gender as factor differentiating educational paths and professional careers renata siemieńska
TRANSCRIPT
GENDER AS FACTOR DIFFERENTIATING
EDUCATIONAL PATHS AND PROFESSIONAL CAREERS
Renata Siemieńska
Population aged 15 and more a by educational level 1988-2002 (N, %)
Specification
1988 1995 2002
Total in thousand
s % T % W % M
Total in thousand
s % T % W % M
Total in
thousands % T % W % M
Grand total 28269 b 100,0 100,0 100,0 29881b 100,0 100,0 100,0 32435 100,0 100,0 100,0
Tertiary 1838 6,5 5,9 7,2 2041 6,8 6,4 7,3 3204 10,2 10,4 9,3
Post-secondary 469 1,6 n/a n/a 763 2,6 3,9 1,1 1024 3,3 4,6 1,6
Secondary, total 6980 24,7 28,4 20,6 7350 24,6 27,5 21,5 9185 29,4 30,4 26,0
Secondary vocational n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 6383 20,4 18,7 20,6
Secondary general n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 2802 9,0 11,7 5,4
Basic vocational 6666 23,6 16,3 31,5 7742 25,9 18,6 33,9 7540 24,1 16,9 30,1
Primary 10961 38,8 41,5 35,8 10058 33,7 35,8 31,3 9652 28,1 31,4 28,0
Incomplete primary and without school education 1721 6,1 7,5 4,5 1893 6,3 7,7 4,8 1180 2,8 4,3 3,0
Unknown educational level 102 0,4 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 652 2,1 2,0 2,0
a For 1988, data of the National Census, concerns the population aged 15 and more; for 2002, data of the Population and Housing Census, b In the numerator data concerns the population aged 15 and more.Source: 1988 - GUS, Rocznik Statystyczny 1991, page 44; 1995 - GUS, Rocznik Statystyczny 1997, page 97; 2002 - GUS, Rocznik Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Warszawa 2004, page 196.
Net enrolment in 1992 – 1996 by sex.
Years
Level of education Number of students b
Primary Secondary a Per 1000 persons in age 15y or more
females males females males females males
1992 96,8 97,4 80,1 73,3 17 17
1993 96,9 97,5 81,6 73,3 20 19
1994 96,9 97,3 82,6 75,8 24 21
1995 97,0 97,3 84,2 76,2 28 24
1996 97,3 97,5 84,7 76,8 33 27a Without schools for adults, b Only students of higher education institutions.Source: Raport o rozwoju społecznym Polska 1998 – Dostęp do edukacji. Warszawa: UNDP, p. 114.
Net enrolment in 2004/2005 by sex (%)
* Without foreigners Source: Unpublished data GUS 2005
98 96
13
42
13
24
9
37
98 96
8
52
1520
10
42
98 95
17
33
12
27
8
32
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Primary Low ersecondary
Basicvocational
Uppersecondary
general
Uppersecondaryspecialized
Uppersecondarytechnical
Post-secondary
Tertiary*
total w omen men
Table: Pupils and students of primary and junior and upper high schools in 2004/05 by gender and urban – rural areas (N,%)
primary schools junior high schools
basic vocational schools a
secondary general b
secondary vocational schools c
Total
Total 2723661 1648677 239239 747716 815547
Urban areas 1594451 1086734 223878 722287 734787
Rural areas 1129210 561943 15361 25429 80760
%
Urban areas 58,54 65,92 93,58 96,60 90,10
Rural areas 41,46 34,08 6,42 3,40 9,90
Women 48,59 48,22 28,86 60,17 44,86
Men 51,41 51,78 71,14 39,83 55,14
Women %
Urban areas 58,48 65,95 94,44 96,78 89,86
Rural areas 41,52 34,05 5,56 3,22 10,14
Men %
Urban areas 58,60 65,89 93,23 96,32 90,29
Rural areas 41,40 34,11 6,77 3,68 9,71
a post- primary vocational schools and post junior high schools vocational schoolsb post- primary amd post- junior high schoolsc post primary secondary vocational schools and post-junior secondary vocational schools, upper secondary specialised schools, and art upper secondary schools with vocational diploma.Source: unpublished data GUS, Warszawa 2005.
Population with tertiary education 2002 (20 V 2002) (T,%)
Grand total
Total Ph.D. or higher
MA, BA physician
etc
Engineer BA
In thousands
Poland 38230 3204 108 2277 819
Women 19714 1756 38 1322 396
Men 18516 1448 70 955 423
Tertiary education = 100
Poland x 100 100 100 100
Women x 55 35 58 48
Men x 45 65 42 52
Source: Narodowy Spis Powszechny2002, GUS.
Students of higher education institutions by study system 1990/91 - 2004/05 (in thousands)
26,8
39,1
408,2
507,4
834,4
1082,9
30,2
42,9
391,5
479,1
803,8
1046,8
34,8
47,9
345,2
413,9
636,1
975,3
30,5
40,2
298,3
342,5
617,6
814,3
8,1
8,6
209,4
217,3
307,5
374,7
0,9
0,7
163,1
148,6
201
202,8
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Men evening studies
Women evening studies
Men day studies
Women day studies
Men total
Women total
in thousands
1990/1991
1994/1995
1999/2000
2001
2003
2004/05
Students of higher education institutions by study system 1990/91 - 2004/05 (in thousands) cont.
8
15,4
391,4
520,9
7,1
13,5
375
511,4
4,8
8,9
351,3
504,7
3,8
8
284,9
423,6
1,1
2,6
88,9
146,2
0,6
0,9
36,5
52,6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Men extramural studies
Women extramuralstudies
Men w eekend studies
Women w eekendstudies
in thousands
1990/1991
1994/1995
1999/2000
2001
2003
2004/05
Source: 2001 i 2003: Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse 1999, 2001, 2003, GUS 1990 -2000: Rocznik Statystyczny RP 1995, 2000, GUS 2004/05 - Unpublished data GUS 2005
Students of non-state higher education institutions 1992, 1995, 2001, 2003 and 2004/05 (in %)
55
6761 59 58
45
3339 41 42
0
40
80
1992 1995 2001 2003 2004/05
in %
women men
2004/05 - without foreigners
Source: Szkoły wyższe w roku 1992/93, Szkoły wyższe w roku 1995/96, Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse w 2001 r., Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse w 2003 r., unpublished data GUS 2005
Students of higher education institutions by fields of education, % of women in total 1962 – 1999.
Fields of education 1962/3 1970/1 1985/6 1994/5 1995/6 1996/7 1997/8 1998/9
Education science and teacher training - 70 - 85 85 84 80 78
Arts, humanities 59 75 75 71 71 71 69 70
Health, social services 60 66 62 65 65 67 69 70
Social science, journalism, business and administration, law
41 6450
5748
57 58 60 61 62
Agriculture, forestry and fishery 31 43 45 53 54 55 56 56
Life science, physical science, mathematics and statistics
59 60 61 61 61 60 52 54
Others - - - 29 33 33 42 47
Services - - - 27 32 32 39 41
Engineering and engineering trades, manufacturing and processing
14 25 20 21 21 22 22 21
Source: Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse 1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, Warszawa: GUS, and Siemieńska 1990
Table: Students of higher education institutions by fields of education and gender in 2004/2005 (%)
Fields of education Total
total Men Women
Total 100 44 56
Education science and teacher training 13 29 71
Humanities 8 29 71
Arts 1 36 64
Social and behavioral science 14 35 65
Business and administration 38 62
Law 3 47 53
Journalism and information 1 29 71
Life science 1 19 81
Physical science 2 44 56
Mathematics and statistics 1 37 63
Computing 5 87 13
Health 4 23 77
Social services 0 16 84
Engineering and engineering trades 8 82 18
Manufacturing and building 1 52 48
Architecture and building 3 63 37
Agriculture, forestry and fishery 2 47 53
Veterinary 0 35 65
Personal services 3 37 63
Environmental protection 3 48 52
Transport services 1 86 14
Security services 0 73 27
Source: GUS, unpublished data for school year 2004/5Life science includes biology, botany, biochemistry, toxicology, genetics, zoology.Physical science includes astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology.
Doctor degrees awarded in 1980 - 2003 by sex (in %)
32 30 31 29 30 32 33 33 36 38 3741 42 45 45 47
68 70 69 71 70 68 67 67 64 62 6359 58 55 55 53
0
20
40
60
80
1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
in %
women men
Source: 1980 - dane Ministerstwa Nauki, Szkolnictwa Wyższego i Techniki
1985 - dane Ministerstwa Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego
1990 - dane Centrum Informacji Naukowej, Technicznej i Ekonomicznej
1991 - 2002 - dane Ośrodka Przetwarzania Informacji (OPI)
Nauka i technika w 2002, Warszawa, GUS 2004, p. 190;
2003 – Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse w 2003 roku, Warszawa, GUS 2004, p. 79.
Habilitated doctor degrees awarded in 1980 - 2003 by sex (in %)
21 20 2128 26 27 27 25
31 30 29 29 2732
79 80 7972 74 73 73 75
70 71 71 71 7368
0
30
60
90
1980 1985 1990 1992 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
in %
women men
Source: 1980 - dane Ministerstwa Nauki, Szkolnictwa Wyższego i Techniki 1985 - dane Ministerstwa Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego 1990 - dane Centrum Informacji Naukowej, Technicznej i Ekonomicznej 1992 - 2002 - dane Ośrodka Przetwarzania Informacji (OPI) GUS, "Nauka i Technika w 2002 r.", Warszawa GUS 2004, p. 1912003 – Szkoły wyższe i ich finanse w 2003 roku, Warszawa: GUS 2004, p. 79.
Titles of professor awarded in 1991 - 2003 by sex (in %)
22 23 23 20 1722 23 24 24 24 25 27 27
78 77 77 80 8378 77 76 76 76 75 73 73
0
30
60
90
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
in %
women men
Source: dane Kancelarii Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, za: GUS, "Nauka i Technika w 2002 r.", Warszawa 2004, s. 191
Promotions according to academic field
36
1128 25
4128
64
8772 75
5972
2918
3417
37 39
7182
6683
63 61
32
10
3928
40 34
68
90
6172
60 66
0
20
40
60
80
100
humanities engineering medicine natural sciences agriculturalsciences
social sciences
w %
women 2000r men 2000r women 2001r
men 2001r women 2002r men 2002r
Figure: Habilitated doctor degrees granted in 2000 - 2002 according to academic field and gender (%). Source: OPI calculations.
On the other hand, the percentage of women among those receiving the professor title in years 2000-2002 (chart 2) has increased in all of the compared fields.
2612
30 23 30 20
7488
70 77 70 80
236
34 25 32 40
7794
66 75 68 60
2813
36 29 32 33
7287
64 71 68 67
0
25
50
75
100
humanities engineering andtechnology
medicine natural sciences agriculturalsciences
social sciences
w %
women 2000r men 2000r women 2001r
men 2001r women 2002r men 2002r
Figure: Professor title granted in years 2000-2002 according to gender and academic field (%)
Source: OPI calculations
Table: Number of publications (means )
Young scientists Full Professors
MenN=440
WomenN=431
MenN=417
WomenN=467
Number of publication in Poland 8.4(8.3)
8.5(10.2)
11.4(13.9)
12,6(20.2)
Number of publication abroad 1.4(2.9)
1.0(2.5)
4.64(7.46)
3.43(5.22)
Number of publication in Poland and abroad –total
9.8(9.4)
9.5(10.9)
16.0(16.7)
16.1(21.0)
In brackets: standard deviations
Research Productivity of Full Professors (study 2003) and of Young Scientists (study 2005)
Table: Scientific publications of „Young Scientists” in Poland within the last two years according to gender and scientific field (means).
BiologyEconomics Physics Social sciences Medicine Agricultural
sciencesTechnology
M W M W M W M W M W M W M W
(G) (H) (I) (J) (K) (L) (M) (N) (O) (P) (Q) (R) (S) (T)
Total 45 * 51 * 67 * 73 * 32 * 20 ** 83 * 96 * 45 * 49 * 78 * 85 * 87 * 56 *
Scientific books (including course books, textbooks)
0.4Q
0.2 0.6Q
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.9KOQS
1.0R
0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Scientific books edited
0.1Q
0.1 0.4JOQS
0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5GKOQ
S
0.3JPR
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1
Articles in scientific books
0.9 0.9 3.6GKO
Q
5.1HPRT
0.9 1.2 4.1GKOQ
S
4.6HPRT
1.0 0.9 0.6 1.4 2.7GKO
Q
1.5
Articles in scientific periodicals
5.1 6.2 4.7 3.9 3.7 5.0 4.0 3.8 9.0GIKM
S
7.6JNT
8.5GIKMS
7.0JNT
3.9 3.9
Reports from research financed by grants
1.3MQ
0.9R
1.4MQ
0.9R
0.6 0.4 0.7 0.6 1.2PQ
0.6 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.8
* small base ** very small base (under 30) ineligible for sig testing. The letters show significant differences between columns
Figure: Research Productivity of Full Professors according to age and gender (means of total number of publications) (study 2003)
12,8
19,521,2
18,7
11,2 11,8
6,5
17,516,6 16,9 16,2
15,113,9
14,7
0
5
10
15
20
25
30-50 years 51-55 years 56-60 years 61-65 years 66-70 years 71-75 years 76+ years
women men
Figure: Research Productivity of Young Scientists (30-41 years old) according to age and gender (means of total number of publications) (study 2005)
8,4
11,9
8,8
11,8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
30-35 years 36-41 years
women
men
Table: Support of men and women (supervisors, colleagues, collaborators) to others according to young scientists and full professors (% of those who received)
support of men for: support of women for:
Received by young scientists (study 2005): Men Women Men Women
help in writing scientific paper/book 60 54 34 43
help in getting grant/stipend 39 33 16 17
help in getting position 38 34 15 16
help in arranging scientific stay abroad 28 20 9 12
support of men for: support of women for:
Received by full professors (study 2003): Men Women Men Women
help in writing scientific paper/book 42 35 22 23
help in getting grant/stipend 42 35 15 14
help in getting position 34 27 9 12
help in arranging scientific stay abroad 57 44 16 16
Table: Perception of gender inequality by “Full professors” 2003 and “Young scientists” (30-40 y old) 2005” (in %)
Profe-ssors(2003)
Young scien-tists(2005)
Men occupy top positions in society because: Men
Wom
en
Men
Wom
en
(1) women prefer men to occupy top positions* 50 57 48 63
(2) women lack specific training* 82 78 74 86
(3) women are isolated in a predominantly male environment 23 38 22 37
(4) women are prevented from reaching the top 27 35 23 37
(5) due to how women are reared 42 48 34 45
(6) women lack informal contacts 21 38 14 28
Situation in academe:
(1) women are accepted as professors in my field 97 96 87 88
(2) women are accepted as heads of research teams 95 89 84 82
(3) women are accepted in top university positions 91 64 73 58
(4) women have to achieve more than men to receive recognition in my field 19 56 19 47
(5) power in academic milieu is mainly based on informal contacts 28 35 42 44
#Answers : „strongly agree „and „agree“ or *„strongly disagree „and „disagree“ depends on the question.^ Study on full professors conducted in 2003, on young scientists in 2005
Women among academic teachers in Poland and EU by fields of
education 1998 – 2002 (%)
Year Agriculture, forestry
and fishery
Engineering and engineering
trades
Humanities Health
W M W M W M W M
Poland 2000 34 66 16 84 35 65 44 56
2001 34 66 16 84 34 66 44 56
2002 34 66 16 84 35 65 44 56
EU – 25 1998 30 70 15 85 37 63 38 62
1999 32 68 15 85 38 62 39 61
2000 34 66 18 82 39 61 40 60
2001 36 64 19 81 39 61 41 59
2002 37 63 19 81 40 60 42 58
Women among academic teachers in Poland and EU by fields of education 1998 – 2002 (%) (cont.)
Year Life science, physical science, mathematics
and statistics, computing
Social and behavioural science
Others
W M W M W M
Poland 2000 35 65 40 60 35 65
2001 35 65 40 60 32 68
2002 35 65 40 60 30 70
EU – 25 1998 24 76 35 65 38 62
1999 25 75 35 65 40 60
2000 26 74 38 62 40 60
2001 28 72 40 60 43 57
2002 28 72 40 60 43 57
Desired tertiary (university) education for daughter 2004 (women N = 520, men N = 473) for each category.
Age Total Primary Vocational, uncompleted
secondary
Secondary, post-
secondary, uncompleted
tertiary
Tertiary education
women
18-24 77 *** 79 85 ***
25-44 78 *** 62 79 97
45-64 79 71 67 85 97
65 and more 73 73 *** 69 ***
total 77 71 67 81 97
Men
18-24 83 *** 69 100 ***
25-44 73 71 62 77 92
45-64 76 70 70 88 84
65 and more 79 80 81 68 ***
total 76 74 68 84 89
***N≤10 Source: CBOS, Aktualne problemy I wydarzenia (167) – IV 2004
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND THEIR LIFE ASPIRATIONS IN 2006
Table: Family structure of junior high school students and their exam results in math- natural science part in 2006 (random sample ) (N,%)
Total - 15 points
16-20 points
21-26 points
27-32 points
33-50points
Total 1551 27618%
25416%
31520%
23315%
35123%
with mother and father 123079%
70% 76% 78% 85% 85%
with mother without father
26017%
22% 20% 17% 13% 13%
with father without mother
242%
3% 1% 3% 0% 1%
without parents 543%
7% 4% 4% 2% 1%
Table: Parents’ education and the exam results of junior high school students in math- natural science part in 2006 (random sample ) (%)
Total Up to 15 points 16 – 20 points 21 – 26 points 27 – 32 points 33 – 50 points
total boys girls total boys girls total boys girls total boys girls total boys girls
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
Total 1551 27618%
1298%
1479%
25416%
1178%
1379%
31520%
15310%
16110%
23315%
1117%
1228%
35123%
16811%
18312%
Mother
Primary completed
14810%
16%GJM
16%EHKN
17%O
12%M
7% 16%O
9%M
6% 12%O
9%M
7% 11%O
4% 4% 4%
Basic vocational
37424%
30%M
29%N
31%O
28%M
23%N
31%O
28%M
28%N
28%O
27%M
24%N
30%O
15% 13% 16%
Secondary vocational
32621%
17% 17% 16% 23% 18% 27%C
19% 20% 18% 21% 20% 21% 26%AG
24% 28%CI
Secondary general
15010%
7% 6% 7% 11% 15% B
7% 12% A
9% 14%C
11% 12% 10% 10% 10% 10%
Unified master’s
19613%
3% 2% 5% 7%A
8%B
7% 10%A
8%B
11%C
9%A
9%B
8% 26%ADGJ
27%BEHK
26%CFIL
I don’t know
16511%
15% M
18% N
12%FIO
10% 17% N
4% 11% M
17%N
6% 12% M
14% 9% 6% 8% 4%
Father
Primary completed
1238%
13%M
11%EHN
14% O
9% M
2% 16%O
8% M
4% 12%O
8% M
6% N
9% 4% 2% 5%
Basic vocational
49432%
35%M
34%N
35%O
37%M
34%N
40%O
37%M
35%N
40%O
33%M
29% 37%O
22% 23% 22%
Secondary vocational
34923%
13% 11% 16% 21%A
24%B
18% 19% 19% 20% 27%AG
32%BH
24% 31%ADG
29%BH
33%CFI
Secondary general
564%
3% 4% 2% 4% 3% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 6% 2% 4% 2% 5%
Unified master’s
1298%
2% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 6%AD
5% E
6% C
6%AD
5% E
7% CF
21%ADGJ
24%BEHK
19%CFIL
Figure: Economic activity of mothers and fathers and exam results of junior high school students in math-natural science part in 2006 (random sample) (%)
44
48
52
50
48
52
58
48
52
60
58
55
5
7
11
9
5
2
15
8
7
4
18
16
18
9
18
14
11
16
12
20
8
10
9
12
6
5
8
9
4
6
5
7
5
5
2
5
19
22
1
2
26
20
5
1
22
16
2
1
6
6
3
7
4
2
4
7
2
2
4
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
21-26 mothers of boys
21-26 mothers of girls
21-26 fathers of boys
21-26 fathers of girls
27-32 mothers of boys
27-32 mothers of girls
27-32 fathers of boys
27-32 fathers of girls
33-50 mothers of boys
33-50 mothers of girls
33-50 fathers of boys
33-50 fathers of girls
Unemploy ed
Unpaid work in own household
Retired
Farmer
Owner of company
Employ ed in priv ate or state company
In %
Figure: Economic activity of mothers and fathers and exam results of junior high school students in math-natural science part in 2006 (random sample) (%) - cont.
36
27
42
40
37
43
40
47
7
5
8
4
9
4
11
12
24
16
20
15
12
14
17
18
7
4
12
10
5
5
9
7
19
35
2
3
28
27
3
3
2
9
2
12
7
4
5
9
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Up to 15 mothers of boys
Up to 15 mothers of girls
Up to 15 fathers of boys
Up to 15 fathers of girls
16-20 mothers of boys
16-20 mothers of girls
16-20 fathers of boys
16-20 fathers of girls
In %
Unemploy ed
Unpaid work in own household
Retired
Farmer
Owner of company
Employ ed in priv ate or state company
Figure: Number of computers in students’ households (students of junior high school with the worst and the best exam results in math-natural science part ) (%)
5457
52
6763
71
7 8 7
1821
15
1 1 18 10
6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
up to 15 total up to 15 boys up to 15 girls 33-50 total 33-50 boys 33-50 girls
in %
1 computer
2 computers
3 computers or more
Figure: Number of mobile phones in students’ households (students of junior high schools with the worst and the best exam results in math-natural science part ) 2006 (%)
18 1720
8 106
2318
28
1915
22
5460
50
70 70 70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
up to 15 total up to 15 boys up to 15 girls 33-50 total 33-50 boys 33-50 girls
in %
1 mobile phone
2 mobile phones
3 or more
Figure: Educational aspirations of male students of junior high school with the worst and the best exam results in math-natural science part and their parents’ aspirations concerning boys’ education 2006 (%)
Up to 15 points
3
18
11
6
3
37
19
12
4
2
8
5
27
25
0 10 20 30 40
Ph.D
Unified master's
Tertiary vocational
Postsecondary
Secondary general
Secondary vocational
Basic vocational
In %
Boys
Parents
33 - 50 points
9
74
6
2
0
7
2
20
39
17
9
1
8
0
0 20 40 60 80
Ph.D
Unified master's
Tertiary vocational
Postsecondary
Secondary general
Secondary vocational
Basic vocational
In %
Boys
Parents
Figure: Educational aspirations of female students of junior high school with the worst and the best exam results in math-natural science part and their parents’ aspirations concerning girls’ education 2006 (%)
Up to 15 points
7
30
6
14
3
23
14
20
9
4
14
4
30
12
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ph.D
Unified master's
Tertiaryvocational
Postsecondary
Secondarygeneral
Secondaryvocational
Basic vocational
In %
Girls
Parents
33 - 50 points
13
78
5
3
1
0
0
20
62
11
3
0
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ph.D
Unif ied master's
Tertiary vocational
Postsecondary
Secondary general
Secondary vocational
Basic vocational
In %
Girls
Parents