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Human Intelligence(s) (Genes, Brain, Politics)

Georges M. Halpern, MD, PhD with Yves P. Huin

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ThecurrentdelugeofnewsremindsmeoftheobviouslyignoredwisdomofSocrates:IknowthatIamintelligent,becauseIknowthatIknownothing.Toomanyoftheself-proclaimedworldleaders’paradeandproclaimtheir“intelligence”asifitwereanobscenelygiganticerectedpenis.Wewatchinpain,knowingthatArxtarpeiaCapitoliproxima[theTarpeianRockisclosetotheCapitol].Butthesedayssuchpredictionsdo not seem to matter: filling their (and theirmafiosa famiglia’s) pockets, bankaccounts,portfolioofmansionsandyachts;collectingcoversofPeopleMagazineorstarring in (fake) ‘reality’ TV shows seem to beat aNobel prize recognition. AndalwaysaNobelPeaceprize.

Otemporaomores…

Human Intelligence

Credit: Journal Psyche

‘Humanintelligenceistheintellectualprowessofhumans,whichismarkedbyhighcognition,motivation,andself-awareness.Throughtheirintelligence,humanspossessthe cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason,includingthecapacitiestorecognizepatterns,comprehendideas,plan,problemsolve,make decisions, retain information, and use language to communicate. Intelligenceenableshumanstoexperienceandthink.’(Wikipedia).

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Wehave, canandwillargueaboutcertainpersonspossessingandmastering ‘thecognitiveabilitiestolearnform,concepts,understand,applylogic,andreason’nottomention‘thecapacitiestorecognizepatterns,comprehendideas,plan,problemsolve,makedecisions,retaininformation,anduselanguagetocommunicate’butthat’snot(yet)thepoint.Themajorissueisthatwe–humans-cananddoexperienceandthink.Wemaybegettingcloser,catchingtheendofavery,verylongAriadne’sthread(buttheMinotaur is still there,with its secrets andmetamorphoses!). But on 22May2017, a largemeta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of intelligence in78,308individualsidentified335genome-widesignificantgeneticvariants,locatedin18genomicloci.Moreover,thisstudyimplicatedtheroleof52geneslinkedtointelligencewhichweremostly involved in cell development andwere highlyexpressedinbraintissue.Knowingthatourtemplateforintelligencestartswith(attheveryleast)alargenumberofgenes,theirsubdivisions,innumerableinteractions,and(moreonthatlater)theepigeneticsofsocialandenvironmentalinteractions,thecurrentworshipofmethods–e.g.theIQ-ortheoriesliketheonesofHowardGarner(MultipleIntelligences),RobertSternberg(Triarchic),PASS,Piaget’s,parieto-frontalintegration,investment(sic!),intelligencecompensation,Bandura’s,PPIK,orlatentinhibition-aredestinedtothedustbinofhistory.Weneedtoconsiderfacts,findingsandnotlucubrationsofpeoplewholookattheskullandtellyoueverythingthat’sinsideandhowitworks!

That’swherewearenow:gene-searchingandgene-sorting.Itwillnotbeeasy,andwecannotexpectaclearanswerforeveryone,atagivenage,inagivenenvironmentin any foreseeable future. This does confirm what has been observed in somelineages,e.g. theoneof JohannSebastianBachortheColtraneforcomposers; theConstableorWyethaspainters;theBernouilliasmathematicians;theCasadesusascomposers,musicians, singers; theGauguin as painters ormusicians; theHart aswrestlers;theJacksonasmusicians,singers,entertainers.Theappledoesnotfallfarfrom the tree…Besides our genome (themast),epigenetics (the growing, quasi-seasonalbranches)can–anddoes-shapehumanbehavior.Nurtureshapesnature–naturereferringtobiologicalheredity,andnurturereferstovirtuallyeverythingthatoccurs during the life-span; e.g. social experiences and interactions, diet andnutrition,exposuretoenvironmentaltoxins,etc.

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EpigeneticgeneregulationinvolveschangesotherthantothesequenceofDNAandincludeschangestohistones(proteinsaroundwhichDNAiswrapped)andDNA methylation. These epigenetic changes can influence the growth of neurons in thedeveloping brain as well as modify activity of the neurons in the adult brain.Together, these epigenetic changes on neuron structure and function can have amarkedinfluenceonanorganism'sbehavior.

Credit: Wikipedia

Asmallclinicalresearchstudyshowedtherelationshipbetweenprenatalexposuretomaternalmoodandgeneticexpressionresultinginincreasedreactivitytostressinoffspring.Threegroupsofinfantswereexamined:thoseborntomothersmedicatedfor depressionwith serotonin reuptake inhibitors; those born to depressedmothers notbeing treated fordepression;and thoseborn tonon-depressedmothers.Prenatalexposure to depressed/anxious mood was associated with increased DNAmethylation at the glucocorticoid receptor gene and to increasedHPAaxis stressreactivity. The findings were independent of whether the mothers were being

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pharmaceutically treated for depression. Recent research has also shown therelationship ofmethylation of thematernal glucocorticoid receptor andmaternalneural activity in response to mother-infant interactions on video. Longitudinalfollow-up of those infants will be important to understand the impact of earlycaregivinginthishigh-riskpopulationonchildepigeneticsandbehavior.

Environmentalandepigeneticinfluencesseemtoworktogethertoincreasetheriskofaddiction.Forexample,environmentalstresshasbeenshowntoincreasetheriskofsubstanceabuse.Inanattempttocopewithstress,alcoholanddrugscanbeusedasanescape.Oncesubstanceabusecommences,however,epigeneticalterationsmayfurtherexacerbatethebiologicalandbehavioralchangesassociatedwithaddiction.

These epigenetic changes modify gene expression, which in turn increases thevulnerabilityofanindividualtoengageinrepeatedsubstanceoverdoseinthefuture.In turn, increased substance abuse results in even greater epigenetic changes invariouscomponentsoftherewardsystem(e.g.,inthenucleusaccumbens).Hence,acycleemergeswherebychangesinthepleasure-rewardareascontributetothelong-lastingneural andbehavioral changesassociatedwith the increased likelihoodofaddiction,themaintenanceofaddictionandrelapse.

Inhumans,alcoholconsumptionhasbeenshowntoproduceepigeneticchangesthatcontributetotheincreasedcravingofalcohol.Assuch,epigeneticmodificationsmayplayapart in theprogression from the controlled intake to the lossof controlofalcoholconsumption.

Thesealterationsmaybe long-term,as isevidenced in smokerswhostillpossessnicotine-relatedepigeneticchangestenyearsaftercessation.Therefore,epigeneticmodificationsmayaccountforsomeofthebehavioralchangesgenerallyassociatedwithaddiction.

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Signaling cascade in the nucleus accumbens that results in psychostimulant addiction

Theseinclude:repetitivehabitsthatincreasetheriskofdisease,andpersonalandsocial problems; need for immediate gratification; high rates of relapse followingtreatment;and,thefeelingoflossofcontrol.

Epigeneticchangesmayalsohelptofacilitatethedevelopmentandmaintenanceofeating disorders via influences in the early environment and throughout the life-span.Pre-natal epigenetic changesdue tomaternal stress,behavioranddietmaylater predispose offspring to persistent, increased anxiety and anxiety disorders.Theseanxietyissuescanprecipitatetheonsetofeatingdisordersandobesity,andpersist even after recovery from the eating disorders. Epigenetic differences

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accumulating over the life-span may account for the incongruent differences ineating disorders observed in monozygotic twins. At puberty, sex hormones mayexertepigeneticchanges(viaDNAmethylation)ongeneexpression,thusaccountingfor higher rates of eating disorders in men as compared to women. Overall,epigenetics contribute topersistent, unregulated self-controlbehaviors related totheurgetobinge.

Epigeneticchangesincludinghypo-methylationofglutamatergicgenes(i.e.,NMDA-receptor-subunitgeneNR3B and thepromoterof theAMPA-receptor-subunitgeneGRIA2) in the post-mortem human brains of schizophrenics are associated withincreased levels of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Since glutamate is the mostprevalent, fast, excitatory neurotransmitter, increased levels may result in thepsychotic episodesrelatedtoschizophrenia.Interestingly,epigeneticchangesaffectinga greater number of genes have been detected in men with schizophrenia ascomparedtowomenwiththeillness.Populationstudieshaveestablishedastrongassociation linking schizophrenia in children born to older fathers. Specifically,childrenborntofathersovertheageof35yearsareuptothreetimesmorelikelytodevelopschizophrenia.Epigeneticdysfunctioninhumanmalespermcells,affectingnumerousgenes,havebeenshown to increasewithage.Thisprovidesapossibleexplanation for increasedratesof thedisease inmen.To thisend, toxins(e.g.,airpollutants) have been shown to increase epigenetic differentiation. Therefore,similarepigeneticchangesinolderhumanfathersarelikely.Schizophreniastudiesprovide evidence that the nature versus nurture debate in the field ofpsychopathologyshouldbere-evaluatedtoaccommodatetheconceptthatgenesandtheenvironmentworkintandem.Assuch,manyotherenvironmentalfactors(e.g.,nutritional deficiencies and cannabis use) have been proposed to increase thesusceptibilityofpsychoticdisorderslikeschizophreniaviaepigenetics.

Epigenetics may be relevant to aspects of psychopathic behavior throughmethylationandhistonemodification.Theseprocessesareheritablebutcanalsobeinfluencedbyenvironmentalfactorssuchassmokingandabuse.Epigeneticsmaybeoneofthemechanismsthroughwhichtheenvironmentcanimpacttheexpressionofthegenome.Itisprobablethatepigeneticregulationaswellasmethylationprofilingwill play an increasingly important role in the study of the play between theenvironmentandgeneticsofpsychopaths.

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Environment and Intelligence

ThisisoneofthemostimportantfactorsinunderstandinghumangroupdifferencesinIQtestscoresandothermeasuresofcognitiveability.Itisestimatedthatgenescontributeabout20–40%ofthevarianceinintelligenceinchildhoodandabout80%inoldage.Thus,theenvironmentanditsinteractionwithgenesaccountforahighproportionofthevariationinintelligenceseeningroupsofyoungchildren,andforasmallproportionofthevariationobservedingroupsofmatureadults.Historically,there has been great interest in the field of intelligence research to determineenvironmental influences on the development of cognitive functioning, e.g. fluidintelligence,asdefinedbyitsstabilizationat16yearsofage.Eventhoughintelligencestabilizesinearlyadulthooditisthoughtthatgeneticfactorscometoplaymoreofarole inour intelligenceduringmiddleandoldageand that the importanceof theenvironmentdissipates.

Asbabies,ourneuronalconnectionsarecompletelyundifferentiated.Neuronsmakeconnectionswithneighboringneurons,andthesebecomemorecomplexandmoreidiosyncraticasthechildages,upuntiltheageof16,whenthisprocesshalts.Thisisalsothetimeframefordevelopmentofwhatisdefinedinpsychometricstudiesasthe general factor of intelligence, or g, asmeasured by IQ tests. A person's IQ issupposedtoberelativelystableaftertheyhavereachedmaturity.Itislikelythatthegrowth in neuronal connections is largely due to an interaction with theenvironment,asthereisnotevenenoughgeneticmaterialtocodeforallthepossibleneural connections. Even if there was enough genetic material to code neuralconnections, it isunlikelythattheycouldproducesuchfine-tunedconnections. Incontrast the environment causesmeaningful processing as the neurons adapt tostimulipresented.

The capacity of the brain to adapt its connections to environmental stimulidiminishesovertime,andthereforeitwouldfollowthatthereisacriticalperiodforintellectualdevelopmentaswell.Whilethecriticalperiodforthevisualcortexendsinearlychildhood,othercorticalareasandabilitieshaveacriticalperiodthatlastsup throughmaturity (age 16), the same time frame for the development of fluidintelligence.Foraperson todevelopcertain intellectual abilities, theyneed tobe

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providedwiththeappropriateenvironmentalstimuliduringchildhood,beforethecritical period for adapting their neuronal connections ends. The existence of acriticalperiodoflanguagedevelopmentiswellestablished.

Thesocioculturalenvironment is critical.Havingaccess to resourcesof thehome, and having a home life conducive to learning is associatedwith scores onintelligencetests.However,itisdifficulttodisentanglepossiblegeneticfactorsfromaparent'sattitudeoruseoflanguage.Achild'sordinalpositionintheirfamilyhasalsobeenshowntoaffect intelligence.SeveralstudieshaveindicatedthatasbirthorderincreasesIQdecreaseswithfirst-bornshavingespeciallysuperiorintelligence.Manyexplanationsforthishavebeenproposedbutthemostwidelyacceptedideaisthatfirst-bornsreceivemoreattentionandresourcesfromparentsandareexpectedtofocusontaskachievement,whereaslater-bornsaremorefocusedonsociability.Thetypeandamountofpraisereceivedfromfamilycanalsoaffecthowintelligencedevelops.

Later,thereissomeevidencethatpeergroups influencetestsofcognitiveability.Thepeergroupanindividualidentifieswithcanalsoinfluenceintelligencethroughthe stereotypes associatedwith that group. This has been shown to be a factor indifferences in intelligence test scores between different ethnic groups, men andwomen, people of low and high social status and young and old participants. Forexample,femaleswhoweretoldthatwomenareworseatchessthanmen,performedworseinagameofchessthanfemaleswhowerenottoldthis.

There is controversy, however, as towhethereducation affects intelligence – itmay be both a dependent and independent variable regarding IQ. School may alterspecificknowledge,ratherthangeneralabilityorbiologicalspeed.Intermsofwhatmattersaboutschool,itappearsthatsimplequantityoryears-in-schoolmaybewhatunderpinsthelinkageofeducationwithperformanceonIQtests.

Research on the effectiveness of interventions, and the degree to which fluidintelligence can be increased, especially after age 16, is somewhat controversial.Fluidintelligenceistypicallythoughtofassomethingmoreinnate,anddefinedasimmutableaftermaturity.

Environmentalenrichmentaffectscognitionandintellectualdevelopmentfroma neurobiological perspective. More stimulating environments can increase the

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numberofsynapsesinthebrainwhichincreasessynapticactivity.Inhumans,thisismostlikelytooccurduringthedevelopmentofthebrainbutcanalsooccurinadults.Researchusingeducationalattainmentasanindicatorofcognitivestimulationhavefoundthatthosewithhigherlevelsofeducationshowlesssignsofcognitiveagingandthatstimulatingenvironmentscouldbeusedinthetreatmentofcognitiveagingdysfunctionssuchasdementia.

Nutritionhasbeenshowntoaffectintelligenceprenatallyandpostnatally.Theideathat prenatal nutritionmay affect intelligence comes fromBarker's hypothesis offetal programming, which states that during critical stages of development theintrauterineenvironmentaffectsor 'programs'howthechildwilldevelop.Barkercitednutritionasbeingoneofthemostimportantintrauterineinfluencesaffectingdevelopmentandthatunder-nutritioncouldpermanentlychangethephysiologyanddevelopment of the child. It has been shown that under-nutrition, particularlyproteinmalnutrition,canleadtoirregularbrainmaturationandlearningdisabilities.

Post-natal malnutrition can also have a significant influence on intellectualdevelopment. This relationshiphas beenharder to establish because the issue ofmalnutrition is often conflated with socioeconomic issues. However, it has beendemonstrated in a few studies where preschoolers in two Guatemalan villages(whereundernourishment is common)weregivenproteinnutrition supplementsforseveralyears,andeveninthelowestsocioeconomicclass,thosechildrenshowedanincreaseinperformanceonintelligencetests,relativetocontrolswithnodietarysupplement.

Malnutritionhasbeenshowntoaffectorganizationalprocessesofthebrainsuchasneurogenesis,synapticpruning,cellmigrationandcellulardifferentiation.Thisthusresultsinabnormalitiesintheformationofneuralcircuitsandthedevelopmentofneurotransmittersystems.However,someoftheseeffectsofmalnutritionhavebeenshowntobeimproveduponwithagooddietandenvironment.EarlynutritioncanalsoaffectbrainstructuresthatarecorrelatedtoIQlevels.Specifically,thecaudatenucleus is particularly affected by early environmental factors and its volumecorrelateswithIQ.InanexperimentbyIsaacsetal.,infantsbornprematurelywereeitherassignedastandardorhigh-nutrientdietduringtheweeksdirectlyafterbirth.Whentheindividualswereassessedlaterinadolescence,itwasfoundthatthehigh-nutrient group had significantly larger caudate volumes and scored significantly

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higheronverbalIQtests.ThisstudyalsofoundthattheextenttowhichthecaudatevolumesizerelatedselectivelytoverbalIQwasmuchgreaterinmaleparticipants,andnotverysignificantinfemales.Thismayhelpexplainthefindinginotherearlierresearchthattheeffectsofearlydietonintelligencearemorepredominantinmales.

Breastfeedinghaslongbeenpurportedtosupplyimportantnutrientstoinfantsandhasbeencorrelatedwithincreasedcognitivegainslaterinchildhood.Thelinkbetween intelligence and breast feeding has even been shown to persist intoadulthood.

SomestudieshaveindicatedthatbreastfeedingmaybeparticularlyimportantforchildrenbornSmallforGestationalAge(SGA).AstudybySlykermanetal.foundthattherewasnoassociationbetweenbreastfeedingandhigherintelligenceintheirfullsamplebutthatwhenlookingonlyatSGAbabiestherewasasignificantincreaseinintelligenceforthosewhohadbeenbreastfedoverthosewhohadnot.Butin2007,Caspietal.foundthatwhetherbreastfeedingincreasedIQwaslinkedtowhethertheinfanthadacertainvariantoftheFADS2gene.ChildrenwiththeCvariantofthegeneshowed an IQ advantage of 7 pointswhen breastfed,whereas thosewith the GGvariantshowednoIQadvantageswithbreastfeeding.

Maternalstresslevelsmayaffectthedevelopingchild'sintelligence.Thetiminganddurationofstresscangreatlyalterthefetus'braindevelopmentwhichcanhavelong-termeffectsonintelligence.Maternalreactionstostresssuchasincreasedheartratearedampenedduringpregnancytoprotectthefetus.Theimpactofstresscanbe seen across many different species and can be an indicator of the outsideenvironmentwhichcanhelpthefetustoadaptforsurvivingintheoutsideworld.However,notallmaternalstresshasbeenperceivedasbadassomehasbeenseentoinduceadvantageousadaptions.

Stressduringearlychildhoodmayalsoaffectthechild'sdevelopmentandhavenegativeconsequencesonneuralsystemsunderlyingfluidintelligence.A2006studyfoundthatIQscoreswererelatedtothenumberoftraumasandsymptomsofPost-TraumaticStressDisorder(PTSD) inchildrenandadults.Similarly,anotherstudyfoundthatexposuretoviolenceinthecommunityandthesubsequentdistress,wererelated to a significant decrease in intelligence scores and reading abilities inchildren aged 6–7 years. Exposure to violence in the community had similarcognitiveeffectsasexperiencingchildhoodmaltreatmentortrauma.

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Exposuretotoxicchemicalsandothersubstancesmayseverelyaffectthedevelopmentofintelligenceinchildren.

Lead exposure has been proven to have significant effects on the intellectualdevelopmentofachild.Inalong-termstudydonein1992,childrenwhogrewupnexttoa lead-smeltingplanthadsignificantly lowerintelligencetestscores,negativelycorrelatedwiththeirblood-leadlevelexposure.Eventhoughleadlevelshavebeenreducedinourenvironment,toomanyareasintheUnitedStates,particularlyinnercities,arestillatriskforexposingtheirchildren.

Prenatal exposure to alcohol can greatly affect a child's performance onintelligencetests,andtheirintellectualgrowth.Athighdoses,fetalalcoholsyndromecandevelop,whichcausesmentalretardation,aswellasotherphysicalsymptoms,suchasheadandfacedeformities,heartdefectsandslowgrowth.Itisestimatedthat1 in 1,000 babies born in the general population are born with fetal alcoholsyndrome,becauseofheavyuseofalcoholduringpregnancy.

Credit: Plano Children’s Medical Clinic

However, studies have shown that even at slightly less severe doses, prenatalexposure to alcohol can still affect the intelligence of the child in development,withouthavingthefullsyndrome.

Prenatalexposuretoaspirinandantibioticsiscorrelatedwithlowerperformanceonintelligencetestsaswell.

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Prenatal recreational drug exposure was shown to have significantly negativeeffects on cognitive functioning, as measured at the age of five, compared againcontrols matched for socioeconomic status and inner-city environment. Theresearchersconcludedthatprenatallydrug-exposedchildrenareatgreaterriskforlearningdifficultiesandattentionproblemsinschool,andthereforeshouldbethesubjectofinterventionstosupporteducationalsuccess.Itcouldbehypothesizedthatthe effect of these drugs on the development of the brain prenatally, and axonguidance could be the root of the negative consequences on later deficits inintellectualdevelopment.

Exposuretotobaccosmokinghasbeenassociatedwithdiminishedintelligenceandattentionalproblems.Onestudyindicatedthatchildrenwhosemothershadsmoked10ormorecigarettesadaywerebetween3and5monthsbehindschoolmatesinreading,mathandgeneralability.

Thereisalsoevidencethatbirthcomplicationsandotherfactorsaroundthetimeofbirth (perinatal) can have serious implications on intellectual development. Forexample,aprolongedperiodwithoutaccesstooxygenduringthedeliverycanleadtobraindamageandmentalretardation.Also,lowbirthweightshavebeenlinkedtolowerintelligencescoreslaterinlivesofthechildren.Therearetworeasonsforlowbirthweight, eitherprematuredeliveryor the infant's size is just lower thanaverageforitsgestationalage;bothcontributetointellectualdeficitslaterinlife.Ameta-analysisoflowbirthweightbabiesfoundthatthereisasignificantrelationshipbetweenlowbirthweightandimpairedcognitiveabilities.

Intelligencealoneisnotenoughforthedevelopmentofgeniusbutthepathwaysandneuralconnections fordivergent thinkingarealsonecessary.Thus, thehomemustencouragecreativity.Theparentsofgiftedchildrentendtosupplyenrichingenvironmentswithintellectuallyandculturallystimulatingmaterialsthusincreasingthechild'slikelihoodtoengageincreativeactivities.

There are many environmental influences on intelligence, typically divided intobiologicalandnon-biologicalfactors,ofteninvolvingsocialorculturalfactors.Thecommonality between these two divisions is the exposure in early childhood. Itappearsthatexposuretothesevariouspositiveornegativeinfluencesonintelligencelevelsneedstohappenearlyinthedevelopmentofthebrain,beforetheneuronalconnectionshaveceasedforming.Parentsofgiftedchildrenalsotendtohaveabove

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averageeducationalachievementandat leastonetendstoworkinanintellectualprofession.Thereisalsoevidencethattheprobabilityofagiftedchildbecomingageniusmaybeincreasedifthechildhashadtofaceadversityortraumaandthatatraditional upbringing may encourage conformity and discourage the necessarydivergentthinking.

Music(morespecificallyasonatabyW.A.Mozart)andchesscanimproveIQ.StudieshaveshownthatlisteningtoMozartbeforetakinganIQtestwillimprovescores.ThisiscalledtheMozartEffect.TheMozartEffectimprovesspatial-temporalreasoning.Forexample,onestudyfoundthatcollegestudentsscoresonaspatialabilitiestestincreased by 8-9 points after they had listened toMozartwhereas therewas noincreasewhentheylistenedtorelaxationinstructionsorsilence.

Studies have shown that chess requires auditory-verbal-sequential skills, notvisuospatial skills. A German study found that Garry Kasparov, a Russian formerWorldChessChampion,regardedbymanyasthegreatestchessplayerofalltime,hasanIQof135andanextremelygoodmemory.Similarly,astudylookingatyoungBelgianchessexpertsfoundthattheyhaveanaverageIQof121,averbalIQof109andaperformanceIQof129.

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Political Intelligence Isthisanoxymoron?Thesedays(infactmonths)theUSpoliticians,withafewrareexceptions,donotshineinIQratings.

AndwhataboutthePresidentsoftheUnitedStates?

Comparedto thegeneralpopulation,presidentsaresmartpeople.TheaverageIQscoreinthegeneralpopulationis100;about118foracollegegraduate.AlltheU.S.presidentshavehigherIQsthanthat.Butsomearegeniuses.Anythingover130isconsideredhighoragenius-levelIQ.FromWashingtontoGeorgeW.Bush,28U.S.presidentsmetthatmark.Only3percentofAmericansscoreabove130.BillClintonhadthefifth-highestIQ.

NotethatneitherObamanorTrumpisincludedinthesedatapoints.

Credit: Iq-test.com

JohnQuincyAdams,thesixthpresident,hadthehighestIQ,accordingtotheresearch.Before following in his father's presidential footsteps, Adamsgraduated fromHarvard College, served internationally in several diplomatic posts and wassecretary of state underPresidentJamesMonroe.Duringhis time in government,AdamswasanavidsupporteroftheartsandsciencesandadvocatedforthefoundingoftheSmithsonianInstitution.

Thepresidentwiththesecond-highestIQwastheperhapsmoreexpected:Thomas

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Jefferson.ThethirdpresidentwasafoundingfatheranddraftedtheDeclarationofIndependence.Afterservingtwotermsaspresident,Jeffersonworkedonhistwopetprojects — his grand estate, Monticello, and establishment of theUniversity ofVirginia.

Credit: Scoopnest.com

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ThedatausedforthesegraphsareanaverageofthefourestimatedIQscoresinthestudy.GeorgeW.Bushfallsatthebottomofthelistongraph#2(inred,below).Infact, concerns that he may not be smart enough to be president initially droveresearchers to complete the study, comparing his intelligence to that of otherpresidents.

Credit: Usnews.com

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Dothesmartestpresidentsmakethebestpresidents?

TherearethreebasicviewsontherelationshipbetweenIQandsuccessintheOvalOffice.Thefirstviewsaysthesmarterthepresident,thebetter.Inlinewiththisview,Gary Hart, the retired U.S. Senator and one-time presidential hopeful, argued thatalthoughabigpartofsuccessaspresidentispickingsmartpeopleforkeypositions,“it takes a pretty keen mind, honed by study, travel, experience, and exposure tocompeting ideas, to form good judgment and to know whom to trust on complexsubstantiveissues.”Thesecondviewholdsthatyouonlyshouldbesmartenoughtobepresident.The ideabehind thisview is that IQ isa “threshold”variable,whichlosesitspredictivepowerbeyondacertainlevel.MalcolmGladwellexplainedthisideainhisbookOutliers:“TherelationshipbetweensuccessandIQworksonlyuptoapoint.OncesomeonehasreachedanIQofsomewherearound120,havingadditionalIQpointsdoesn’tseemtotranslateintoanymeasurablereal-worldadvantage.”(Theaverage IQ for the general population is 100; an IQ of 120 is at about the 91stpercentile.) The final view is that the president can be too smart—because, forexample,heor shemaybeunable to communicateona level that less-intelligentcolleagues and constituents can understand. According to one analysis, this isPresidentObama’sproblem: “PresidentObama is too intelligent forRepublicans tounderstand”. This view puts greater emphasis on interpersonal skills thanintelligence.Thepresidentissomeoneyoushouldwanttohaveabeerwith,ormaybegobowlingwith.

Whatdoessciencesay?Forobviousreasons, it isnotpossible tohavethe43U.S.PresidentssitforanIQtest.Thus,ina2006study,theUniversityofCaliforniaDavispsychologist Dean Keith Simonton used a historiometric research approach toestimate thecorrelationbetween IQandpresidential success. In theconventionalapproachtomeasuringIQ,apersonisgivenastandardizedtest,suchastheWechslerAdultIntelligenceScale,andtheirscoreonthetestisassumedtoreflecttheirlevelof intelligence (with some amount of random error). By contrast, in thehistoriometricapproach,aperson’sIQisquantitativelyestimatedbasedonvariableshaving known correlations with IQ, such as highest level of education, academichonors, scores on college admissions exams, occupation, and preferences. In hisstudy,SimontonfoundthatIQestimatesforthefirst42presidents(WashingtontoG. W. Bush) ranged from 118 -around the average for a college graduate- to a

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stratospheric 165 -well beyond the conventional cutoff for “genius.” The threelowest,fromthebottom,wereUlyssesS.Grant,WarrenHarding,andJamesMonroe.The threehighest, from the top,were JohnQuincyAdams,Thomas Jefferson, andJohn F. Kennedy. What’s more, IQ correlated positively with a measure of“presidential greatness” based on multiple rankings and ratings of presidents’leadership ability -and the relationship went in a straight line. The smarter thepresident, the better, roughly speaking. Simonton’s IQ estimates also correlatepositivelywitharankingofpresidentialperformancecompiledbystatisticianNateSilver,founderofthewebsite“fivethirtyeight.com”.

This finding agreeswith results of large-scalemeta-analyses by theUniversity ofIowa industrial psychologist Frank Schmidt demonstrating that general cognitiveability -the psychological trait underlying IQ- is the single best predictor ofperformanceintheworkplace.ItisalsoconsistentwithfindingsfromresearchthathasdirectlytestedtheideathatIQisathresholdvariable.InaprojectknownastheStudyofMathematicallyPrecociousYouth,VanderbiltpsychologistsDavidLubinski,Camilla Benbow, and their colleagues found that, even among a sample ofintellectuallygiftedpeople,ahigherlevelofcognitiveabilityinchildhoodforecastedgreataccomplishmentlaterinlife,bothinschoolandbeyond.Inanotherstudy,usingfourdatasetswithsamplesizesinthethousands,ateamofresearchersledbytheUniversity of Minnesota psychologist Paul Sackett investigated the relationshipbetweencognitiveabilityandbothacademicandworkperformance.Inallcases,therelationshipwas positive and linear -the higher the level of cognitive ability, thebettertheperformance.Therewasnoevidencetosupportthethresholdhypothesis,thatthereisa“smartenough.”

There is also evidence that IQ is an importantpredictorof acquiring expertise inspecificdomains.Forexample,inastudyof90Austriantournamentchessplayers,the psychologist Roland Grabner and his colleagues found that IQ correlatedpositivelywithtournamentchessrating.(Asithappens,overhalfofU.S.presidentsreportedlyplayedchess,andone-JimmyCarter-aspiredtobecomeachessmasterafterleavingoffice.)Similarly,inare-analysisofresultsofapreviousstudy,BrookeMacnamaraandDavidZ.Hambrickfoundthatfluidintelligence-thegeneralabilitytoreasonandthink logically-wasastrongpositivepredictorofskill in theboardgameGO,asmeasuredbyalaboratorytaskthatwasspeciallydesignedtomeasurea

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GOplayer’s ability toevaluategamesituationsandselectoptimalmoves. In turn,performanceinthistaskwasstronglyrelatedtoaplayer’stournamentGOrating.

ThejobofpresidentoftheUnitedStatescallsonawiderangeofknowledge,skills,and abilities. The president must acquire vast amounts of knowledge about adizzying array of topics, consider competing points-of-view and ideas inmakingdecisions,andsolvecomplexproblemsofallsorts.ItgoeswithoutsayingthatIQisn’tthe only predictor of success in this job. Many other factors matter, includingexperience,personality,motivation,interpersonalskill,andperhapsaboveallelse,luck.Yet,whatsciencetellsusisthatahighlevelofintellectualabilitytranslatesintoameasurable advantage in theOvalOffice. AsGaryHart noted, “The ConstitutionimposesnoIQtest”-anditseemssafetoassumethatitneverwill.Allthesame,weshouldwantsmartpeopletorunforpresident,andthenweshouldwishthewinneralltheluckintheworld.NowwearestuckwithDonaldJ.Trumpwhoclaimsthatheisthesmartestpersonintheworld…

Hence the President of the United States of America should be intelligent, asmeasuredby the IQ.Butdoes thisapply topoliticiansofall levels: federal, state,county, district, townor city? If you read the local newspapers (or theNewYorkTimes,theWashingtonPostorTheNewYorker,theAtlantic)youstartgettingskeptic.SomeelectedpoliticiansseemattimetohavejustjumpedoutofTheSimpsonsorthemovieHellzapoppin.(Atleastbothareveryfunny!).

Credit: Wikipedia

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Onehumanfeaturethatallpoliticiansdemonstrateistheirinfinite,blatant,arrogantcapacitytolie.

ThecoverstoryoftheJune2017NationalGeographicmagazineisdevotedtoWhyWe Lie and iswritten by Yidhijit Bhattacharjee, a contributing and outstandingwriter.Hereunderareexcerptsfromhisarticle,editedandselectedforclarity:

Credit: nationalgeographic,com

The history of humankind is strewn with crafty and seasoned liars. Many arecriminals who spin lies and weave deceptions to gain unjust rewards—as thefinancierBernieMadoffdidforyears,dupinginvestorsoutofbillionsofdollarsuntilhisPonzischemecollapsed.Somearepoliticianswholietocometopowerorclingto it, as Richard Nixon famously did when he denied any role in theWatergatescandal.Sometimespeoplelietoinflatetheir image–amotivationthatmightbestexplain President Donald Trump’s demonstrably false assertion that hisInaugurationcrowdwasbiggerthanPresidentBarackObama’sfirstone.Peoplelietocoverupbadbehavior,asAmericanswimmerRyanLochtedidduringthe2016SummerOlympicsbyclaimingtohavebeenrobbedatgunpointatagasstationwhen,in fact,heandhisteammates,drunkafteraparty,hadbeenconfrontedbyarmedsecurityguardsafterdamagingproperty.Evenacademic science–aworld largelyinhabitedbypeopledevoted to thepursuitof truth-hasbeenshowntocontainarogues’galleryofdeceivers,suchasphysicistJanHendrikSchön,whosepurportedbreakthroughsinmolecularsemiconductorresearchprovedtobefraudulent.

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These liarsearnednotorietybecauseofhowegregious,brazen,ordamagingtheirfalsehoodswere.Buttheirdeceitdoesn’tmakethemasmuchofanaberrationaswemightthink.Theliesthatimpostors,swindlers,andboastingpoliticianstellmerelysitattheapexofapyramidofuntruthsthathavecharacterizedhumanbehaviorforeons.Lying,itturnsout,issomethingthatmostofusareveryadeptat.Weliewithease, inwaysbigandsmall,tostrangers,co-workers,friends,andlovedones.Ourcapacityfordishonestyisasfundamentaltousasourneedtotrustothers,whichironicallymakesusterribleatdetectinglies.Beingdeceitfuliswovenintoourveryfabric,somuchsothatitwouldbetruthfultosaythattolieishuman.

TheubiquityoflyingwasfirstdocumentedsystematicallybyBellaDePaulo,asocialpsychologistattheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara.TwodecadesagoDePauloandhercolleaguesasked147adultstojotdownforaweekeveryinstancetheytriedtomisleadsomeone.Theresearchersfoundthatthesubjectsliedonaverageoneortwo times a day.Most of these untruthswere innocuous, intended to hide one’sinadequaciesortoprotectthefeelingsofothers.Somelieswereexcuses–onesubjectblamedthefailuretotakeoutthegarbageonnotknowingwhereitneededtogo.Yetotherlies–suchasaclaimofbeingadiplomat’sson-wereaimedatpresentingafalseimage.Whilethesewereminortransgressions,alaterstudybyDePauloandothercolleaguesinvolvingasimilarsampleindicatedthatmostpeoplehave,atsomepoint,toldoneormore“seriouslies”–hidinganaffairfromaspouse,forexample,ormakingfalseclaimsonacollegeapplication.

Thathumanbeings shoulduniversallypossess a talent fordeceivingoneanothershouldn’tsurpriseus.Researchersspeculatethatlyingasabehaviorarosenotlongafter the emergence of language. The ability tomanipulate others without usingphysical force likelyconferredanadvantage in thecompetition forresourcesandmates,akintotheevolutionofdeceptivestrategiesintheanimalkingdom,suchascamouflage.“Lyingissoeasycomparedtootherwaysofgainingpower,”notesSisselaBok,anethicistatHarvardUniversitywho’soneofthemostprominentthinkersonthesubject.“It’smucheasiertolietogetsomebody’smoneyorwealththantohitthemovertheheadorrobabank.”Aslyinghascometoberecognizedasadeeplyingrainedhumantrait,socialscienceresearchersandneuroscientistshavesoughttoilluminatethenatureandrootsofthebehavior.Howandwhendowelearntolie?Whatarethepsychologicalandneurobiologicalunderpinningsofdishonesty?Wheredomostof

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usdrawtheline?Researchersarelearningthatwe’repronetobelievesomeliesevenwhenthey’reunambiguouslycontradictedbyclearevidence.Theseinsightssuggestthatourproclivityfordeceivingothers,andourvulnerabilitytobeingdeceived,areespeciallyconsequentialintheageofsocialmedia.Ourabilityasasocietytoseparatetruthfromliesisunderunprecedentedthreat.

There appears to be no agreement among psychiatrists about the relationshipbetween mental health and lying, even though people with certain psychiatricdisorders seem to exhibit specific lying behaviors. Sociopathic individuals –thosediagnosedwithantisocialpersonalitydisorder-tendtotellmanipulativelies,whilenarcissistsmay tell falsehoods toboost their image.But is thereanythinguniqueaboutthebrainsofindividualswholiemorethanothers?In2005psychologistYalingYangandhercolleaguescomparedthebrainscansofthreegroups:12adultswithahistoryofrepeatedlying,16whometthecriteriaforantisocialpersonalitydisorderbutwerenotfrequentliars,and21whowereneitherantisocialnorhadalyinghabit.Theresearchersfoundthattheliarshadatleast20percentmoreneuralfibersbyvolume in their prefrontal cortices, suggesting that habitual liars have greaterconnectivitywithintheirbrains.It’spossiblethispredisposesthemtolyingbecausetheycanthinkupliesmorereadilythanothers,oritmightbetheresultofrepeatedlying.

Psychologists Nobuhito Abe at Kyoto University and Joshua Greene at HarvardUniversity scanned the brains of subjects using functional magnetic resonanceimaging (fMRI) and found that those who acted dishonestly showed greateractivationinthenucleusaccumbens–astructureinthebasalforebrainthatplaysakey role in reward processing. “Themore excited your reward system gets at thepossibilityofgettingmoney–eveninaperfectlyhonestcontext-themorelikelyyouaretocheat,”explainsGreene.Inotherwords,greedmayincreaseone’spredispositionto lying. One lie can lead to another and another, as evidenced by the smooth,remorselesslyingofserialconmen.AnexperimentbyTaliSharot,aneuroscientistatUniversityCollegeLondon,andcolleaguesshowedhowthebrainbecomesinuredtothestressoremotionaldiscomfortthathappenswhenwelie,makingiteasiertotell the next fib. In the fMRI scans of the participants, the team focused on theamygdala,aregionthatisinvolvedinprocessingemotions.Theresearchersfoundthattheamygdala’sresponsetoliesgotprogressivelyweakerwitheachlie,evenasthe

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liesgotbigger.“Perhapsengaginginsmallactsofdeceptioncanleadtobiggeractsofdeception,”shesays.

Muchoftheknowledgeweusetonavigatetheworldcomesfromwhatothershavetoldus.Withouttheimplicittrustthatweplaceinhumancommunication,wewouldbeparalyzedasindividualsandceasetohavesocialrelationships.“Wegetsomuchfrombelieving,andthere’srelativelylittleharmwhenweoccasionallygetduped,”saysTimLevine,apsychologistattheUniversityofAlabamaatBirmingham,whocallsthis idea the truth default theory. Being hardwired to be trusting makes usintrinsicallygullible.“Ifyousaytosomeone, ‘Iamapilot,’theyarenotsittingtherethinking:‘Maybehe’snotapilot.Whywouldhesayhe’sapilot?’Theydon’tthinkthatway,” saysFrankAbagnale, Jr., a security consultantwhose consas a youngman,including forging checks and impersonating an airline pilot, inspired the 2002movieCatchMeifYouCan.“Thisiswhyscamswork,becausewhenthephoneringsandthecallerIDsaysit’stheInternalRevenueService,peopleautomaticallybelieveitistheIRS.Theydon’trealizethatsomeonecouldmanipulatethecallerID.”

Robert Feldman, a psychologist at the University ofMassachusetts, calls that theliar’sadvantage.“Peoplearenotexpectinglies,peoplearenotsearchingforlies,”hesays,“andalotofthetime,peoplewanttohearwhattheyarehearing.”Weputuplittleresistancetothedeceptionsthatpleaseusandcomfortus–beitfalsepraiseorthepromiseofimpossiblyhighinvestmentreturns.Whenwearefedfalsehoodsbypeoplewhohavewealth,power,andstatus,theyappeartobeeveneasiertoswallow,asevidencedbythemedia’scredulousreportingofLochte’srobberyclaim,whichunraveledshortlythereafter.Researchershaveshownthatweareespeciallypronetoacceptingliesthataffirmourworldview.MemesthatclaimObamawasnotbornin the United States, deny climate change, accuse the U.S. government ofmasterminding the terrorist strikes of September 11, 2001, and spread other“alternative facts,” asaTrumpadviser calledhis inaugurationcrowdclaims,havethrivedon the Internetandsocialmediabecauseof thisvulnerability.Debunkingthemdoesnotdemolishtheirpower,becausepeopleassesstheevidencepresentedto them through a framework of preexisting beliefs and prejudices, says GeorgeLakoff,acognitivelinguistattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.“Ifafactcomesinthatdoesn’tfitintoyourframe,you’lleithernotnoticeit,orignoreit,orridiculeit,orbepuzzledbyit–orattackitifit’sthreatening.”

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A recent study led by Briony Swire-Thompson, a doctoral candidate in cognitivepsychologyattheUniversityofWesternAustralia,documentstheineffectivenessofevidence-basedinformationinrefutingincorrectbeliefs.In2015Swire-Thompsonand her colleagues presented about 2,000 adult Americans with one of twostatements: “Vaccines cause autism” or “Donald Trump said that vaccines causeautism.”(Trumphasrepeatedlysuggestedthere’salink,despitethelackofscientificevidenceforit.)

Credit: Urkedfreelance.com

Not surprisingly, participants who were Trump supporters showed a decidedlystronger belief in the misinformation when it had Trump’s name attached to it.Afterward the participants were given a short explanation –citing a large-scalestudy-forwhythevaccine-autismlinkwasfalse,andtheywereaskedtoreevaluatetheirbeliefinit.Theparticipants–acrossthepoliticalspectrum-nowacceptedthatthestatementsclaimingthelinkwereuntrue,buttestingthemagainaweeklatershowedthattheirbeliefinthemisinformationhadbouncedbacktonearlythesamelevel. Other studies have shown that evidence undermining lies may in factstrengthenbeliefinthem.“Peoplearelikelytothinkthatfamiliarinformationistrue.So,anytimeyouretractit,youruntheriskofmakingitmorefamiliar,whichmakesthatretractionlesseffective,ironically,overthelongterm,”saysSwire-Thompson.

Whatthenmightbethebestwaytoimpedethefleet-footedadvanceofuntruthsintoourcollectivelives?Theanswerisn’tclear.Technologyhasopenedanewfrontierfordeceit, adding a 21st-century twist to the age-old conflict between our lying and

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trustingselves.

Historicalperspectiveisalwaysausefulthingandifhistorytellsusanythingaboutlyingittellsusthatpeoplehavealwaysthoughttherewastoomuchofitandhowevermuchof it therewas, therewasalwaysmoreof itnow than therehadeverbeenbefore. The 12th-century English courtier and future Bishop of Chartres, John ofSalisbury, feared no time had ever been so dangerous for men of honest virtue.AccordingtoJohn,theroyalandecclesiasticalcourtsofEuropeteemedwitheverysort of deceiver and falsifier,with timeservers andwheedlers, gift-givers, actors,mimics,procurersandgossipmongers.Theonlythingthatsurpassedtheirvarietywastheirnumber“forthefoulinundationoftheircancerousdiseaseseepsintoallsothat there is rarely anyone leftuncontaminated”. Longbefore John, scripturehadalreadywarnedthat“everymanisaliar”andafterJohn,throughouttheMiddleAges,intoandbeyondtheRenaissance,fewpeoplewoulddenythattheproblemoflieshadreachednever-before-witnessedproportions.Writing late in the16th century, theFrench skepticPierreCharronaskedhis readers to “observehowallmankindaremadeupoffalsehoodanddeceit,oftricksandlies,howunfaithfulanddangerous,howfullofdisguiseanddesignallconversation isatpresentbecome,butespecially,howmuch more it abounds near [the prince], and how manifestly hypocrisy anddissimulationarethereigningqualitiesofprinces’courts.”

UntiltheFrenchRevolution,theproblemoflyingandhypocrisyoftenseemedtobeexperiencedmostkeenly in thecourtsof theEuropeanelite, thosehybridspaces,bothpublicandprivate,politicalanddomestic,inwhicheagerbureaucratsandallmanner of hangers-on sought their fortunes. A zero-sum game, fortune huntingrequired theself-servingcourtier todeceiveandslanderhiscompetitors, to fawnoverandflatterhissuperiors.Inaplaceseeminglyconstructedtopromotelyingandflattery,abreedinggroundforplots,conspiraciesandcoups,inwhicheveryfriendlyface might well conceal devious designs, how should a person respond? Is itacceptabletofightfirewithfire,tolietotheliars?Again,andagaincourtiersasked,isiteveracceptabletolie?Andagainandagaintheyanswered,Yes.

Actually,peoplerarelycameoutinwhole-heartedfavoroflies.Almosttoaperson,medievalandRenaissancewriterscondemnedliesasvileandpernicious.Therewastraditionbehindthisopinion.Theearlyfifth-centurybishopAugustinehadarguedthateveryliewasasinandeverysinmustbeavoided.Nogoodcancomefromevil,

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and even lies told with the best of intentions are sins nonetheless. Augustine’sdefinitionwouldberepeatedincessantlythroughouttheensuingcenturies,repeatedso frequently that historians have too often argued that we can distinguish theMiddleAgesfromtheRenaissanceintermsofhowpeoplethoughtaboutlies.DuringtheMiddleAges,sothisstorygoes,everyliewasprohibited(whichisdifferentthanclaiming no one lied –we always have and alwayswill do all sorts of thingsweshouldn’t),whereas in the Renaissance people became a bitmore realistic aboutwhatittakestogetonintheworld.

Asadtruthsupportedthisratherpragmaticlineofethicalthinking.Weliveinafallenandcorruptworld,aworldsomorallyadriftandcomplicated,knottedandentangled,thattherearefew,perhapsno,moralcertainties,andalltoomanysituationsinwhichwewillhavenochoicebuttosintoavoidgreatersins.Weneedmoralprinciplestoguideouractions,butprinciplescanconflictwithoneanother,thedemandthatwebe truthful in all our actionsmay run afoul the demand thatwe always actwithcharitytowardsothers.Inotherwords,courtlyproponentsofmendacitywere,moreoftenthannot,skepticsandprobabilists,findingrefugenotinAristotle’sethics,butinCicero’srhetoric.Likeaskilledorator,wemustadjustourwordsandactionstothemoment,tothecircumstances.Dependinguponthecircumstances,eventhemostsecureofmoralprinciplesmayhavetogivewaytoothers.

ThisaccountofsocialharmonyinnowaymatchedtheexperienceofthemembersoftheEuropeancourts,neitherintheMiddleAges,norintheRenaissance.Fromtheirvantagepoint,liesseemedverymuchliketheverysubstanceofsocialcohesion.Welietoprotectourselvesandtoadvanceourselves.Welietoavoidconflictandsimplytogreasethewheelsofsocialinteraction.“Thegentlemancourtierisnotsubjecttohimself,” wrote Philibert de Vienne in his mid-sixteenth-century satire, ThePhilosopheroftheCourt,“ifitisnecessarytolaugh,helaughs,ifitisnecessarytogrieve,hecries,ifitisnecessarytoeat,heeats,andifitisnecessarytofast,hefasts.”Hesaysand doeswhatever themoment requires, regardless of how he feels orwhat hethinks.Medievalandearlymoderncourtierslabelledthissortofsycophancyflattery,considered it little more than base mendacity, condemned it roundly, andrecommended its practice absolutely. In his Renaissance bestseller, CivilConversation,StefanoGuazowrites,“Theworldisfullofandsubsistsbyflattery,whichismoreinfashionthanpeekedbeardsandlargeruffs.Youseehowallpersonsforthe

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sake of peace, and to avoid contention, and that they may appear agreeable incompany, comport themselves in the bestmanner they can to othermen’s talk andbehavior.”Withoutlies,theyrealized,societywouldfallapart.

So,thenexttimewehearsomepunditrailingagainstlyingpoliticiansorreadsomestudyaboutthenewfoundprominenceoflyinginmodernsociety,maybeweshouldlook between the lines. Rather thanworry about the fact that everyone lies, weshouldconcernourselveswiththereasonswhywelie.Wewillalwaysbeliars,butthatdoesn’tmeanweshouldn’talwaysaskourselveswhenitisacceptabletolieandwhenitisn’t.

Indeed, when humans were just bands of migrating hunters-gatherers,communicationwaslimitedtothestrictindispensable.Truthwasnoproblem.Butthatchangedwhenhumans(c.10,000yearsago)organizedinsedentarysocieties,withagriculture–vs.nomadicherding-atthecore.Hierarchyanddivisionoflaborgeneratedpower,andmendacity,liesplusallthefeaturesofpoliticiansthatthriveduntiltoday.Tellingthetruthwasnever thegoalofkingsandpriests.Keepingtheruledmassesinunquestionedbelief,crassignorance,andblindfollowingwas.Hencelies,blatantlies,repeatedlies,obscenelies,repeatedadnauseamuntiltheybecametruths.

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Artificial Intelligence

Credit: sociable.co

Artificialintelligence(AI)is intelligenceexhibitedbymachines.Incomputerscience,thefieldofAIresearchdefinesitselfasthestudyof"intelligentagents":anydevicethatperceivesitsenvironmentandtakesactionsthatmaximizeitschanceofsuccessatsomegoal.Colloquially,theterm"artificialintelligence"isappliedwhenamachine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other humanminds,suchas"learning"and"problemsolving".

Asmachinesbecomeincreasinglycapable,mentalfacilitiesoncethoughttorequireintelligence are removed from the definition. For instance, optical characterrecognitionisnolongerperceivedasanexampleof"artificial intelligence",havingbecome a routine technology. Capabilities currently classified as AI includesuccessfullyunderstandinghumanspeech,competingandwinning-atahighlevelinstrategicgamesystems(suchaschessandGo),self-drivingcars,intelligentroutingincontentdeliverynetworks,militarysimulations,andinterpretingcomplexdata.

AIresearchisdividedintosubfieldsthatfocusonspecificproblems,approaches,theuseofaparticulartool,ortowardssatisfyingparticularapplications.

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The central problems (or goals) of AI research include reasoning, knowledge,planning, learning, natural language processing (communication), perception andtheabilitytomoveandmanipulateobjects.Generalintelligenceisamongthefield'slong-termgoals.Approachesincludestatisticalmethods,computationalintelligence,andtraditionalsymbolicAI.ManytoolsareusedinAI,includingversionsofsearchandmathematicaloptimization,logic,methodsbasedonprobabilityandeconomics.The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics,philosophy,neuroscience,artificialpsychologyplusmanyothers.

The field was founded on the claim that human intelligence "can be so preciselydescribed that a machine can be made to simulate it". This raises philosophicalargumentsaboutthenatureofthemindandtheethicsofcreatingartificialbeingsendowedwithhuman-like intelligence, issueswhichhavebeenexploredbymyth,fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Some people also consider AI a danger tohumanityifitprogressesunabatedly.Attemptstocreateartificialintelligencehaveexperiencedmanysetbacks,includingtheALPACreportof1966,theabandonmentofperceptrons in1970, theLighthillReportof1973, the secondAIwinter1987–1993andthecollapseoftheLispmachinemarketin1987.

Inthetwenty-firstcentury,AItechniques,bothhard(usingasymbolicapproach)andsoft(sub-symbolic),haveexperiencedaresurgencefollowingconcurrentadvancesin computer power, sizes of training sets, and theoretical understanding, and AItechniqueshavebecomeanessentialpartofthetechnologyindustry,helpingtosolvemany challenging problems in computer science. The overall research goal ofartificialintelligenceistocreatetechnologythatallowscomputersandmachinestofunctioninanintelligentmanner.Thegeneralproblemofsimulating(orcreating)intelligence has been broken down into sub-problems. These consist of traits orcapabilitiesthatresearchersexpectanintelligentsystemtodisplay.

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This is a visual, organizational map of complex systems broken into seven sub-groups.

RecentadvancementsinAI,andspecificallyinmachinelearning,havecontributedtothegrowthofAutonomousThingssuchasdronesandself-drivingcars,becomingthemaindriverofinnovationintheautomotiveindustry.

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Is there Hope for Human Reasoning? Maybe.Iwanttoclingtothatconcept,buttheHistoryofhumankindisnotinfavorof such an outcome. It is so much easier to address irrational feelings, fears,prejudices, resentments, envy, jealousy, hate of the non-similarity, and usemanipulationtospreadfalsepromisesandfakenews.Despiterepeatedappealstoreason by the scientific community, the current state of theUnited States is notcomforting. But many other countries have taken a different path, focusing oneducation,sciencedevelopment,cleanenergies,environmentalandculturalprotection,humanrightsforall,respectedinstitutionsandpoliticians,andevenforsomehappiness.HereunderisashortlistofthesecountriesorstatesthatIhavevisitedandwhereIdidwork:

• InNorthAmerica: JustinTrudeau’sCanada; thestatesofCalifornia,Oregon,Washington,Vermont;

• InLatinAmerica:CostaRica;Uruguay;MichelleBachelet’sChile;• InEurope:Germany;Switzerland;theNetherlands,Estonia;thefive‘Northern’countries:Denmark,Iceland,Norway,Sweden,Finland;

• InAsia:Singapore;Oman;Bhutan;Japan;Taiwan;hopefullysoonSouthKorea;• InAfrica:CaboVerde;Botswana;Mauritius;• IntheSouthPacific:NewZealand.

FrancisBacon(1561-1626)arguedforthepossibilityofscientificknowledgebasedonly upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature.Mostimportantly,hearguedthiscouldbeachievedbyuseofaskepticalandmethodicalapproachwherebyscientistsaimtoavoidmisleadingthemselves;thegeneralideaoftheimportanceandpossibilityofaskepticalmethodologymakesBaconthefatherofscientific method. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoreticalframeworkforscience,thepracticaldetailsofwhicharestillcentralindebatesaboutscience and methodology today. In 1733 Voltaire introduced him to a Frenchaudience as the "father" of the scientific method, an understanding which hadbecomewidespreadbythe1750s.Inthe19thcenturyhisemphasisoninductionwas

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revivedanddevelopedbyWilliamWhewell,amongothers.Hehasbeenreputedasthe"FatherofExperimentalPhilosophy".

“Bacon'sinfluenceinthemodernworldissogreatthateverymanwhoridesinatrain,sendsatelegram,followsasteamplough,sitsinaneasychair,crossesthechannelortheAtlantic, eats agooddinner, enjoysabeautiful garden, orundergoesapainlesssurgicaloperation,oweshimsomething.”(W.HepworthDixon,1862)

How many Presidents, lawmakers, politicians, members of the ‘IntelligenceCommunity”,oreducatorshavereadNovumOrganum,orhisHistoryofLifeandDeath–asuperb,andstillvalid,treatiseonMedicine?

Credit: Wikipedia

Today,andintheforeseeablefuture,thefightforintelligence,reason,andscientificevidence ismorethaneverneeded.Theeducationprovidedintoomanycountriesdoes not seem to emphasize this approach. Socrates, Laozi, Confucius, Cicero,Erasmus,orSirFrancisBaconmustbesad.

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Everydaydiscoveriesonhumanbrainfunctionsandinteractionsarepresented,thenpublished.Thejargonofscientistsisgettingmorearcane,anditrepelsmostpeoplewhocouldnotbenefitofhighereducation;thisisnotnew:evenSocratespesteredagainst thatgap. But itbenefited thepowerful, theChurch, theslave tradersandowners,thewarmongersandwarlords:inthe12thcenturyCE,inChartres,theonlytools for education were the incredibly beautiful stained-glass windows of theCathedral.Thatwastopersistuntilthe18thcenturyCEinEuropeandtheAmericas.Myths,legends,faithwerethefateofthepoorkeptinabyssalignorance;thesnakeofknowledgewastheperfectsymbolofevil,andthekeytodamnation.

Mostdevelopedcountries (and the list includesnowmuchofEast,SoutheastandSouthAsia,aswellastheAmericas)haveaccesstoscience-basedknowledge.Itwillnothelptomakeageniusovernight,butitshouldreassuremostofusonourcapacityforjudgement,soundchoices,and–whynot?-intelligence.

Watchthisshortvideo:https://youtu.be/91qx0LMdJtI

Idoknowthatmystudents(andnowmygrandsons)aretakingupthischallenge.

Indeed,thereishope.

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Acknowledgements ThisessaywastriggeredbythepublicationinNatureGenetics,onMay22,2017,ofthe (first) 52 genes linked toHuman Intelligence (Ref. #4); it developed inmorecomplexquestionsfueledbyourpoliticalturmoil,attacksbyenemiesofreasonandscience, and regression in too many countries of the evidence/science-basededucationandinformation.

The sources are listed and –as usual- aremostlyWikipedia (often verbatim) andotherprintedarticles.TheillustrationswerecopiedfromGoogleImages,andlinksallowformoreinformation.

Initially I consideredother ‘intelligences’, e.g.military intelligence,or intelligenceagencies, but Yves P. Huinwho remains the friend, editor, counsellor, critic andwebmaster easily convinced me of my error; he transformed my draft into anacceptablereadingpiece;mygratitudeisimmense.

References • https://theconversation.com/its-taken-thousands-of-years-but-western-science-is-finally-

catching-up-to-traditional-knowledge-90291

• https://aeon.co/ideas/to-my-best-belief-just-what-is-the-pragmatic-theory-of-truth?utm_source=Aeon+Newsletter&utm_campaign=2551858a08-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2018_08_08_04_25&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_411a82e59d-2551858a08-70468141