sure people have access to supplies. Protection: Trying to reduce the damage people suffer during an earthquake. This could include building houses in safe areas.

Social Impacts Economic Impacts Environmental impacts

Short Term:

People may be killed or injured. Homes may be destroyed. Infrstructure may be disrupted. Water supplies may be contaminated.

Shops and business may be destroyed. Looting may take place.

The landscape may be destroyed because of fires or landslides Tsunamis may cause flooding in coastal areas.

Long Term:

Disease may spread. People may have to be re-housed, sometimes in refugee camps.

Rebuilding can be expensive. Income could be lost.

Important natural and human landmarks may be lost.

The effects of an earthquake: The damage of an earthquakedepends on the ability of the country to predict, prepare for and protect people from the effects of the earthquake (PPP).

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.2.4: The Unstable Earth (Tsunamis)

KPI Name: I understand the three kinds of tectonic movement and how they link to earthquake activity, using key terminology and I can demonstrate how the impact of an earthquake in an MDC or LDC is influenced by the extent of prediction, preparation and response.

The Boxing Day Tsunami, 2004: - In 2004 an earthquake measuring magnitude 9.1 on the Richter scale happened as a result of the Indo Australian

Plate subducting beneath the Eurasian plate. - This caused a tsunami originating in the Indian Ocean. - This tsunami affected Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, Somalia and Kenya.

Effects: - 220,000 died in total and 2million people were made homeless. - In Indonesia the island of Sumatra was closest to the epicentre and was devastated. Up to 70% of

coastal population were killed or missing. The city of Banda Aceh was totally destroyed. - In Sri Lanka homes, crops and fishing boats were destroyed. Many people worked in the fishing

industry. Most of them lost their boats and so their jobs. - In Thailand many people died as they were on holiday in the area. Many holiday resorts were

destroyed, causing an economic downturn. Responses and PPP: - Clean water, food, tent and plastic sheeting arrived as aid. $7 billion was donated worldwide for

the affected countries. - A tsunami warning system in the Indian Ocean was set up. Formal warnings are now sent to

countries throughout the Indian Ocean. These warnings are given via text, radio, tv and email. - Mangroves around the coast were replanted, as mangroves act as a natural barrier, absorbing

wave power and helping to protect coastlines and inland area from tsunamis.

Tsunamis: - Tsunamis are a series of ocean waves which are caused when earthquakes or other disturbances displace a

large amount of water. (Other disturbances can include volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions and metiorite impacts!)

- Tsunamis are not caused by tides, and so it is technically incorrect to refer to them as “tidal waves”. - Tsunamis are usually barely noticeable in water, but get larger and more powerful as they approach land. - As a result, tsunamis can have a huge effect on countries which are hit by them.

Key words and terms: Displacement: Moveing something from its original position. Richter scale: A scale which is used to measure the strength of earthquakes. It uses the strength of vibrations to class earthquakes between 1 and 10. Subduction: The movement of one tectonic plate underneath another.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.3.1: Coasts (Coastal Processes and Landforms)

KPI Name: To know how coastal erosion occurs and how the land changes as a result.

Key words and terms: Weathering: The weakening of rock before it is eroded. Erosion: The wearing away and removal of material by a moving force, like a wave. Deposition: When material being transported by the sea is dropped. Abrasion: See the first table. Hydraulic power: See the first table. Solution: See the first table. Freeze-thaw weathering: See the first table. Landform: A feature of the landscape which has been formed by erosion, transportation and deposition. Fault: A crack in a rock.

Coastal landforms: - Landforms which occur on coasts include headlands, bays, caves, arches,

stacks and stumps. - A is a cave. These form when a fault is eroded. - B is an arch. These form when two back to back caves break through a

headland. - C is a stack. These forms when an arch grows bigger and the roof of the

arch eventually collapses. - D is a stump. These form when stacks erode over time and eventually

collapse. - E is a bay. These form when weak rock, such as clay, is eroded, creating a

sheltered area. - F is a headland. These form when harder rock erodes slowly, causing it to

stick out into the sea as the weaker rock around it is eroded.

Name Description

Abrasion As waves smash rocks against cliff surfaces, they are worn away and become smoother. This is known as the “sandpaper effect”.

Hydraulic power

Air becomes trapped in faults in cliffs. When waves break against the cliffs, the air is compressed and forces the fault to become bigger. This eventually causes a piece of the cliff to break away.

Solution Acids in sea water dissolve certain types of rock, such as limestone or chalk, causing them to gradually erode over time.

Freeze-thaw weathering

Water collects in faults during the day. At night, this water freezes and expands. This makes faults bigger over time and is similar to hydraulic power.

Coastal erosion and weathering: - Coasts are constantly changing due to waves (see 8.2.2), erosion, transportation and deposition. - How coasts change depend on the types of rocks that are in different areas. Harder rock, like limestone and sandstone,

erodes slowly. Softer rock, like clay, erodes more quickly.

E

F

Constructive waves: - These waves are gentle and they are far apart. - They have a strong swash and a gentle backwash. - As a result, these waves transport and deposit a

large amount of material onto the beach, ‘constructing’ new beach.

Destructive waves: - These waves are steep and they are close

together. - They have a weak swash and a strong backwash. - As a result, these waves

erode sand and pebbles from the beach, ‘destroying’ it.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.3.2: Coasts (Waves)

Key words and terms: Fetch: The distance that wind blows over water. The longer the fetch, the bigger the wave. Swash: The water that rushes up onto a beach. Backwash: The water that flows back towards the sea in a wave. Constructive waves: Waves that deposit sand and pebbles on the beach, making it larger. Destructive waves: Waves that removal sand and pebbles from the beach, making it smaller. Longshore drift: The movement of sand and pebbles along the beach because waves hit the beach at an angle. Spit: A long, narrow ‘finger’ of sand and pebbles which protrudes out into the sea as a result of significant longshore drift.

The basics of waves: - Waves are formed as a result of wind blowing over the ocean. The longer the fetch (the distance the wind

blows over the water), the bigger the wave will be. - They can also be formed as a result of earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. These waves are usually very

large and are called tsunamis. - As waves approach land, the rising seabed disrupts their shape and they break on the land. Waves at the

coast are either destructive or constructive.

Longshore drift and spits: - Where waves hit the coast ‘straight on’, pebbles and sand simply move up and down the beach. - However, when waves hit the coast at an angle, pebbles and sand are moved along the beach. This is

called longshore drift. - Longshore drift can cause beaches, bars and spits. - Spits form when longshore drift is happening but the shape

of the land changes quickly. - Pebbles and rocks continue to be depositied and over time a

narrow ‘finger’ of sand and pebbles forms further and further out to sea. Strong wind causes the end of this ‘finger’ to curve, causing a recurved end.

- The land behind spits is protected. As a result, saltmarshes form in this protected area, causing plants to grow.

KPI Name: To know how coastal erosion occurs and how the land changes as a result.

Hard Engineering: Soft Engineering:

Method: Description: Method: Description:

Sea walls

These a high, concrete walls absorb the energy from waves. They also provide a walkway for tourists above the beach. They are expensive but last many years.

Beach nourishment

This is when beaches are built up by adding more sand to existing beaches. The beach absorbs the wave energy, but the sand has to come from somewhere.

Groynes These are long wooden fences which are built out to sea to prevent longshore drift. As they stop the transport of sand and sediment, they can increase erosion further along the coast.

Sand dune regeneration

This is when sand dunes are built around wooden structures. Sand dunes absorb energy from waves and can become habitats for animals and plants.

Rock armour

These are large rocks which are placed at the base of cliffs to absorb the force of waves and stop cliffs from eroding. These are more natural looking than other methods.

Salt marsh creation

This is when an area is allowed to flood, creating a salt marsh. This reduces the risk of flooding and creates habitats for animals and plants.

Gabions These are rocks or boulders which are kept in mesh cages by the coast. They protect areas from destructive waves. They are relatively cheap but they are quite weak.

Managed retreat

This is when existing defences are abandoned and new defences are built further inland. Some people lose land, but the risk of flooding is reduced.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.3.3: Coasts (Managing Coasts)

KPI Name: To know how coastal erosion and flooding can be managed.

Key words and terms: Hard engineering: The control of natural processes, such as erosion or flooding, by building man-made structures. Soft engineering: Projects which work with the environment to control natural processes, such as erosion or flooding.

Changes in sea level: - Sea levels change on a daily basis due to tides. - However, earth’s sea levels are also generally rising due to global warming. The increase in the earth’s

average temperature is causing the polar ice caps to melt, causing sea levels to rise. - This rise in sea levels can increase erosion and can cause area to permenantly flood. - This affects coastal areas but can also affect low lying countries, such as the Maldives and cities such as

New York, Shanghai and London, which will be forced to spend billions on flood defences.

Hard and soft engineering: - Coasts can be protected using either hard or soft engineering. Until recently, the emphasis has been on hard engineering. This method is effective

but is also very expensive. - Today, many people are starting to prefer soft engineering methods of managing the coast. They argue that it is less expensive, lasts longer and is

more environmentally friendly.

How Ecosystems work: - There are four components to any ecosystem: animals,

plants, rocks and soil and the climate. - All of the different components of ecosystems work

together and interact with each other. - Plants decompose to add nutrients to rocks and soil.

These nutrients then feed the plants which also grow because they are adapted to the climate. They plants are then eaten by animals.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.4.1: Ecosystems (Biomes and Climate Graphs)

KPI Name: To understand the features of different biomes around the world.

Key words and terms: Ecosystem: An environment in which a community of plants and animals interact with each other and the climate on rocks and soil. Biome: A large ecosystem. Temperate: A climate or region which has mild temperatures. Deciduous: A type of tree or shrub which sheds its leaves every year. Coniferous: A type of tree or shrub which has needle or scale-like leaves and which does not shed its leaves during the winter. Climate: The weather over a long period of time. Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet or hail which falls to or condenses on the ground.

Climate Graphs: - Climate graphs show the temperature and the rainfall of a country over

one year. - The average temperature and rainfall are both plotted on the graph. The

temperature is shown with a line and the rainfall is shown with bars. - This graphs can be used to describe a locations climate. - This graph of Honolulu in Hawaii can tell us a number of facts about the

climate in this area: - The temperature is high and remains fairly constant throughout the

year (We know this as the line stays between 25°C and 35°C). - Hawaii generally receives very little rainfall (we know this because the

bars do not go higher than 150mm). - Hawaii expereinces more rain and slightly lower temperatures

between October and March.

Ecosystems and Biomes: - An ecosystem is an environment in which a community of

plants and animals interact with each other and the climate on rocks and in soil.

- Climate is the weather in an area over a long period of time. - The plants and animals within ecosystems adapt so that they

are able to survive in that area. - Ecosystems are not one size: they can be as small as a

hedgerow or as large as a rainforest. - Large ecosystems are called biomes. - Biomes fall into 9 main types:

- tundra (cold desert) - coniferous forest - temperate deciduous

forest - temperate grassland - mediterranean - hot desert

- tropical rainforest - tropical grassland - other (ice or mountains)

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.4.2: Ecosystems (Rainforests)

KPI Name: To understand the features of different biomes around the world.

Key words and terms: Humid: A warm environment with a high level of water in the atmosphere. Diverse: A lot of variety. Ecosystem service: Benefits and services which ecosystems provide. Emergent layer: The highest level in the rainforest. Upper canopy: The second highest level in the rainforest. Lower canopy: The second lowest level in the rainforest. Forest floor: The lowest level in the rainforest. Equator: A horizontal line which splits the earth into two hemispheres.

Rainforests: - Tropical rainforests are usually found within 10 degrees north

and south of the equator. They can be found in Africa, South America, Asia and Australasia

- As a result, rainforests have hot and humid climates, where it rains almost every day.

- Temperatures in the rainforest only vary slightly over the course of the year. However, they also have rainy and dry seasons (don’t let the names fool you: on average rainforests get more rain than the UK all year round!)

- Rainforests are incredibly diverse: they only cover roughly 6% of the world’s surface but are home to over half the plant and animal species in the world!

The structure of the rainforest: - The rainforest has four layers: the emergent layer, the upper canopy,

the lower canopy and the forest floor. - The soil quality in rainforests is usually very poor: there is only a very

shallow layer of good soil on the forest floor. - There is a huge amount of competition for nutrients and sunlight in

the rainforest. The huge number of plants and animals mean that any nutrients in the soil are quickly absorbed.

- Most plants depend on rotting trees and other plants. The hot and humid climate causes dead plants to rot quickly and these nutrients are quickly absorbed.

- Rainforests are very fragile ecosystems. If you remove plants or dead trees from the system, other plants and animals quickly die due to the lack of nutrients.

- Ecosystems provide many ecosystem services (benefits and services which ecosystems provide): They help to regulate climate change, they produce huge amounts of oxygen and there is evidence to suggest that they increase precipitation (rainfall) in areas around them. Plants and animals in rainforests have also been used to create medicines and products which we use in our everyday lives.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.4.3: Ecosystems (Adapting to the rainforest)

KPI Name: To understand how organisms have adapted to different biomes.

Key words and terms: Organism: An individual animal, plant or life form. Predator: An animal which hunts and eats other animals. Nutrients: A substance which is essential for growth and the maintenance of life. Debris: Pieces of waste and remains which fall onto the forest floor. Camouflage: Disguising something to make it blend in with its surroundings. Micro-ecosystem: Ecosystems which exist within a very small space. Adaptation: The process by which an animal or plant becomes better suited to its environment.

Animal adaptations to the rainforest: Most animals in the rainforest have adapted to deal with competition for food, predators and the shape and nature of the rainforest.

Plant adaptations to the rainforest: Most plants in the rainforest have adapted to deal with low light levels, poor soil quality and lack of food and high rainfall.

Example 1: The Anaconda - Anacondas are designed to be effective long term

predators. - These snakes are camouflaged to allow them to sneak up

on prey. - They move very quickly in water. - Anacondas digest food slowly and can go months without

eating after a big meal, allowing them to survive despite competition.

Example 2: The Two Toed Sloth The sloth is designed to deal with competition for food. It moves very little and extremely slowly so that it doesn’t need much energy to survive. Its clawed feet allow it to live in the canopy.

Example 1: The Strangler Fig - The strangler fig is mainly designed to deal with low light

levels and competition. - It starts growing on other trees. Over time it strangles its

host tree and starves it of nutrients, using its dead shell to grow up to the emergent layer

- Example 2: The Pitcher Plant - The pitcher plant is mainly designed to deal with poor soil

quality. - It’s shape is designed to catch falling leaves, debris and

dead animals which it uses for food. - It also collects water and is a micro-ecosystem!

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.4.4: Ecosystems (Hot deserts)

KPI Name: To understand how organisms have adapted to different biomes.

Key words and terms: Desert: Areas which receive less than 25cm of rain over a year. They can be either hot or cold. Arid: Areas which are extremely dry. Nutrients: A substance which is essential for growth and the maintenance of life. Organic: A natural substance. Desertification: When normal land becomes desert as a result of farming or raising animals on land near desert. Nocturnal: Animals which are active at night. Adaptation: The process by which an animal or plant becomes better suited to its environment.

Adapting to hot deserts: Most animals and plants in deserts have adapted to deal with competition for food, extreme temperatures and lack of water.

Rainforests: - Deserts are areas which receive less than 25cm of rain over a

year. - Deserts are arid regions, which means “extremely dry”. - They can be hot, such as the Sahara desert in Africa, or cold,

such as the deserts in Antarctica. - Deserts can be found throughout the world. - Hot deserts are usually found between 15 and 30° north and

south of the equator. - Deserts, particularly hot deserts, have extreme temperatures

and extreme temperature changes: during the day in hot deserts the temperature can reach up to 50°C, but at night it can drop to below 0°C.

- The soil in deserts can range from sand to rough, rocky terrain. - Desert soil has a lot of nutrients but it also tends to be very salty or acidic and contains few organic nutrients. This means

that plants have to specially adapted to deal with the soil and the lack of water. - Many deserts are getting bigger. This is called desertification. Often this caused by humans farming and raising animals on

land near deserts.

Animal example: The Fennec Fox - The fennec fox is designed to

hunt and to survive extreme heat.

- This fox is nocturnal, meaning it avoids extreme heat.

- Its ears serve two purposes: they allow the fox to easily hear prey and their blood cools as it circulates around the fox’s ears, regulating its body temperature and keeping it cool.

Plant example: The Prickly Pear - The prickly pear is designed

to conserve water and to protect itself from predators.

- It stores water in its spongy tissues so it can survive long periods without rain.

- Its spines stop predators from attacking it for water.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.5.1: Weather and Climate (Convectional and Relief Rainfall)

Key words and terms: Water vapour: Water in its gaseous state. Evaporation: When water changes from liquid to a gaseous state. Condensation: When water changes from a gaseous state to a liquid as a result of cooling. Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet or hail which falls to the ground. Relief: The height and shape of the land. Altitude: How high something is above sea level. Rain Shadow: An area which receives very little rain because it is protected by an area of high relief. Prevailing wind: The direction from which most of an area’s wind comes from. In the UK the prevailing wind comes from the Atlantic ocean in the south west.

Convectional Rainfall: Convectional rainfall is the type of rain which is used when explaining the water cycle.

Relief rainfall: Relief rainfall is similar to convectional rainfall. However, in relief rainfall an area of relief forces air to rise.

KPI Name: I understand how different weather systems form.

Core principles: In order to understand how different types of rain happen, you need to understand two core principles: - When air warms, it rises. This also causes the water vapour in the air to rise. - As altitude increases, temperature descreases. This causes air to cool and water vapour to condense.

1. The sun heats land, water and the

air above it.

2. The warm air rises with water vapour. As the air rises, it

cools.

3. As the air cools, the water vapour in the air condenses.

4. Clouds are formed as water droplets

accumulate.

5. Precipitation occurs due to

gravity.

1. Warm air travels across the ocean,

picking up moisture.

2. Air is forced to rise over areas of high relief. As the air rises, it cools.

3. As the air cools, the water vapour in the air condenses.

4. Clouds are formed as water droplets accumulate and

precipitation occurs.

5. Dry air descends on the other side of the mountain, leaving a

rain shadow.

Depressions: - Depressions are low pressure systems. - Depressions are characterised by cloudy weather with high winds and a lot of rain. - The UK often gets depressions because they often start in Atlantic Ocean, moving eastwards across the UK. - The rain in depressions is frontal rainfall, which is called when warm tropical air meets cool polar air. Frontal Rain:

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.5.2: Weather and Climate (Depressions and Anticyclones)

Key words and terms: Air pressure: This is also known as atmospheric pressure. It is the weight of the atmosphere. Altitude: How high something is above sea level. Front: The boundary where two masses of air (either warm or cold) meet. Depression: A low pressure weather system which is defined by high winds and two bands of rainfall. Anticyclone: A high pressure weather system which is defined by clear skies. Water vapour: Water in its gaseous state. Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet or hail which falls to the ground.

Anticyclones: - Anticyclones are high pressure systems. - In the summer, anticyclones are characterised by light winds, cloudless skies, high temperatures, cool evenings,

and dew in the morning. Thunderstorms can also occur. - In the winter, anticyclones are characterised by cloudless skies, fog (particularly in the morning), frost and ice

and very light winds. - In an anticyclone, high pressure causes air to descend, causing water vapour in the air to evaporate, preventing

clouds from forming. The lack of cloud cover causes heat to escape at night.

KPI Name: I understand how different weather systems form.

Air pressure: - Air pressure, or atmospheric pressure, is the weight of the atmosphere. - Air pressure is usually higher at sea level, as there is more atmosphere above it being pulled down by gravity,

and becomes lower as altitude increases. - There are also natural changes in air pressure, even in places with the same altitude.

1. A warm air mass meets a cold air mass.

2. The heavier, cold air forces the warm air

to rise.

3. The warm air rises with

water vapour. As the air rises,

it cools.

4. As the air cools, the water vapour in the air

condenses.

5. Clouds are formed as water

droplets accumulate and precipitation

occurs.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.5.3: Weather and Climate (Factors affecting temperature)

Key words and terms: Climate: The weather over a long period of time. Latitude: The distance a place in from the equator. It is measured in degrees. Altitude: The height of a place above sea level. Prevailing winds: The direction from which most of an area’s wind comes from. Ocean current: Massive movements of water in the oceans in a certain direction. They can be warm or cool. The Gulf Stream: A warm ocean current which brings water across the Atlantic (west to east) towards the UK and Northern Europe. Depression: A low pressure weather system which is defined by high winds and two bands of rainfall.

Factors affecting climate: There are four main factors which affect the climate of an area: latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, ocean currents and prevailing winds. The climate of an area will be affected by a combinations of these factors.

The UK’s climate: - In general, the UK has a temperate climate, althougfh it does experience regular

depressions. - The UK’s climate is split into four distinct regions (north east, south east, north west

and south west). - The south of the UK is usually warmer as it has a lower latitude and areas, such as

Cornwall, are warmed by the Gulf Stream. - The north also usually experiences more relief rainfall as it has areas of high relief.

KPI Name: I know why how and why weather differs around the world.

Latitude (distance from the equator): The sun’s energy is less concentrated as you get further away from the equator. As a result, the further you are from the equator, the cooler it is.

Ocean currents: - Ocean currents are massive movements of water in

the oceans. - They can bring cold or warm water to different areas. - The Gulf Stream, which travels across the Atlantic

Ocean, brings warm water to Northern Europe and the UK. This causes the UK and coastal areas of Nothern Europe to have warmer winters.

Distance from the sea: - Oceans and seas take a long time to warm up and

cool down. - As a result, areas inland are usually warmer than

those on the coast during the summer (the sea is still warming up).

- Equally, areas inland are usually cooler than those on the coast during the winter (the sea is still cooling down).

Prevailing winds: - The prevailing wind of an area is the direction from

which most of an area’s wind comes from. - Winds which travel over oceans can led to higher

rainfall and winds which travel over land for long periods can contribute to the creation of deserts.

- Prevailing wind from the tropics or the poles can also affect the area’s temperature.

Altitude (height above sea level): The higher you are above sea level, the cooler it is. Air pressure is also lower. As a result, the higher the altitude, the cooler and more prone to rain is.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.6.1: Glaciers (Movement and erosion)

KPI Name: I know what glaciers are and I can identify key glacial landforms.

Glacial Movement: - Glaciers are formed from compacted snow; snow at the top of the glacier is

compacted with each year’s fresh snowfall or after avalanches. - The top of a glacier, where snow accumulates and is compacted, is called the

accumulation zone. - The end of a glacier, where the ice melts during spring or summer, is called

the ablation zone. - If there is more accumulation than ablation, the glacier advances. - If there is more ablation than accumulation, the glacier retreats. - The balance between the amount of accumulation and ablation is called the

glacial budget. - Many glaciers, such as Mer De Glace in France (left), have significantly

retreated over the last 30 years.

Glaciers: - Glaciers are slow moving rivers of ice which are made from compacted snow. - Glaciers can be found all over the world. Good examples include Gornergrat Glacier in Switzerland and

Fürtwangler Glacier, on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania (near the equator!).

Glacial Erosion and Weathering: - Glaciers shape the land and create a wide range of landforms over time (see

8.6.2). They do this through weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition.

- Rocks near the glacier are usually weathered by freeze-thaw weathering: water collects in faults in rocks. This water freezes and expands. This makes faults bigger over time.

- Weakened rock is then eroded through either abrasion or plucking. - Abrasion occurs when rocks at the bottom of the glacier grind over the

bedrock, creating a “sandpaper effect”. - Plucking occurs when loose rocks stick to the bottom of a glacier. The rocks

move as the glacier moves. They are then deposited to form a moraine.

Key words and terms: Glacier: A slow moving river of ice which is made from compacted snow. Weathering: The weakening of rock before it is eroded. Erosion: The wearing away and removal of material by a moving force, like a wave. Accumulation: The addition of snow and ice to a glacier. Ablation: The melting of snow and ice from a glacier. Glacial Budget: The difference between the accumulation and ablation of ice in a glacier each year. Moraine: All of the material moved and deposited by a glacier. Compacted: To be compressed or packed together.

1893

2006

A moraine

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.6.2: Glaciers (Glacial Landforms)

Key words and terms: Corrie (also known as a cirque in France or a cwm in Wales): A half open, steep sided hollow on a mountainside which is formed by a glacier. Arête: A sharp mountain ridge, formed when two corries form side by side. Pyramidal peak: A sharply pointed mountain peak, which is formed when three or more corries form back to back. V Shaped Valley: Sloping valleys which form when rivers erode the land. Glacial Trough (also known as a U shaped valley): Steep sided valleys which form when glaciers erode V shaped valleys. Hanging valleys: Steep drop offs in U shaped valleys which form when the sides of V shaped valleys erode. Ribbon Lakes: Long, narrow lakes which fill U shaped valleys after glaciers have melted.

KPI Name: I know what glaciers are and I can identify key glacial landforms.

Corries: - A corrie forms when a small glacier builds up in a sheltered hollow. - Plucking and freeze-thaw weathering makes the back wall of the

hollow steep. - Plucking and abrasion scrape away at the base of the hollow. - The, which fell into the glacier or which were plucked, are eventually

deposited to form a moraine at the lip of the corrie. - When two corries form next to each other, they form an arête. - When three or more corries form back to back at the top of a

mountain, they create a pyramidal peak. A good example of this is the Matterhorn, on the border between Switzerland and Italy.

Main glacial landforms: - The two main landforms created by glaciers are corries and glacial troughs. - These two landforms then lead to other landforms, such as pyramidal peaks (corries) or hanging valleys

(glacial troughs).

Glacial troughs: - Glaciers will always take the easiest route. This often means

travelling down valleys which were previously formed by rivers (V shaped valleys).

- Over time, glaciers erode these valleys further, through plucking and abrasion.

- When the glacier melts, it leaves a deep U shaped valley, also called a glacial trough.

- Many V shaped valleys had tributaries flowing into them. When glaciers erode these valleys, they leave a steep drop where these tributaries once flowed into the rivers. These are called hanging valleys and they often create waterfalls.

- When glaciers melt, long, narrow lakes often fill the valley floor. These are called ribbon lakes.

The Matterhorn

Social Economic Environmental

In tourism in the Alps falls, unemployment will rise.

Alpine ski resorts at lower altitudes may be forced to close.

Melting glaciers increase the risk of flooding and rock falls.

If there are fewer jobs in the Alps, young people will leave to find jobs elsewhere.

Alpine ski resorts at higher altitudes (with more reliable snowfall) may become more successful.

Many species of animals and plants which are adapted to cooler climates may become extinct.

Older people will be left in villages and local services will decline as younger people leave.

There will be fewer tourists and sightseers.

Artificial snow making machines use a huge amount of water.

Agriculture in the Alps may be more successful as there is a longer growing season.

The summer levels of water in Europe’s rivers will drop, endangering fish stocks.

Geography Knowledge Organiser 8.6.3: Glaciers (Shrinking Glaciers)

Key words and terms: Global warming: The gradual increase in the earth’s temperature as a result of the enhanced greenhouse effect. The Alps: A mountain range in Southern Europe, which extends from France throught o Bosnia and Herzegovina. Alpine: Something which is in the high mountains or specifically in the Alps. Altitude: The height of a place above sea level. Agriculture: The farming of crops in a certain area. Rockfalls: An avalanche of lose rocks. Fish stocks: The population of fish within a certain area. Permafrost: A thick layer of soil that remains constantly frozen throughout the year.

The effects of global warming and shrinking glaciers on the Alps: Retreating glaciers are causing a range of social, economic and environmental effects.

KPI Name: I know what glaciers are and I can identify key glacial landforms.

Why glaciers are shrinking (focusing on the Alps): - There is evidence to suggest that many of the world’s glaciers

are rapidly retreating. The Mer De Glace in France is retreating by approximately 30 metres per year (see 8.6.3).

- Many scientists believe that this rapid retreat is due to global warming: average temperatures in the Alps, where glaciers are common, have increased by 3°C over the last 30 years (the world’s average temperature has increased by 0.9°C over the last 100 years).

- Rising temperatures mean that winter snowfall is becoming less common and overall, alpine summers are becoming dryer.