general notes -international relations

8/16/2019 General Notes -International Relations

1/169

Nonaligned Movement

Nonaligned Movement (NAM), loose association of countries that, during theCold War, had no formal commitment to either of the two power blocs in theworld, which were led by the United tates and the Union of oviet ocialist!epublics (U!)" #he group was formed in eptember $%&$ by a conferenceof ' heads of state in elgrade, *ugoslavia" #he conference was organi+edby leaders of countries that had recently freed themselves from foreigndomination and reected renewed ties to any big power" -rominent amongthese leaders were -rime Minister .awaharlal Nehru of /ndia and -residentsu0arno of /ndonesia, 1amal Abdel Nasser of 2gypt, 3wame N0rumah of1hana, 40ou #our4 of 1uinea, and .osip ro+ #ito of *ugoslavia"

#he movement has grown to include more than $$5 countries, mostly from

Africa, Asia, and 6atin America" NAM conferences are held every three years" #he group has no formal administrative body7 at each NAM conference theo8ce of chairperson rotates to the head of state of the host country"Membership in NAM is distinct from neutrality in that it implies an activeparticipation in international a9airs and udgment of issues on their meritsrather than from predetermined positions" #hus, a large maority of NAMnations opposed the United tates during the :ietnam War ($%;


2/169

Mutual Assistance), military alliance of eight 2uropean Communist nations,enacted to counter the rearmament of West 1ermany, o8cially called theBederal !epublic of 1ermany (B!1), and its admission to the North Atlantic #reaty rgani+ation (NA#)" #he treaty was signed in Warsaw, -oland, onMay $D, $%, by Albania, ulgaria, C+echoslova0ia (now the C+ech !epublicand lova0ia), 2ast 1ermany (now part of the united Bederal !epublic of1ermany), Eungary, -oland, !omania, and the Union of oviet ocialist!epublics (U!)" #he alliance was dominated by the U!, which 0ept strictcontrol over the other countries in the pact"

/n $%&$ Albania bro0e o9 diplomatic relations with the U! because ofideological di9erences and in $%&F withdrew from the pact" Brom the mid<$%5s through the $%F5s, two maor bodies carried out the functions of theWarsaw -actG the -olitical Consultative Committee and the Unied Command

of -act Armed Borces, both head@uartered in Moscow"

Under the terms of the treaty, the -olitical Consultative Committeecoordinated all activities, eHcept those purely military, and the UniedCommand of -act Armed Borces had authority over the troops assigned to itby member states" /t was agreed that the supreme commander would befrom the U!" #he Warsaw -actIs only military action was directed againstC+echoslova0ia, a member state" (/n the autumn of $%&, the U! too0unilateral military action against Eungary, another Warsaw -act memberstate, 0illing thousands of Eungarians and causing '55,555 to Jee thecountry") /n August $%&F, after the C+ech government enacted reformso9ensive to the U!, forces of the U!, -oland, Eungary, 2ast 1ermany,and ulgaria invaded C+echoslova0ia and forced a return to a oviet


3/169

I -INTRODUCTION

-ersian 1ulf War, conJict beginning in August $%%5, when /ra@i forcesinvaded and occupied 3uwait" #he conJict culminated in ghting in .anuaryand Bebruary $%%$ between /ra@ and an international coalition of forces ledby the United tates" y the end of the war, the coalition had driven the/ra@is from 3uwait"

II -CU!"! O# T$" WR

#he /ra@i


4/169

3uwait to negotiate their di9erences in .iddah, audi Arabia, on August $,$%%5, but that session resulted only in charges and countercharges" Asecond session was scheduled to ta0e place in aghdd, the /ra@i capital, but/ra@ invaded 3uwait the neHt day, leading some observers to suspect that/ra@i president addam Eussein had planned the invasion all along"

III -IR% IN&D"!

#he /ra@i attac0 began shortly after midnight on August '" About $5,555/ra@i troops, many of them veterans of the /ran


5/169

aggressive diplomacy and because U"" intelligence reports claimed that/ra@i forces were well positioned for a stri0e against audi Arabia" ther Arabcountries, such as 2gypt, yria, and the smaller states along the -ersian 1ulf,feared that even if /ra@?s con@uests stopped at 3uwait, /ra@ could stillintimidate the rest of the region" Western powers supported a rollbac0 of/ra@i forces because they were afraid /ra@ could now dominate internationaloil supplies" Binally, other members of the United Nations (UN) did not wantto allow one UN member state to eliminate another"

eginning a wee0 after the /ra@i ta0eover of 3uwait and continuing forseveral months, a large international force gathered in audi Arabia" #he United tates sent more than D55,555 troops, and more than '55,555additional troops came from audi Arabia, the United 3ingdom, Brance,3uwait, 2gypt, yria, enegal, Niger, Morocco, angladesh, -a0istan, the

United Arab 2mirates, atar, man, and ahrain" ther countriescontributed ships, air forces, and medical units, including Canada, /taly,Argentina, Australia, elgium, Oenmar0, 1reece, Norway, -ortugal, pain,C+echoslova0ia, New Pealand, the Netherlands, -oland, and outh 3orea" tillother countries made other contributionsG #ur0ey allowed air bases on itsterritory to be used by coalition planes, and .apan and 1ermany gavenancial support" #he initial goal of the force was to prevent further /ra@iaction, but most countries were aware the force might ultimately be used todrive /ra@ from 3uwait"

#he /ra@is tried to deter and split the growing international coalition throughseveral means" #hey made it clear that their adversaries would pay heavily if war bro0e out, and they hinted they would use chemical weapons and missileattac0s on cities, as they had against /ran during the /ran


6/169

nly in Morocco and yria did government support for coalition involvementwea0en as a result of /ra@?s initiative"

#he coalition?s greatest military concern during the closing months of $%%5was that /ra@i forces would attac0 before coalition forces were fully in place,but no such attac0 too0 place" #he coalition was also troubled that /ra@ mightpartially withdraw from 3uwait, which could split the coalition betweennations eager to avoid ghting and nations wanting to push for fullwithdrawal" #he United tates in particular feared that signs of progressmight lessen the resolve of some coalition partners and so discouragedattempts to mediate the crisis" /ra@?s uncompromising stand helped buildsupport among coalition members for the American hard line"

n November '%, with coalition forces massing in audi Arabia and /ra@

showing no signs of retreat, the UN ecurity Council passed a resolution toallow member states to =use all necessary means> to force /ra@ from 3uwaitif /ra@ remained in the country after .anuary $, $%%$" #he /ra@is reected theultimatum" oon after the vote, the United tates agreed to a direct meetingbetween ecretary of tate .ames a0er and /ra@?s foreign minister" #he twosides met on .anuary %" Neither o9ered to compromise" #he United tatesunderscored the ultimatum, and the /ra@is refused to comply with it, eventhreatening to attac0 /srael" Bor the United tates, the meeting was its wayof showing the conJict could not be resolved through negotiation"

A large minority of the U"" population opposed military action" pponentswere concerned that the armed forces would su9er large casualties andargued that the only reason for the invasion was to guarantee a cheapsupply of oil" Many such opponents thought economic sanctions wouldeventually force /ra@ to leave 3uwait" -resident 1eorge ush maintained thatlarger political principles were involved and that economic sanctions wouldnot wor0" Ee also argued that the UN resolution gave him the authority touse military force" ther Americans believed the president did not have theconstitutional authority to order an attac0 without a congressional

declaration of war" n .anuary $', $%%$, the U"" Congress narrowly passed aresolution authori+ing the president to use force, nullifying the domesticdebate"

I& -T$" CO'ITION TTC(! )* IR

When the UN deadline of .anuary $ passed without an /ra@i withdrawal, avast maority of coalition members oined in the decision to attac0 /ra@" A few


7/169

members, such as Morocco, elected not to ta0e part in the military stri0es" /nthe early morning of .anuary $;, $%%$, coalition forces began a massive airattac0 on /ra@i targets"

#he air assault had three goalsG to attac0 /ra@i air defenses, to disruptcommand and control, and to wea0en ground forces in and around 3uwait" #he coalition made swift progress against /ra@?s air defenses, giving thecoalition almost uncontested control of the s0ies over /ra@ and 3uwait" #hesecond tas0, disrupting command and control, was larger and more di8cult"/t re@uired attac0s on the /ra@i electrical system, communications centers,roads and bridges, and other military and government targets" #hese targetswere often located in civilian areas and were typically used by both civiliansand the military" Although the coalition air forces often used very preciseweapons, the attac0s caused many civilian casualties and completely

disrupted /ra@i civilian life" #he third tas0, wea0ening /ra@?s ground forces,was larger still" #he coalition used less sophisticated weaponry to stri0e /ra@idefensive positions in both /ra@ and 3uwait, to destroy their e@uipment, andto undermine morale" After ve and a half wee0s of intense bombing andmore than $55,555 Jights by coalition planes, /ra@?s forces were severelydamaged"

/n an attempt to pry the coalition apart, /ra@ red cud missiles at both audiArabia and /srael, which especially disrupted /sraeli civilian life" /ra@ couldthus portray its Arab adversaries as ghting on the side of /srael" #hestrategy failed to split the coalition, in part because the /sraeli governmentdid not retaliate" /ra@ also issued thinly veiled threats that it would usechemical and biological weapons" #he United tates hinted in return thatsuch an attac0 might provo0e a massive response, possibly including the useof nuclear weapons" /ra@i ground forces also initiated a limited amount ofground ghting, occupying the audi border town of 3hafi on .anuary K5before being driven bac0"

ne month into the air war, the /ra@is began negotiating with the Union of

oviet ocialist !epublics (U!) over a plan to withdraw from 3uwait" Eadthis initiative come before the start of the coalition?s attac0, it might havesplit the coalition7 now it simply seemed a sign that the war was weighingheavily on /ra@" #he war made diplomacy di8cult for /ra@G o8cials had totravel overland to /ran and then Jy to Moscow to ferry messages bac0 andforth" ensing victory, the coalition united behind a demand for /ra@?sunconditional withdrawal from 3uwait"


8/169

& -'ND WR

n Bebruary 'D the coalition launched its long


9/169

were 0illed, $DF of whom were American" #he number of wounded totaled;;&, of whom DF were American"

&I -CON!"%U"NC"! O# T$" WR

#he end of the ghting left some 0ey issues unresolved, including UNsanctions against /ra@, which did not end with the war" n April ', $%%$, theecurity Council laid out strict demands for ending the sanctionsG /ra@ wouldhave to accept liability for damages, destroy its chemical and biologicalweapons and ballistic missiles, forego any nuclear weapons programs, andaccept international inspections to ensure these conditions were met" /f /ra@complied with these and other resolutions, the UN would discuss removingthe sanctions" /ra@ resisted, claiming that its withdrawal from 3uwait wassu8cient compliance"

Many Western observers believed the victory was hollow because addamEussein was still in power" At rst, when Eussein was greatly wea0ened,Western powers believed a rebellion might succeed in overthrowing him"

Meanwhile, potential rebels within /ra@ believed they might receiveinternational help if they rebelled" ut when the hia population of southern/ra@ rebelled shortly after the cease


10/169

regime was restored, and in $%%' the emir, hei0h .aber al


11/169

Cold War" NA# has its head@uarters in russels, elgium" #he originalpurpose of NA# was to defend Western 2urope against possible attac0 byCommunist nations, led by the Union of oviet ocialist !epublics (U!)" #he original signatories were elgium, Canada, Oenmar0, Brance, /celand,/taly, 6uHembourg, #he Netherlands, Norway, -ortugal, the United 3ingdom,and the United tates" 1reece and #ur0ey were admitted to the alliance in$%', West 1ermany in $%, and pain in $%F'" /n $%%5 the newly unied1ermany replaced West 1ermany as a NA# member"

After the formal end of the Cold War in $%%$, NA# reached out to formermembers of the Warsaw -act, the Communist military alliance created in$% by the U! to counter NA#" /n $%%% former Warsaw -act membersEungary, -oland, and the C+ech !epublic became members of NA#,bringing the total membership to $% nations" /n '55' !ussia, once the

U!?s largest republic, became a limited partner in NA# as a member ofthe NA#


12/169

russels #reaty signed by most Western 2uropean countries in $%DF" Amongthe goals of that pact was the collective defense of its members" #he erlinbloc0ade that began in March $%DF led to negotiations between Western2urope, Canada, and the United tates that resulted in the North Atlantic #reaty"

III -TR"T* PRO&I!ION!

#he North Atlantic #reaty consists of a preamble and $D articles" #hepreamble states the purpose of the treatyG to promote the common values ofits members and to =unite their e9orts for collective defense"> Article $ callsfor peaceful resolution of disputes" Article ' pledges the parties to economicand political cooperation" Article K calls for development of the capacity fordefense" Article D provides for oint consultations when a member isthreatened" Article promises the use of the membersI armed forces for

=collective self


13/169

& -$I!TOR*

-"arl, *ears

Until $%5 NA# consisted primarily of a pledge by the United tates todefend other members of the alliance under the terms of Article of thetreaty" Eowever, there was no e9ective military or administrative structure toimplement this pledge" #he outbrea0 of the 3orean War in .une $%5convinced the allies that the oviets might act against a divided 1ermany" #he result was not only the creation of a military command system, but alsothe eHpansion of the organi+ation" /n $%' 1reece and #ur0ey oined thealliance, and in $% West 1ermany was accepted under a complicatedarrangement whereby 1ermany would not be allowed to manufacturenuclear, biological, or chemical weapons" /n its rst decade NA# was mainly

a military organi+ation dependent on U"" power for security and for therevival of 2uropeIs economy and national governments"

) -T+e Cold War "ra

NA#?s importance grew with the worsening of relations between the ovietUnion and Western powers" As the oviet Union achieved parity in nuclearweaponry with Western powers, some 2uropean nations feared that theUnited tates would not honor its pledge to defend other members of thealliance" #he $%&5s were characteri+ed by two conse@uent developments inNA#G the withdrawal of Brance, under -resident Charles de 1aulle, from theorgani+ation but not from the alliance in $%&&7 and the rising inJuence of thesmaller nations, which sought to use NA# as an instrument of d4tente aswell as defense"

#he crisis in C+echoslova0ia in $%&F was a turning point for NA#7 thereafterit was viewed as a source of security for 2urope" AmericaIs involvement inthe :ietnam War ($%;


14/169

(/NB) in $%F; presaged the brea0down of the Warsaw -act (see ArmsControl)" #he decade ended with the apparent success of NA# insurmounting the challenge of the Communist bloc"

C -"nd of t+e Cold War

/n the late $%F5s Communist governments began to crumble throughout2astern 2urope" West 1ermany absorbed 2ast 1ermany to form the Bederal!epublic of 1ermany in $%%5, and the Warsaw -act dissolved in early $%%$" #he oviet Union bro0e apart later that year, drastically reducing the militarythreat to NA#" Nevertheless, many Western observers saw NA# in thepost


15/169

signed a peace accord that ended the war (see Oayton -eace Accord)"

#he following month, as part of the Oayton agreement, NA# deployed amultinational force of tens of thousands of troops, 0nown as the/mplementation Borce (/B!), to monitor and enforce the cease


16/169

diplomatic ties with NA# and introduced a resolution to the UN ecurityCouncil that called for an end to the bombardment" #he resolution wasreected decisively" (!ussia and NA# did not formally resume contact untilearly '555")

NA# was further critici+ed after warplanes under its command bombedcivilian structures and convoys of ethnic Albanians trying to Jee 3osovo"NA# leadership apologi+ed for the attac0s, which it maintained wereaccidental, but insisted that MiloSeviT was responsible for the continuingconJict" After NA# warplanes bombed ChinaIs embassy in elgrade bymista0e, Chinese o8cials called on NA# to end the air campaign"

/n .une $%%%, after $$ wee0s of NA# bombing had incapacitated ordestroyed much of *ugoslaviaIs infrastructure, the B!* consented to most of

the allianceIs demands" B!* leaders signed an agreement that ended thebombing and placed 3osovo under international control" As part of theagreement, a NA#


17/169

attac0ed by the B!*"

/n '55' !ussia became a limited partner in NA# as part of the NA#

#he United tates became involved in :ietnam because Americanpolicyma0ers believed that if the entire country fell under a Communistgovernment, Communism would spread throughout outheast Asia" #hisbelief was 0nown as the =domino theory"> #he U"" government, therefore,helped to create the anti


18/169

control7 in $%;& it o8cially became the ocialist !epublic of :ietnam" Ouringthe conJict, approHimately K"' million :ietnamese were 0illed, in addition toanother $" million to ' million 6ao and Cambodians who were drawn into thewar" Nearly F,555 Americans lost their lives"

II -)C(GROUND

Brom the $FF5s until World War // ($%K%


19/169

Eanoi" y $%K most :iet Minh were members of the 6ao Oong"

/mmediately after Eo declared the formation of the O!:, he wrote eightletters to U"" president Earry #ruman, imploring him to recogni+e :ietnam?sindependence" Many agents informed the U"" administration thatdespite being a Communist, Eo Chi Minh was not a puppet of theCommunist


20/169


21/169

United tates to interfere with the independence promised at 1eneva"

III -T$" )"GINNING O# T$" WR/ 0121-0132

Oiem represented the interests of the urban, Catholic minority in outh:ietnam" Although Oiem also found some support in the countryside amongnon


22/169

held in chec0 by the northern branch of the party, which feared that thiswould invite the entry of U"" armed forces" /n $%&5, however, widespreadopposition to Oiem in rural areas convinced the party leadership to o8ciallysanction the formation of the National Bront for the 6iberation of outh:ietnam (commonly 0nown as the National 6iberation Bront, or N6B)"

#he N6B was a classical Communist


23/169

that aigon was losing the war, but the o8cial military and embassy presso8cers reported Ap ac as a signicant A!:N victory" Oespite this o8cialaccount, a handful of U"" ournalists began to report pessimistically aboutthe future of U"" involvement in outh :ietnam, which led to increasingpublic concern"

-resident .ohn B" 3ennedy still believed that the A!:N could becomee9ective" ome of his advisers advocated the commitment of U"" combatforces, but 3ennedy decided to try to increase support for the A!:N amongthe people of :ietnam through counterinsurgency" United tates pecialBorces (1reen erets) would wor0 with A!:N troops directly in the villages inan e9ort to match N6B political organi+ing and to win over the outh:ietnamese people"

#o support the U"" e9ort, the Oiem government developed a =strategichamlet> program that was essentially an eHtension of Oiem?s earlierrelocation practices" Aimed at cutting the lin0s between villagers and theN6B, the program removed peasants from their traditional villages, often atgunpoint, and resettled them in new hamlets fortied to 0eep the N6B out"Administration was left up to Oiem?s brother Nhu, a corrupt o8cial whocharged villagers for building materials that had been donated by the Unitedtates" /n many cases peasants were forbidden to leave the hamlets, butmany of the young men @uic0ly left anyway and oined the N6B" *oung menwho were drafted into the A!:N often also wor0ed secretly for the N6B" #he3ennedy administration concluded that Oiem?s policies were alienating thepeasantry and contributing signicantly to N6B recruitment"

#he number of U"" advisers assigned to the A!:N rose steadily" /n .anuary$%&$, when 3ennedy too0 o8ce, there were F55 U"" advisers in :ietnam7 byNovember $%&K there were $&,;55" American airpower was assigned tosupport A!:N operations7 this included the aerial spraying of herbicides suchas Agent range, which was intended to deprive the N6B of food and unglecover" Oespite these measures, the A!:N continued to lose ground"

As the military situation deteriorated in outh :ietnam, the United tatessought to blame it on Oiem?s incompetence and hoped that changes in hisadministration would improve the situation" Nhu?s corruption became aprincipal focus7 Oiem was urged to remove his brother, but he refused" Manyin Oiem?s military were especially dissatised with Oiem?s government andthe A!:N?s inability to rout the N6B, and they hoped for increased U"" aid"


24/169

1eneral Ouong :an Minh informed the C/A and U"" ambassador Eenry Cabot6odge of a plot to conduct a coup d?4tat against Oiem" Although the Unitedtates wanted to remove Oiem from power, it did not give formal support fora coup" When the military generals nally staged the coup on November $,$%&K, it resulted in the murder of both Oiem and Nhu" /n the politicalconfusion that followed, the security situation in outh :ietnam continued todeteriorate" Meanwhile, the C/A was forced to admit that the strength of theN6B was continuing to grow"

) -T+e Gulf of Ton5in Resolution

ucceeding to the presidency after 3ennedy?s assassination on November'', $%&K, 6yndon " .ohnson felt he had to ta0e a forceful stance on :ietnam

so that other Communist countries would not thin0 that the United tateslac0ed resolve" 3ennedy had begun to consider the possibility of withdrawalfrom :ietnam and had even ordered the removal of $,555 advisers shortlybefore he was assassinated, but .ohnson increased the number of U""advisers to ';,555 by mid


25/169

:ietnamese patrol boats had red on them" .ohnson then ordered the rst airstri0es against North :ietnamese territory and went on television to see0approval from the U"" public" (ubse@uent congressional investigationswould conclude that the August D attac0 almost certainly had neveroccurred") #he U"" Congress overwhelmingly passed the 1ulf of #on0in!esolution, which e9ectively handed over warUnited tates bombing was signicantly reduced" Meanwhile, North :ietnambegan to dispatch well


26/169

Assistance Command in :ietnam (MAC:) in $%&D, advocated establishing alarge American force and then unleashing it in big sweeps" Eis strategy wasthat of attritionQeliminating or wearing down the enemy by inJicting thehighest death toll possible" #here were F5,555 U"" troops in :ietnam by theend of $%&7 by $%&% a pea0 of about DK,555 troops would be reached"Eaving easily pushed aside the A!:N, both the North :ietnamese and theN6B had anticipated the U"" escalation" With full


27/169


28/169


29/169

ghting of the entire war" outh :ietnamese were assassinated byCommunists for collaborating with Americans7 then when the A!:N returned,N6B sympathi+ers were murdered" United tates Marines and paratrooperswere ordered to go from house to house to nd North :ietnamese and N6Bsoldiers" :irtually indiscriminate shelling was what 0illed most civilians,however, and the architectural treasures of Eue were laid to waste" Morethan $55,555 residents of the city were left homeless"

#he #et 9ensive as a whole lasted into the fall of $%&F, and when it wasover the North :ietnamese and the N6B had su9ered acute losses" #he U""Oepartment of Oefense estimated that a total of D,555 North :ietnameseand N6B soldiers had been 0illed, most of them N6B ghters" Although it wascovered up for more than a year, one horrifying event during the #et9ensive would indelibly a9ect America?s psyche" /n March $%&F elements of

the U"" Army?s Americal Oivision wiped out an entire hamlet called My 6ai,0illing 55 unarmed civilians, mostly women and children"

After #et, Westmoreland said that the enemy was almost con@uered andre@uested '5&,555 more troops to nish the ob" #old by succeedingadministrations since $% that there was =light at the end of the tunnel,>that victory in :ietnam was near, the American public had reached apsychological brea0ing point" #he success of the N6B in coordinating the #et9ensive demonstrated both how deeply rooted the Communist resistancewas and how costly it would be for the United tates to remain in :ietnam"

After #et a maority of Americans wanted some closure to the war, with somefavoring an immediate withdrawal while others held out for a negotiatedpeace" -resident .ohnson reected Westmoreland?s re@uest for more troopsand replaced him as the commander of U"" forces in :ietnam withWestmoreland?s deputy, 1eneral Creighton Abrams" .ohnson himself decidednot to see0 reelection in $%&F" !epublican !ichard NiHon ran for thepresidency declaring that he would bring =peace with honor> if elected"

& -"NDING T$" WR/ 0131-0172-romising an end to the war in :ietnam, !ichard NiHon won a narrow victoryin the election of $%&F" lightly more than K5,555 young Americans hadbeen 0illed in the war when NiHon too0 o8ce in .anuary $%&%" #he newpresident retained his predecessor?s goal of a non


30/169


31/169

over its governmental role in the south and serve as a counterpart to theaigon government" #he United tates, on the other hand, insisted that allNorth :ietnamese troops be withdrawn"

C -Invasion of Cam4odia

/n March $%&% NiHon ordered the secret bombing of Cambodia" /ntended towipe out North :ietnamese and N6B base camps along the border with outh:ietnam in order to provide time for the buildup of the A!:N, the campaignfailed utterly" #he secret bombing lasted four years and caused greatdestruction and upheaval in Cambodia, a land of farmers that had not 0nownwar in centuries" Code


32/169

#he United tates began conducting secret bombing of 6aos in $%&D,targeting both the North :ietnamese forces along sections of the Eo Chi Minh #rail and the Communist -athet 6ao guerrillas, who controlled the northernpart of the country" !oughly $5,555 tons of bombs were dropped on the-lain of .ars in northern 6aos between $%&D and $%&%" y $%;5 at least one<@uarter of the entire population of 6aos were refugees, and about D55,5556ao had been 0illed"

-rohibited by the Cooper


33/169

tates conducted D$,555 sorties over North :ietnam, especially targetinguang #r" North :ietnam?s 2aster 9ensive was crushed" At least $55,555Communist troops were 0illed" :o Nguyen 1iap, head of the -A:N and chiefmilitary strategist, was perceived as too conservative in his use of force andwas compelled to resign" Eis successor, :an #ien Oung, adopted moreaggressive military tactics but also counseled the renewal of negotiationswith the United tates"

Burther negotiations were held in -aris between 3issinger and 6e Ouc #ho,who represented North :ietnam" ee0ing an end to the war before the U""presidential elections in November, 3issinger made remar0able concessions" #he United tates would withdraw completely, while accepting the presenceof ten North :ietnamese divisions in outh :ietnam and recogni+ing thepolitical legitimacy of the -!1" Eanoi also made important concessions, such

as dropping its insistence on the immediate resignation of Nguyen :an #hieu,who had become president of outh :ietnam in $%&;" 3issinger announcedon ctober '; that =peace was at hand"> #he negotiations had not involvedouth :ietnam, however, and the aigon government?s acceptance of theterms was not set as a precondition" #hieu was outraged by the agreement,and NiHon subse@uently refused to sign it"

After the $%;' elections, 3issinger attempted to revise the agreements hehad already made" North :ietnam refused to consider these revisions, and3issinger threatened to renew air assaults against North :ietnam unless thenew conditions were met" NiHon then unleashed at Christmas the nal andmost intense bombing of the war over Eanoi and Eaiphong"

# -United !tates Wit+drawal

While many U"" o8cials were convinced that Eanoi was bombed bac0 to thenegotiating table, the nal treaty changed nothing signicant from what hadalready been agreed to by 3issinger and #ho in ctober" NiHon?s Christmasbombings were intended to warn Eanoi that American air power remained athreat, and he secretly promised #hieu that the United tates would punish

North :ietnam should they violate the terms of the nal settlement" NiHon?spolitical fortunes were about to decline, however" Although he had wonreelection by a landslide in November $%;', he was su9ering fromrevelations about the Watergate scandal" #he president?s campaign o8cialshad orchestrated a burglary at the Oemocratic National Committeehead@uarters, and NiHon had attempted to cover it up by lying to theAmerican people about his role"


34/169

#he president made new enemies when the secret bombing of Cambodiawas revealed at last" Congress was threatening a bill of impeachment and inearly .anuary $%;K indicated it would cut o9 all funding for operations in/ndochina once U"" forces had withdrawn" /n mid /n ctober Eanoi authori+ed southern Communists

to stri0e bac0 against A!:N troops"

Meanwhile, the withdrawal of U"" personnel resulted in a collapsingeconomy throughout outh :ietnam" Millions of people had depended on themoney spent by Americans in :ietnam" #hieu?s government was ill


35/169

Congress and was twice the si+e of the Communist forces, but morale wascollapsing" More than '55,555 A!:N soldiers deserted in $%;D in order to bewith their families"

#he apparent wea0ening of outh :ietnam led Eanoi to believe it could wincontrol over the south through a massive conventional invasion, and it set$%; as the year to mount a nal o9ensive" Eanoi eHpected the o9ensive tolast at least two years7 the rapid collapse of the A!:N was therefore asurprise even to them" After the initial attac0 by the North :ietnamese in theCentral Eighlands northeast of aigon on .anuary ;, the A!:N immediatelybegan to fall apart" n March ' the ancient imperial city of Eue fell7 then onMarch '%, Oa Nang, site of the former U"" Marines head@uarters, wasoverta0en" n April '5 #hieu resigned, accusing the United tates ofbetrayal" Eis successor was Ouong :an Minh, who had been among those

who overthrew Oiem in $%&K" n April K5 Minh issued his unconditionalsurrender to the -!1" Almost K5 years after Eo Chi Minh?s declaration ofindependence, :ietnam was nally unied"

&I -T$" TROOP!

/n the United tates, military conscription, or the draft, had been in placevirtually without interruption since the end of World War //, but volunteersgenerally predominated in combat units" When the rst U"" combat troopsarrived in :ietnam in $%& they were composed mainly of volunteers" #he AirBorce, Navy, and Marines were volunteer units" #he escalating war, however,re@uired more draftees" /n $%& about '5,555 men per month were inductedinto the military, most into the Army7 by $%&F about D5,555 young men weredrafted each month to meet increased troop levels ordered for :ietnam" #heconscript army was largely composed of teenagers7 the average age of aU"" soldier in :ietnam was $%, younger than in World War // or the 3oreanWar" Bor the rst time in U"" military history, tours of duty were Hed inlength, usually for a period of $' or $K months, and an individual?s date ofestimated return from overseas (O2!) was therefore set at the same timeas the assignment date"

#hose conscripted were mostly youths from the poorer section of Americansociety" #hey did not have access to the eHemptions that were available totheir more privileged fellow citi+ens" f the numerous eHemptions frommilitary service that Congress had written into law, the most far


36/169

evident that the draft system was deeply unfair and discriminatory"

!esponding to popular pressures, the elective ervice, the agency thatadministered the draft, instituted a lottery system, which might haveproduced an army more representative of society at large" tudentdeferments were 0ept by NiHon until $%;$, however, so as not to alienatemiddle #his process of dehumani+ing the :ietnamese led to manyatrocities, including the massacre at My 6ai, and it provo0ed profoundmisgivings among U"" troops" #he inustice of the elective ervice system


37/169


38/169

were organi+ed around @uestions about the morality of U"" militaryinvolvement in :ietnam" :irtually every 0ey event of the war, including the #et 9ensive and the invasion of Cambodia, contributed to a steady rise inantiwar sentiment" #he revelation of the My 6ai Massacre in $%&% caused adramatic turn against the war in national polls"

tudents and professors began to organi+e =teach on the war in early$%& at the University of Michigan, the University of Wisconsin, and theUniversity of California at er0eley" #he teach


39/169

n ctober $, $%&%, citi+ens across the United tates participated in #heMoratorium, the largest one whosupported the war and he called on them to bac0 his policies" -olls showed,however, that at that time half of all Americans felt that the war was=morally indefensible,> while &5 percent admitted that it was a mista0e"

/n November $%&% students from all over the country headed forWashington, O"C", for the Mobili+ation Against the War" More than D5,555

participated in a March Against Oeath from Arlington National Cemetery tothe White Eouse, each carrying a placard with the name of a young person0illed in :ietnam"pposition eHisted even among conservatives and business leaders,primarily for economic reasons" #he government was spending more than L'billion per month on the war by $%&;" ome U"" corporations, ranging frombeer distributors to manufacturers of et aircraft, beneted greatly from thismoney initially, but the high eHpense of the war began to cause seriousinJation and rising taH rates" ome corporate critics warned of future costs tocare for wounded veterans" 6abor unions were also becoming increasinglymilitant in opposition to the war, as they were forced to respond to theconcerns of their members that the draft was imposing an unfair burden onwor0ing


40/169

that amount in indirect costs, such as veterans? and widows? benets and thesearch for Americans missing in action (M/As)" #he war also spurred seriousinJation, contributing to a substantially increased cost of living in the Unitedtates between $%& and $%;, with continued repercussions thereafter"Nearly F,555 Americans lost their lives in :ietnam" More than K55,555 U""soldiers were wounded, half of them very seriously" No accurate accountinghas ever been made of U" civilians (U"" government agents, religiousmissionaries, !ed Cross nurses) 0illed throughout /ndochina"

After returning from the war, many :ietnam veterans su9ered from -ost< #raumatic tress Oisorder, which is characteri+ed by persistent emotionalproblems including anHiety and depression" #he Oepartment of :eteransA9airs estimated that '5,555 :ietnam veterans committed suicide in thewar?s aftermath" #hroughout the $%;5s and $%F5s, unemployment and rates

of prison incarceration for :ietnam veterans, especially those having seenheavy combat, were signicantly higher than in the general population"

Eaving felt ignored or disrespected both by the :eterans Administration (nowthe Oepartment of :eterans A9airs) and by traditional organi+ations such asthe :eterans of Boreign Wars and the American 6egion, :ietnam veteranshave formed their own self


41/169

While the United tates has been involved in a number of armedinterventions worldwide since it withdrew from :ietnam in $%;K, defenseplanners have ta0en pains to persuade the public that goals were limited andtroops would be committed only for a specied duration" #he war in :ietnamcreated an ongoing debate about the right of the United tates to intervenein the a9airs of other nations"

&III -"##"CT! ND R"CO&"R* IN &I"TNM

Although outh :ietnam was ostensibly the U"" ally in the conJict, far morerepower was unleashed on outh :ietnamese civilians than on northerners"About $5 percent of all bombs and shells went uneHploded and continued to0ill and maim throughout the region long after the war, as did buried landmines" :ietnam developed high rates of birth defects, probably due to the

use of Agent range and other chemical defoliants" #he defoliants usedduring the war also destroyed about $ percent of outh :ietnam?s valuabletimber resources and contributed to a serious decline in rice and shproduction, the maor sources of food for :ietnam"

#here were F55,555 orphans created in outh :ietnam alone" At least $5million people became homeless refugees in the south" :ietnam?sgovernment punished those :ietnamese who had been allied with the Unitedtates by sending thousands to =reeducation camps> and depriving theirfamilies of employment" #hese measures, combined with economic hardshipsthroughout :ietnam, led to the eHodus of about $"K million people, most asrefugees to the United tates" #he children of U"" soldiers and :ietnamesewomen, often called =Amerasians,> were loo0ed down upon by the:ietnamese, and many of them immigrated to the United tates"

NiHon promised LK"' billion in reconstruction aid to :ietnam, but the aidwas never granted" Neither 1erald Bord, who became president after NiHon?sresignation, nor Congress would assume any responsibility for thedevastation of :ietnam" /nstead, in $%; Bord eHtended the embargo already

in e9ect against North :ietnam to all of newly unied :ietnam" /n the BoreignAssistance Appropriation Act of $%;&, Congress forbade any assistance for:ietnam or Cambodia"

-resident .immy Carter attempted to resume relations with :ietnam in $%;;,declaring that =the destruction was mutual"> #al0s bro0e down, however,over the issue of American M/As and over the promised reparations,


42/169

especially after the :ietnamese released a copy of NiHon?s secret letter of$%;K, which promised aid =without any preconditions"> Bearing thatreparations would amount to an admission of wrongdoing, Congress addedamendments to trade bills that also cut :ietnam o9 from internationallending agencies li0e the /nternational an0 for !econstruction andOevelopment (World an0) and the /nternational Monetary Bund (/MB)"Normali+ation of relations was suspended, deepening the economic crisisfacing :ietnam in the aftermath of the war?s destruction" #he crisis wasworsened by new wars with China and Cambodia in $%;F and $%;%7 Chinacanceled any further aid to :ietnam in .une $%;F"

Cut o9 from most maor sources of aid, the !: increasingly relied on theoviet Union for loans and technical advisers" Baced with widespread hungerand enormous health problems, the !: placed an emphasis on restoring

agricultural production" #he government vigorously pursued Communisteconomic policy, sei+ing private property, collectivi+ing plantations, andnationali+ing businesses" About $ million civilians were forcibly moved fromcities to new economic +ones"

Mismanagement and corruption became common, and popular disillusionwith the regime grew" At the iHth -arty Congress in $%F&, the !:leadership declared Communism a failed eHperiment and vowed radicalchange" Calling the reforms doi moi (economic renovation), the !: opened:ietnam to capitalism" After the collapse of the U! in $%%$, the !:leadership was forced to move further in this direction"

tepping up e9orts to nd American M/As and cooperating with World an0and /MB guidelines for economic reform, :ietnam wor0ed to improverelations with the United tates" /n $%%D -resident ill Clinton lifted the tradeembargo, and in $%% the United tates formally restored full diplomaticrelations with :ietnam" #his initiated a process of normali+ation that wascompleted in '55$ when the U"" Congress approved an agreement thatestablished normal trade relations with :ietnam"

Cou. d9:tat

Coup d?4tat, sei+ure of an eHisting government by a small group" #hisoverthrow is sometimes accompanied by limited violence, as when the head


43/169

of state is 0illed in the coup" A coup dI4tat involves relatively few membersof the population, and these few fre@uently are military o8cers" -articipantsgenerally control strategic elements of the armed forces and police and havethe cooperation of at least some civilian and political leaders"

Bor many years the coup dI4tat has been used to overthrow governments in6atin America" -overty and illiteracy among the people and a long traditionof military leadership have made these governments especially susceptibleto overthrow from within" #his pattern now seems to be appearing in some of the newly independent nations of Africa"

Golan $eig+ts

1olan Eeights, region in southwestern yria, occupied by /srael since $%&;" #he 1olan Eeights covers $,'5 s@ 0m (DFK s@ mi)" #he territory has beendisputed between /srael and yria since the iH


44/169

('55' estimate)"

#his number includes about $,555 Oru+e, $;,555 /sraelis, and $,55Alawites" #he Oru+e live in a number of towns and villages, particularly inMadal hams, the largest non


45/169

following the war" y the terms of these agreements, Al unay[irah, a formercenter of Circassian settlement destroyed in the ghting of $%&;, wasreturned to yria along with some of the additional land captured in $%;K"

ince that time, a bu9er +one between the two armies has been patrolled byUN forces" /n $%F$ /srael e9ectively anneHed the 1olan Eeights by eHtending/sraeli civil law to the region" yria has refused to recogni+e /sraeli authorityin the region, as have most other countries"

-eace tal0s between /srael and yria began in ctober $%%$, centeringlargely on the status of the 1olan Eeights" y $%%D the negotiations weredeadloc0ed" /n March $%% /sraeli and yrian leaders agreed to meet for anew round of tal0s in Washington, O"C" /srael o9ered to withdraw from the1olan over a four


46/169

without established legal basis" /t has been applied to a revolutionarygovernment, such as the Continental Congress, which had no legal basis butwhich showed that its authority was e9ective by its victorious conduct of theAmerican !evolution" uccess in the war resulted in recognition of theindependence of the $K colonies and in de ure recognition of the ContinentalCongress by ritain and other countries" Bor various reasons, if a countrywishes to enter into relations with a government, revolutionary or otherwise,but is unwilling to accord de ure recognition, it will generally accord de factorecognition"

/n business law, a de facto corporation is one that is functioning and inpursuance of an e9ort made in good faith to organi+e a corporation withineHisting law" /f a de facto corporation that has eHercised corporate powers fora considerable period of time inadvertently omits a re@uirement for

establishing a regular corporation, most courts hold that the corporation isentitled to practically the same rights and protection as a regularlyconstituted, or de ure, corporation"

International Monetar, #und

I -INTRODUCTION

/nternational Monetary Bund (/MB), international economic organi+ationwhose purpose is to promote international monetary cooperation to facilitatethe eHpansion of international trade" #he /MB operates as a United Nationsspeciali+ed agency and is a permanent forum for consideration of issues ofinternational payments, in which member nations are encouraged tomaintain an orderly pattern of eHchange rates and to avoid restrictiveeHchange practices" #he /MB was established, along with the /nternationalan0 for !econstruction and Oevelopment, at the UN Monetary and BinancialConference held in $%DD at retton Woods, New Eampshire" #he /MB beganoperations in $%D;" Membership is open to all independent nations andincluded $FK countries in '55$"

II -CTI&ITI"!

Members underta0e to 0eep the /MB informed about economic and nancialpolicies that impinge on the eHchange value of their national currencies sothat other members can ma0e appropriate policy decisions" n oining thefund, each member is assigned a @uota in special drawing rights (O!s), thefundIs unit of account, whose value is based on the weighted average value


47/169

of ve maor currencies" (/n ctober '55$ the O! was worth about U""L$"'%") 2ach memberIs @uota is an amount corresponding to its relativeposition in the world economy" As the worldIs leading economy, the Unitedtates has the largest @uota" /n '55$ the U"" @uota was about O! K;"$billion" #he smallest @uota, that of the !epublic of -alau, was about O! K"$million" #he amount of the @uota subscription determines how large a vote amember will have in /MB deliberations, how much foreign eHchange it maywithdraw from the fund, and how many O!s it will receive in periodicallocations"

Members who have temporary balance


48/169

#he balance of power theory maintains that when one state or allianceincreases its power or applies it more aggressively, threatened states willincrease their own power in response, often by forming a counter


49/169

underestimated the strength of the :ietnamese Communists because byconventional measures of power they were much wea0er than the Unitedtates"

III -#ROM NCI"NT TIM"! TO WOR'D WR II

Eistorical eHamples of power balancing are found throughout history invarious regions of the world, leading some scholars to characteri+e balanceof power as a universal and timeless principle" Ouring the -eriod of theWarring tates in China (D5K


50/169


51/169

Gross Domestic Product

1ross Oomestic -roduct (1O-), the total value of goods and servicesproduced in a country over a period of time" 1O- may be calculated in threewaysG ($) by adding up the value of all goods and services produced, (') byadding up the eHpenditure on goods and services at the time of sale, or (K)by adding up producers? incomes from the sale of goods or services"Eowever, it is di8cult to measure 1O- precisely, partly because everycountry has an uno8cial economy, often called a blac0 economy, thatconsists of transactions not reported to government"

1O- measures a country?s economic activity regardless of who owns the

productive assets in that country" Bor eHample, the output of United tates<owned companies based in Australia is considered part of Australia?s 1O-rather than part of the U"" 1O-" Most countries now consider 1O- to be thebest measure of economic activity" Eowever, until as recently as the early$%%5s, the United tates, 1ermany, and .apan commonly used the 1rossNational -roduct (1N-) to measure economic activity" 1N- is the total ofincomes earned by residents of a country regardless of where the assets arelocated" /n other words, the income earned by a U""


52/169

I -INTRODUCTION

/nternational an0 for !econstruction and Oevelopment or World an0,speciali+ed United Nations agency established at the retton WoodsConference in $%DD" A related institution, the /nternational Monetary Bund(/MB), was created at the same time" #he chief obectives of the ban0, asstated in the articles of agreement, are =to assist in the reconstruction anddevelopment of territories of members by facilitating the investment ofcapital for productive purposes \and] to promote private foreign investmentby means of guarantees or participation in loans \and] to supplement privateinvestment by providing, on suitable conditions, nance for productivepurposes out of its own capitalX>

#he ban0 grants loans only to member nations, for the purpose of nancingspecic proects" efore a nation can secure a loan, advisers and eHpertsrepresenting the ban0 must determine that the prospective borrower canmeet conditions stipulated by the ban0" Most of these conditions aredesigned to ensure that loans will be used productively and that they will berepaid" #he ban0 re@uires that the borrower be unable to secure a loan forthe particular proect from any other source on reasonable terms and thatthe prospective proect be technically feasible and economically sound" #oensure repayment, member governments must guarantee loans made toprivate concerns within their territories" After the loan has been made, theban0 re@uires periodic reports both from the borrower and from its ownobservers on the use of the loan and on the progress of the proect"

/n the early period of the World an0Is eHistence, loans were granted chieJyto 2uropean countries and were used for the reconstruction of industriesdamaged or destroyed during World War //" ince the late $%&5s, however,most loans have been granted to economically developing countries inAfrica, Asia, and 6atin America" /n the $%F5s the ban0 gave particularattention to proects that could directly benet the poorest people in

developing nations by helping them to raise their productivity and to gainaccess to such necessities as safe water and waste


53/169

II -!OURC"! O# #UND!

ubscriptions to, or purchase of, capital shares are worth O! $55,555(about L$'5,555) each" #he minimum number of shares that a membernation must purchase varies according to the relative strength of its nationaleconomy" Not all the funds subscribed are immediately available to the ban07only about F" percent of the capital subscription of each member nationactually is paid into the ban0 (a total of L;"K billion in mid


54/169

/OA had $&$ members in '55$"

All three institutions are legally and nancially separate, but the ban0 and/OA share the same sta97 /BC, with $;D members, has its own operating andlegal sta9, but uses administrative and other services of the ban0"Membership in the /nternational Monetary Bund is a prere@uisite formembership in the World an0 and its a8liates"

Cold War

I -INTRODUCTION

Cold War, term used to describe the post


55/169

globe" /t also produced what became 0nown as the Cold War arms race, anintense competition between the two superpowers to accumulate advancedmilitary weapons"

II -)C(GROUND

Eostility between the United tates and the U! had its roots in the waningmoments of World War /" oon after the olshevi0s (later Communists)overthrew the eHisting !ussian government in ctober $%$;, olshevi0leader :ladimir 6enin resolved to withdraw !ussia from the war" /n $%$F theUnited tates, along with ritain, Brance, and .apan, intervened militarily in!ussia"

#hey did so to restore the collapsed 2astern Bront in their war e9ort against1ermany7 however, to 6enin and his colleagues, the intervention represented

an assault on !ussia?s feeble new revolutionary regime" /n fact, the 2uropeanpowers and the United tates did resent !ussia?s new leadership, with itsappeals against capitalism and its e9orts to weld local Communist partiesinto an international revolutionary movement" /n Oecember $%'' the Unionof oviet ocialist !epublics (U!) was formed as a federal union of !ussiaand neighboring areas under Communist control" #he United tates refusedto recogni+e the oviet state until $%KK" #he deep ideological di9erencesbetween the U! and the United tates were eHacerbated by the leadershipof .oseph talin, who ruled the U! from $%'% to $%K"

/n August $%K%, on the eve of World War //, talin signed a nonaggressionpact with 1erman dictator Adolf Eitler" #he two leaders pledged not to attac0one another and agreed to divide the territory that lay between them into1erman and oviet spheres of inJuence" Eitler betrayed the agreement,however, and in .une $%D$ he launched his armies against the U!" ritainand the United tates rallied to the U!?s defense, which produced thecoalition that would defeat 1ermany over the neHt four years" #his American<ritish


56/169


57/169

+ones"

#he two Western governments worried that to 0eep 1ermany fragmentedindenitely, particularly when the oviet and Western occupation regimeswere growing so far apart ideologically, could have negative economicconse@uences for the Western sphere of responsibility" #his concern echoed alarger fear that the economic problems of Western 2uropeQa result of thewarIs devastationQhad left the region vulnerable to oviet penetrationthrough 2uropean Communist parties under MoscowIs control" #o head o9this danger, in the summer of $%D; the United tates committed itself to amassive economic aid program designed to rebuild Western 2uropeaneconomies" #he program was called the Marshall -lan, after U"" secretary ofstate 1eorge C" Marshall "

/n .une $%DF Brance merged its administrative +one with the oint ritish<American +one, thus laying the foundation for a West 1erman republic" talinand his lieutenants opposed the establishment of a West 1erman state,fearing that it would be rearmed and welcomed into an American


58/169


59/169

/n $%5 the superpowers? involvement in #hird World areasQlimitedpreviously to sporadic oustingQchanged suddenly, as the U! and theUnited tates became entangled in an Asian war" /n .une of that year, talinappeared to endorse the plans of North 3orean Communist leader 3im /lung to attac0 outh 3orea, assumingQaccording to documents that havesince come to lightQthat the United tates and other maor powers wouldnot get involved" #his mista0en assumption led to the 3orean War ($%5<$%K), which pitted American


60/169


61/169


62/169


63/169


64/169


65/169


66/169


67/169

-a0istanIs friendship with China suggested a third approach to the Afghansituation" While it was ac0nowledged that -e0ingIs options were somewhatlimited, its support for -a0istan was eHpected to discourage Moscow fromta0ing any maor action against the -a0istanisQparticularly if ChinaIs supportwas coordinated with American assistance" #he presence of over a million Afghan refugees in -a0istan has been anadditional source of potential trouble between -a0istan and the oviet Union" #wo -a0istanis were 0illed in a border attac0 in late eptember, and theoviets made numerous reconnaissance Jights over the refugee camps" /naddition, the refugees are an economic burden that -a0istan can ill a9ord"-a0istanIs -resident Muhammad Pia ul


68/169

Oomestic political demands were toned down somewhat, in light of theoviet invasion of Afghanistan, although there was some pressure for areturn to civilian government" -olitical activity remained banned, and themilitary government made vague promises for free elections, but no datewas set" /n the meantime, the population was polari+ed between leftist andrightist elements, with strong grass


69/169


70/169

league eHisted from $%'5 to $%D&" #he rst meeting was held in 1eneva, onNovember $, $%'5, with D' nations represented" #he last meeting was heldon April F, $%D&7 at that time the league was superseded by the UnitedNations (UN)" Ouring the leagueIs '& years, a total of &K nations belonged atone time or another7 'F were members for the entire period"

II -T$" CO&"NNT ND T$" UNIT"D !TT"!

/n $%$F, as one of his Bourteen -oints summari+ing Allied aims in World War/, United tates president Woodrow Wilson presented a plan for a generalassociation of nations" #he plan formed the basis of the Covenant of the6eague of Nations, the '& articles that served as operating rules for theleague" #he covenant was formulated as part of the #reaty of :ersailles,which ended World War /, in $%$%"

Although -resident Wilson was a member of the committee that drafted thecovenant, it was never ratied by the U"" enate because of Article Z, whichcontained the re@uirement that all members preserve the territorialindependence of all other members, even to oint action against aggression"Ouring the neHt two decades, American diplomats encouraged the leagueIsactivities and attended its meetings uno8cially, but the United tates neverbecame a member" #he e8cacy of the league was, therefore, considerablylessened"

III -'"GU" !TRUCTUR"

#he machinery of the league consisted of an assembly, a council, and asecretariat" efore World War // ($%K%


71/169

=criminal> threat of war" Unfortunately, the league rarely implemented itsavailable resources, limited though they were, to achieve this goal"ne important activity of the league was the disposition of certain territoriesthat had been colonies of 1ermany and the ttoman 2mpire before WorldWar /" upervision of these territories was awarded to league members in theform of mandates" Mandated territories were given di9erent degrees ofindependence, in accordance with their stage of development, theirgeographic situation, and their economic status"

#he league may be credited with certain social achievements" #hese includecurbing international tra8c in narcotics and prostitution, aiding refugees ofWorld War /, and surveying and improving health and labor conditions aroundthe world" /n the area of preserving peace, the league had some minorsuccesses, including settlement of disputes between Binland and weden

over the land /slands in $%'$ and between 1reece and ulgaria over theirmutual border in $%'" #he 1reat -owers, however, preferred to handle theirown a9airs7 Brance occupied the !uhr, and /taly occupied Corfu (34r0ira),both in $%'K, in spite of the league"

Although 1ermany oined the league in $%'&, the National ocialist (Na+i)government withdrew in $%KK" .apan also withdrew in $%KK, after .apaneseattac0s on China were condemned by the league" #he league failed to endthe war between olivia and -araguay over the Chaco oreal between $%K'and $%K and to stop the /talian con@uest of 2thiopia begun in $%K"Binally, the league was powerless to prevent the events in 2urope that led toWorld War //" #he U!, a member since $%KD, was eHpelled following theoviet attac0 on Binland in $%K%" /n $%D5 the secretariat in 1eneva wasreduced to a s0eleton sta9, and several small service units were moved toCanada and the United tates" /n $%D& the league voted to e9ect its owndissolution, whereupon much of its property and organi+ation weretransferred to the UN"

& -'"GC*

Never truly e9ective as a peace0eeping organi+ation, the lasting importanceof the 6eague of Nations lies in the fact that it provided the groundwor0 forthe UN" #his international alliance, formed after World War //, not onlyproted by the mista0es of the 6eague of Nations but borrowed much of theorgani+ational machinery of the league"

&I -M"M)"R!$IP


72/169


73/169

!uhollah 3homeini, a leading hiae religious scholar who settled in /ra@ afterbeing eHiled from /ran in $%&D"

#he second reason /ran and /ra@ continued to su9er crises was that bothcountries were politically unstable" When either /ran or /ra@ eHperienced arevolution or coup, the other country would eHploit the troubled country?spolitical wea0ness to gain a diplomatic advantage" As Western countries,especially the United 3ingdom, gradually lost inJuence in the area in themid


74/169

n the other hand, /ranian hia Muslims had carried out the successfulrevolution against the shah?s secular government" #heir success eHcitedmany /ra@i hias with the possibility of similar gains in their country"Although hiaes also constitute the maority of Muslims in /ra@, the unnis(unni /slam) had long held political power in /ra@?s secular government"Cautiously, the domestic opposition to Eussein?s strong


75/169


76/169


77/169

#he prolonged ghting forced both sides to search desperately for militarye@uipment, even if it meant dealing with former enemies" At the start of thewar, /ra@ had no diplomatic relations with the United tates due to itsfriendly relations with the U! and its longstanding conJict with /srael, themain U"" ally in the Middle 2ast" As the war continued, however, /ra@ toneddown its rhetoric to gain American support" #he United tates responded bygiving trade credits to /ra@ and supplying the /ra@i armed forces withintelligence information through audi Arabia" 2@ually important, the Unitedtates dropped obections to e9orts by its allies, especially Brance, to giveweapons and other supplies to /ra@" #he United tates was motivated in partby a desire to bac0 its friends in the region (most of whom supported /ra@),and in part by its fear of the broader conse@uences of an /ranian victory" /ra@also relied heavily on the U! for military supplies"

/ran was also willing to accept support from its former enemies" ince /ran?smilitary had been built under the rule of the pro


78/169

population, /ran seemed condent that it would ultimately prevail" /ra@ alsomustered civilians not normally called on to ght, and by the mid


79/169


80/169


81/169


82/169


83/169


84/169

for the rst time" Among the 6abor members, $'& have been in the ghtingservices during the war" An immediate problem that Mr" AttleeIsadministration may have to face is the salary of members7 a good manyM"-"Is, without private means and with no support from trade uniontreasuries, will nd that the salary of &55 a year is altogether too small"

T+e War>

Civilian Casualties>

Ouring the rst months of the year $%D, 1reat ritain was still subect toenemy attac0" /n Oecember, $%DD, there were K&; civilians 0illed in 1reatritain and FD; inured7 that brought the total of civilian casualties from airraids in $%DD to K5,DD%, of whom F,D& were 0illed and '$,%F inured" /n .anuary, $%D, there were F persons 0illed and $,&'% inured" After a brea0

of more than eight months, raids by piloted aircraft were resumed by the1ermans in March" #he great maority of civilian casualties in the last phaseof the war came from the :


85/169


86/169


87/169

estimated the eHpenditures for the scal year $%D

#he udget introduced by the 6abor 1overnment provided for a number ofchanges in the income taH" -ersonal allowances were raised from F5 to$$5 for single persons and from $D5 to $F5 for married couples" #heeHemption limit was raised to $'5" n the rst 5 of taHable income, threeshillings in the pound is to be paid7 on the neHt ;, siH shillings in thepound7 for the remainder, the standard rate is nine shillings in the pound"tated in terms of American moneyG the standard ritish rate is fteen percent on the rst L'55 of taHable income, thirty per cent on the neHt LK55,and forty


88/169

subsidies had cost '5,555,5557 when bread, Jour, and oatmeal weregured at &5 million7 meat at 'K million7 potatoes at 'F million7 and eggsat $$ million"

"8.orts>

1reat ritain, it has been said, must eHport at least fty per cent more thanin $%KF if it is to pay its debts" #his will re@uire a decided increase over thevalue of eHports during the war" #he gures, including those for Northern/reland, are ';$,555,555 in $%D'7 'KK,555,555 in $%DK7 and 'F,555,555in $%DD" #he eHports for $%DD, it will be noted, were ',555,555 over theamount for $%DK, but $K,555,555 short of the $%D' gure" #he eHports forthe year $%KF were valued at D;$,555,555" #hese gures do not tell thewhole storyG the rise in prices has been such that the volume of eHports in$%DD was only thirty

/mports in $%DD, munitions eHcluded, were only twenty


89/169

/n the rst siH months of $%D, eHports amounted to $;K,555,555 andimports to %F,555,5557 the adverse balance of D',555,555 was slightlyreduced by re

Unemployment was reduced to a minimum by the war" /n mid


90/169

(gasoline) ration was promised Q for a long time there was no gas allottedfor civilian non

#he municipal elections in November showed that the 6abor -arty wastrusted by the people in local as well as in national a9airs" /n $F' largeboroughs, 6abor won ',%;; seats, a gain of $,'D, while the Conservativeslost heavily" #hese 6abor gains were mainly in the North, the Midlands, and in6ondon7 they gave 6abor control in &5 or more principal towns in 2ngland

and Wales, and more 6ondon boroughs7 but generally 6abor did not wincontrol of the largest cities, Manchester, irmingham, and 6iverpool, foreHample, though in those towns the number of seats held by 6abor wasincreased"

Government Program for #uture>

#he 1overnment program calls for bringing the an0 of 2ngland undernational ownership, the repeal of the obectionable #rade Oisputes Act, aversion of the everidge -lan for wor0menIs compensation, thenationali+ation of the coal mines, already accepted in principle by ownersand miners, and a state medical service" /n Oecember, it was furtherannounced that the 1overnment would in time introduce legislation for thenationali+ation of gas and electric utilities, railways and other inlandtransport, doc0s and harbors, and iron and steel wor0s" Whatever may bethought of the wisdom of some of these proposals, and it must beremembered that ritish conditions are so di9erent from those in Americathat it is @uestionable whether the average American should eHpress anopinion on ritish internal policies, there is no doubt that the men who wereelected last summer to grapple with the problems of the peace are doing so

boldly and courageously"

)RITI!$ CO'ONI"!

General>


91/169


92/169

chairman of the Anglo


93/169

was o8cially announced that the government and the ritish North orneoCompany were negotiating a transfer of the colonyIs administration from thelatter to the former"

)urma>

A brighter political future was also promised to urma, where civilgovernment was restored in ctober" Upon this occasion 3ing 1eorge, in acommunication to the governor of urma, stated that Vurma shall at theearliest possible moment attain complete self

Ceylon also eHperienced constitutional growing pains during the year" /n .anuary, there arrived a commission, headed by 6ord oulbury, which hadbeen sent out to investigate the possibility of confering more self<government on the island" /ts sessions ran from .anuary '' to March $K,during which time much testimony was ta0en despite a virtual boycott by theCeylon tate Council" /n Ceylon, as in /ndia, the constitutional problem iscomplicated by the presence of various self


94/169

!urrender of Aa.anese>

A considerable naval force, headed by EM Nelson, arrived on eptember $5,and on the $'th /taga0i made formal surrender to Mountbatten of all enemyforces in outheast Asia" -resent as witnesses were Allied representatives,the ultan of .ohore, the Maharaah of Cooch

#he report of the As@uith Commission, .uly $%, on higher education in the

colonies, stating that a good university was an inescapable corollary of self<government, proposed the creation of a University of Malaya based on the3ing 2dward :// Medical College and !aYes College" Until its degreesac@uired reputation, preparation would be for a degree from the University of 6ondon"A se@uel to the defeat of $%D' was the in@uiry begun in Australia inNovember into the ethics of the escape of 6t" 1eneral E" 1ordon ennett onBebruary $ and $&, $%D'"

West Indies>

Binally, in the fall of $%D, and after its contents could no longer be distortedby Na+i propaganda, the ritish 1overnment published the report of the!oyal Commission which investigated West /ndian conditions ust before thewar" #he CommissionIs recommendations had been made public in Bebruary,$%D5, and had been instrumental in getting -arliament to vote the ColonialOevelopment and Welfare Act of that same year" #he CommissionIs !eport,with its wealth of information on the islandsI economic and social problems,was a landmar0 in ritish colonial policy"

/n order to carry out the terms of the $%D5 Act, there had been created theo8ce of Comptroller of the West /ndies Oevelopment and WelfareOepartment, occupied by ir Bran0 toc0dale" Up to .uly, $%D, grants of'$,55,555 had been made to various colonies for development andwelfare, of which one


95/169

nglo-merican Cari44ean Commission>

#he si+e of the Anglo

ne of the recommendations of the !oyal Commission had been that politicalfederation should be one of the obectives of ritish policy in the West /ndies"Colonel tanley disclosed in .une that he had circulated a dispatch amongthe governors of ritainIs eight Caribbean colonies in which he stated thatthe 1overnment favored the development of federation only if there were a

popular demand for it from within the colonies themselves" Ee was opposedto any attempt to force it on the West /ndian peoples against their will" #heultimate aim of such federation would be, he declared, full self


96/169


97/169

Nigeria>

A White -aper containing proposals for revising and liberali+ing theconstitution of Nigeria was published on March " #he uno8cial (i"e", native)members of the Nigerian 6egislative Council eHpressed general approval ofthe proposals in a debate that too0 place on the 'Krd"

Cocoa>

ApproHimately one


98/169

inade@uate, and both the natives and Arabs eHpressed disappointment at notbeing given larger representations" #he scheme did not alter fundamentallythe set


99/169

territories, the authorities in 6ondon believed that such a step was notpracticable for the moment" #he Council, he added, should not be regardedas the halfway house to amalgamation, though it could provide a foundationon which the fullest cooperation between the three territories could later bebuilt"outhern !hodesia"

/n outhern !hodesia, the gold mining industry reported that its productionwas handicapped by high taHes and labor scarcity" /n April, Mr" Oan+iger, theMinister of Binance, announced that the gold premium taH would be lifted inorder to help the industry mine lower grade ore" #he authorities at alisburyalso eHpressed concern at the attempt by the United tates to persuaderitain to reduce the imperial preference on tobacco, since this product stoodsecond in value among outhern !hodesiaIs eHports" therwise the picture

for the colonyIs agriculture and stoc0


100/169

tobacco, tea, soybean and sisal crops were all becoming increasinglyproductive"

!eeds of Glo4aliation

#he term Vglobali+ationV refers to the increasing interconnectedness ofnations and peoples around the world through trade, investment, travel,popular culture, and other forms of interaction" Many historians haveidentied globali+ation as a '5th


101/169

ne characteristic of globali+ation in the modern age has been eHpandingcommerce between countries around the world" #he roots of thisphenomenon reach far bac0 in history" 6ong


102/169

ome historians consider the Mongols the great e@uali+ers of history becauseduring their rule, they permitted the transfer of technology from the moredeveloped 2ast Asia to the more bac0ward Western 2urope" #hey did this byreopening and protecting the il0 !oad, however brieJy" Ouring the Mongolera, Chinese inventions such as gunpowder, printing, the blast furnace, sil0machinery, paper money, and playing cards found their way to 2urope, asdid many medical discoveries and such domesticated fruits as the orangeand lemon" #he Mongols paved the way for greater global communication,opening ChinaIs doors to the world" ne Chinese mon0, a NestorianChristian, became the rst eastern Asian visitor to !ome, 2ngland, andBrance" /n addition, some Chinese people settled in -ersia, /ra@, and !ussia" #his movement was possible because travel from one end of 2urasia to theother was easier than ever before"

Burthermore, the Mongols unwittingly set in motion changes that would laterallow 2urope to catch up with and eventually surpass China" ome of thesechanges were based on 2uropean improvement of such Chinese inventionsas printing, gunpowder, the stern


103/169

because at that time China was well ahead of other 2urasian civili+ations inmany elds"

Bor these reasons, the Mongol 2mpire was one of the most important landempires in history" *et in spite of the success of Mongol civili+ation during the$'55s, their empire would prove short


104/169

Malaya7 the bati0 and carpets of .ava7 the teHtiles of /ndia7 the gold ofPimbabwe7 and the sil0s, porcelain, and tea of China made their way todistant mar0ets" When many of these products reached 2urope, people thereyearned to nd their sources in the 2ast, spar0ing the 2uropean age ofeHploration" Maritime trade Jourished, especially in the $Dth century afterthe Mongol empire ended and the spread of the lac0 Oeath, the bubonicplague, throughout 2urasia disrupted overland trade" #he maritime networ0reached its height in the $D55s and $55s, when Muslim political power wasreduced but its economic and cultural power remained strong"

Islam and t+e Rise of Mela5a

:arious states around the /ndian cean and outh China ea were closelylin0ed to maritime trade" Bor eHample, 2ast African city hewrote" =Commerce between di9erent nations for a thousand leagues onevery hand must come to Mela0a"X Whoever is lord of Mela0a has his handson the throat of :enice"V

Ouring the $D55s, Mela0a was a Jourishing trading port attracting merchants


105/169


106/169

Chinese eHpeditions eHpressed the eHuberance of an era of great vitality"Although the Chinese traveled mostly in peace and fought only a few militaryactions, some K& countries, including a few in western Asia, ac0nowledgedallegiance to China" /n this period, China was the greatest power in aglobali+ing hemisphere"

Eistorians still debate the reasons for Pheng EeIs great voyages" ome seediplomacy as the primary goal, with the recognition by so many foreigncountries rea8rming the emperorIs position" thers point to commercialmotives, since the voyages came at the time Chinese merchants werebecoming more active in outheast Asia" /n the early Ming period, Chinaremained the most advanced civili+ation in the world" Commercially vibrantand outward


107/169

$$$" Oespite -ortugal?s superiority in ships and weaponry, its standard ofliving was probably inferior to that of people in the more developed societiesof Asia" #his no doubt contributed to the tendency of 2uropeans to usearmed force to obtain their commercial and political goals" #his tendencyensured that the globali+ation of the world over the neHt ve centuries wouldbe under the auspices of Western Christians rather than the Muslims,/ndians, and Chinese who established the basic framewor0 between $555and $55"About the authorG Craig 6oc0ard is the en and .oyce !osenberg -rofessor ofEistory in the Oepartment of ocial Change and Oevelopment at theUniversity of Wisconsin


108/169

oviet ocialist !epublics, $%D%)7 ritain ($%')7 Brance ($%&5)7 China ($%&D)7/ndia (peaceful nuclear eHplosion, $%;D7 nuclear weapons test, $%%F)7-a0istan ($%%F)7 and North 3orea ('55&)" /srael is generally believed topossess nuclear weapons, although it has not ac0nowledged this and is not0nown to have conducted a nuclear test" /ncluding /srael, the total number of countries generally recogni+ed as possessing nuclear weapons is nine"

A tenth country, outh Africa, has also admitted that it developed a smallarsenal of nuclear weapons (rst weapon completed, $%;;), but itdismantled this arsenal in the early $%%5s" When the oviet Union bro0eapart in $%%$, K of the $ newly independent countries, in addition to !ussia,had nuclear weapons on their territory" y the mid


109/169


110/169

than F 0g of plutonium"

/n the late $%D5s the United tates began to develop a far more potent typeof nuclear armament, 0nown as thermonuclear weapons, or the =hydrogenbomb"> #hese bombs use small ssion weapons to create eHtreme conditionsthat cause certain types of hydrogen atoms (deuterium and tritium) to fusetogether, releasing vast @uantities of eHplosive energy" ome thermonuclearweapons release the e@uivalent of millions of tons of #N#"nly ve of the states possessing nuclear weapons are 0nown to havedeveloped thermonuclear armsG the United tates (rst test $%'), !ussia($%K), ritain ($%;), China ($%&;), and Brance ($%&F)" Oeveloping theseweapons re@uires eHtensive nuclear test detonations" #he other, more recentnuclear states have conducted very few (and in some cases no) nuclear teststo avoid calling attention to their nuclear weapon programs, which are often

the subect of international criticism" #his has slowed their development ofthermonuclear weapons"

I& -$OW "!* I! IT TO M(" T$" )OM)B #he most di8cult challenge for a country that see0s to build nuclearweapons is obtaining the necessary highly enriched uranium or plutonium" /naddition to access to uranium supplies, this re@uires considerable industrialand scientic capabilities" 2ven less developed countries, however, such asChina, /ndia, North 3orea, and -a0istan, have succeeded by concentratingtheir resources on this e9ort and, in most cases, by obtaining help fromgovernments or individuals in more advanced countries" Bor eHample,China?s nuclear weapon program beneted from early assistance provided bythe oviet Union" /ndia?s program too0 advantage of Canadian and U""assistance provided for peaceful nuclear research, and -a0istan?s programrelied on assistance from China, along with technology and e@uipmentsecretly obtained from Western 2uropean supplier companies" Without suchassistance, nuclear weapon programs in these states would have beengreatly delayed and might not have succeeded"

-"nric+ed Uranium )om4sUranium can be enriched using several techni@ues" #he United tatesnuclear weapons program has relied on the gaseous di9usion method,invented during the Manhattan -roect, in which uranium is transformed intoa gas (uranium heHaJuoride) and pumped through membranes that permitU


111/169

be increased to the level needed for nuclear weapons" ritain, Brance, andChina also have relied eHclusively on the gaseous di9usion method toproduce highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons" #he oviet Union didso for many years before shifting to the gas centrifuge method"

#he gaseous di9usion method uses great @uantities of energy" /ndeed, duringthe Manhattan -roect, the United tates built a hydroelectric dam, under the #ennessee :alley Authority, solely to power the gaseous di9usion enrichmentfacility at a0 !idge, #ennessee" A country see0ing to develop nuclearweapons secretly would nd it di8cult to do so using this method todaybecause the energy re@uirements would be nearly impossible to hide"Uranium enrichment using high


112/169

the laser enrichment method could pose a signicant proliferation ris0 in thefuture"

) -Plutonium )om4s

#he technology to produce plutonium is technically simpler than that neededto enrich uranium" Nonetheless, plutonium production re@uires theconstruction of a series of eHpensive and relatively compleH facilities,including a nuclear research, nuclear power, or plutonium


113/169

Countries see0ing to produce nuclear weapons must also develop a reliabledesign for the weapon" With computer simulations and eHtensive testing ofthe nonnuclear components, it is possible for a country to develop a reliabledesign for a ssion weapon without the need for a full


114/169

ideological cause, such as the spread of radical /slamic fundamentalism" Agrowing new danger is that a national government, or senior o8cials withinthat government, might provide nuclear weapons or the materials for ma0ingthem to terrorist organi+ations whose views they shared" While nations di9eron the particulars of such dangers, they generally agree that their ownsecurity is best served by curbing the further spread of nuclear arms"Nuclear proliferation also inevitably increases the ris0 of accidents involvingnuclear weaponsQfor eHample, during transportQwhich could cause greatdevastation" #his ris0 may be greatest in less technologically advancedcountries whose weapons may not include the built


115/169

states are those that had conducted nuclear tests before .anuary $, $%&;Qthe United tates, oviet Union (now !ussia), ritain, Brance, and China" Allother countries are nonnuclear weapon states for the purposes

general notes -international relations

Documents