gemc- toddler toxicology- resident training
DESCRIPTION
This is a lecture by Joe Lex, MD from the Ghana Emergency Medicine Collaborative. To download the editable version (in PPT), to access additional learning modules, or to learn more about the project, see http://openmi.ch/em-gemc. Unless otherwise noted, this material is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike-3.0 License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/.TRANSCRIPT
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Project: Ghana Emergency Medicine Collaborative
Document Title: Toddler Toxicology: Drugs That Can Kill a Child With One
Pill or Swallow
Author(s): Joe Lex, MD, FACEP, FAAEM, (Temple University) 2013
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Toddler Toxicology: Drugs That Can Kill a Child with
One Pill or Swallow
Joe Lex, MD, FAAEM Temple University School of Medicine
Philadelphia, PA
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How Far We’ve Come
• 1950: >400 pediatric overdose deaths
• 2003: 34 fatalities from overdose in children <6 years
• Can we be smug??
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Peak Incidence: 1 to 3
• Attracted to toxic substances based on color or appearance of agent or container
• More willing to taste dangerous substances
• Hand-mouth behavior nearly 10 times / hour
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Peak Incidence: 1 to 3
• Physical environment change plays significant role
• Half of accidental poisonings due to product in use at time of ingestion or recently moved from usual storage site
• Top category: cosmetics and personal care products
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Peak Incidence: 1 to 3
• Plants also popular
• Amounts ingested by toddlers small
• Ingestion of toxic substance usually results in nontoxic or minimally toxic outcomes
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Poison Hunting on eBay
10 month hunt on eBay
• 121 products identified
• 24 “supertoxic”: strychnine, arsenic trioxide, cyanide, etc.
• 63 “extremely toxic”
• 21 “very toxic”
• 13 “moderately-slightly toxic”
Cantrell FL. Clin Toxicol. 2005;43(5):375-9.
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Baby Proof Home
“I baby-proofed my home, but the kids still somehow
manage to get inside.”
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Gideon Koren’s Article
Koren G. Medications which can kill a toddler with one tablet or spoonful. Clin Toxicol 1993;31:407–13
• Identified medicines lethal to 10-kg child in single pill or swallow
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Interest Builds
Liebelt EL,et al. Small doses, big problems: a selected review of highly toxic common medications. Pediatr Emerg Care 1993;9:292–7.
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Interest Builds
Michael JB, Sztajnkrycer MD. Deadly pediatric poisons: nine common agents that kill at low doses. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2004 Nov;22(4):1019-50.
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Interest Builds
Matteucci MJ. One pill can kill: assessing the potential for fatal poisonings in children. Pediatr Ann. 2005 Dec; 34(12):964-8.
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Gideon Koren’s Return
Bar-Oz B, Levichek Z, Koren G. Medications that can be fatal for a toddler with one tablet or teaspoonful: a 2004 update. Paediatr Drugs. 2004; 6(2):123-6.
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Some Assumptions
• Assume healthy toddler with bodyweight 10 kg and normal drug metabolism
• Use lowest described fatal dose from literature
• Use maximal dose unit available
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Major Miscreants
• TCAs
• Antimalarials
• Antipsychotics
• Anti-arrhythmics
• Methyl salicylate
• Oral hypoglycemics
• Calcium channel blockers
• Theophylline
• Narcotics
• Camphor
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Liquids
Cydone, Wikimedia Commons
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Camphor
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Camphor – A Case Study
• Multiple pediatric deaths
• AAP editorial in 1978: Camphor: Who Needs It?
• 20% camphorated oil removed from US pharmacies
• OTC camphor concentration limited to 11% in OTCs Camphor: Who needs it? Pediatrics. 1978 Sep;62(3):404-6.
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Camphor
• Topical rubefacient: induces local hyperemia, warmth
• Analgesic, antipruritic, and antitussive agent
• Variety of OTC liniments: Vick’s VapoRub, Ben-Gay, Absorbine, Tiger Balm
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Camphor
• Aromatic terpene ketone derived from plants
• Distinct odor, pungent taste
• Some cultures use in cooking
• As little as 700 to 1000 mg fatal
AAP Policy Statement. Pediatrics 1994;94:127.
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Camphor
• 7805 cases of topical camphor ingestion in children younger than age 6 reported to poison control centers in US in 2001
• Deaths rare since loss of 20% oil
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Camphor
• Cause of death: respiratory depression, status epilepticus
• 3-year-old ingested 15mL Vicks VapoRub® seizures, coma, respiratory depression – 700 mg of camphor
Ruha AM, et al. Acad Emerg Med 2003;10:691.
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Camphor
• 2-year-old ingested 10mL Campho-Phenique
• Seizures in 10 minutes, then coma, respiratory depression lasting 24 hours
Gibson DE, et al. Am J Emerg Med 1989;7:41–3.
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Campho-Phenique® (10.8%)
• Pain relieving antiseptic liquid
• For insect bites, scrapes & minor burns
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Today
• 1996: 9,387 camphor exposures reported to AAPCC
• 7404 in children under 6 years
• NO deaths reported
• Virtually eliminated as a source of lethality in this country
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Methyl Salicylate
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Salicylates
• Present in numerous over-the-counter products
– Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid)
– Oil of wintergreen (methyl salicylate)
– Pepto-Bismol (bismuth subsalicylate)
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Methyl Salicylate
• Methyl ester of salicylic acid
• Oil of wintergreen
• Deceptively toxic
• Minimal toxic ingested dose in children: 150 mg/kg
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Methyl Salicylate
• Betula oil
• Panalgesic
• o-hydroxybenzoic acid methyl ester
• Gaultheria oil
• Methyl o-hydroxy -benzoate
• Sweet birch oil
• Teaberry oil
• Analgit
• Exagien
• Flucarmit
• 2-(methoxy carbonyl)-phenol
• Anthrapole ND
• 2-carbo-methoxyphenol
• Methyl hydroxybenzoate
• Linsal
• Metsal Liniment
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Methyl Salicylate
• One teaspoon of 98% methyl salicylate contains 7000 mg of salicylate
• Equivalent to 90 baby aspirin
• > 4 times potentially toxic dose for 10-kg child
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Methyl Salicylate
• Therapeutic serum ASA for analgesia: 15 to 30 mg/dL
• Signs and symptoms of toxicity: >30 mg/dL
• Life-threatening levels: >100 mg/dL
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Methyl Salicylate
• Vd doubles or triples in toxic states
• Therapeutic half-life: 1 to 2 hours
• Toxic levels with acid urine: half-life up to 30 hours
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Methyl Salicylate
• Children with rheumatoid disease at steady state: toxic through minor dietary changes
• Infants: may show just dehydration, rapid breathing
• Older kids: GI symptoms, CNS depression
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Methyl Salicylate
Non-aspirin salicylates can be converted to “aspirin equivalent doses” with the help of tables found in any standard toxicology book
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Methyl Salicylate 40%
Steffen Buus Kristensen, Wikimedia Commons
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Methyl Salicylate 0.06%
Jagwire, Wikimedia Commons
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Methyl Salicylate
• 21-month-old: significant poisoning, peak serum concentration of 81 mg/dL, after ingesting 4 mL Howrie DL, et al. Pediatrics 1985;75:869–71.
• Fatality with ingestion <1 tsp Stevenson CS. Am J Med Sci 1937;193:772–88.
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Methyl Salicylate
• 1996 report to AAPCC
• 10,733 toxic exposures to methyl salicylate
• 7,712 were children
• Two deaths reported, both in adults
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Podophyllin 25%
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Podophyllin 25%
• Resinous powder from rhizome of American Mayapple
• Used to treat genital warts
• Occasional adulterant in herbal medicines
• 1989: Hong Kong outbreak
Ng THK, et al. J Neurol Sci 1991;101:107-13.
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Podophyllin 25%
• Transient toxicity: hallucinatory psychosis, bone marrow depression, hepatic dysfunction
• Persistent: severe peripheral neuropathy
Filley CM, et al. Neurology. 1982 Mar; 32(3):308-11.
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Podophyllin 25%
• Minimal potential fatal dose: 15 – 20 mg/kg
• Maximal dose unit available: 1.25 g/5mL
• Volume for potential lethality:
1mL Filley CM, et al. Neurology. 1982 Mar; 32(3):308-11.
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Pastes, Ointments, Liniments
Scott Ehardt, Wikimedia Commons
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Dibucaine
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Dibucaine
• Potent amide anesthetic
• Topical uses: hemorrhoids, sunburn, episiotomy pain
• 10x as toxic as lidocaine
• 20x as toxic as procaine
• Mixed with secobarbitone, used IV to euthanize large animals (Somulose®)
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Dibucaine
CNS toxicity
• Seizure
• Coma
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Dibucaine
Cardiotoxicity • Increased PR • Widened QT • Slowed conduction • Slowed repolarization • Reentrant dysrhythmias
– SVT – PVC
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Dibucaine
• ~1% of topical anesthetics sold in US
• <5% nonfatal exposures to topical anesthetics
• Caused 3 of 4 deaths due to topical anesthetics over last 20 years Dayan PS, et al. Ann Emerg Med. 1996 Oct; 28(4):442-5.
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Dibucaine
• In 1995, US Consumer Product Safety Commission issued rule requiring childproof packing for containers with >0.5 mg dibucaine or >5 mg lidocaine
Corticaine® Dibucort®
Dibusone® Nupercainal®
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Dibucaine
• Ointment USP, 1%
• Topical Anesthetic
• For External Use Only; Do not use in the eyes
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Pills, Tablets & Capsules
Chaos, Wikimedia Commons
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Anti-Arrhythmics
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Quinidine
• D-isomer of quinine
• Derived from cinchona bark
• Side effects and toxicity similar to quinine
• Main concerns: dysrhythmias, cardiogenic shock, coma, seizures, retinal damage Dellocchio T, et al. Pediatrics. 1976 Aug; 58(2):288-90
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Interesting History
• Founder of homoeopathy, Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, took large daily dose of quinine bark
• After 2 weeks, he felt malaria-like symptoms
• “Like cures like” philosophy was start of homoeopathy
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Disopyramide
• Another Class 1A
• Falling out of favor
• More anticholinergic than others in class
• 1 pill potentially lethal
Singer P, et al. J Anal Toxicol. 1995 Oct; 19(6):529-30.
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Encainide
Encainide (Enkaid®) removed from American market voluntarily, still available on “compassionate” basis
• Case report: infant swallowed 1 tablet (25 mg) with rapid onset V-tach, but survival
Mortensen ME, et al. Ann Emerg Med. 1992 Aug; 21(8):998-1001.
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Propafenone
Propafenone (Rhythmol®)
• 2 year-old ingested less than one tablet rapid cardiovascular collapse
• Eventual recovery
McHugh TP, et al. Ann Emerg Med. 1987 Apr; 16(4):437-40.
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Antiarrhythmics
Drug Minimal potential fatal dose
Maximal dose
available
No. of tabs that can cause fatality
Quinidine 15 mg/kg 324 mg 1
Disopyramide 15 mg/kg 150 mg 1
Procainamide 70 mg/kg 1000 mg 1
Flecainide 25 mg/kg 150 mg 1 – 2
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Antimalarials
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Chloroquine
• Primary treatment for malaria – Anti-inflammatory
– Antihistamine
– Anti-prostaglandin
• Hydroxychloroquine: chemically similar
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Chloroquine
• Quinolone family
• Now used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, systemic / discoid lupus erythematosus, other connective tissue disorders
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Chloroquine
• Initial symptom may be cardiac arrest
• Pediatric overdoses: neuro symptoms in 30 min to 1 hour
• Death seems related to cardiac conduction system depression and myocardium
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Chloroquine
• Severity of hypokalemia closely correlates with level of chloroquine toxicity
• Potassium concentrations less than 1.9 mEq/L correlated with severe, life-threatening ingestion
Angel G, et al. Lancet. 1995 Dec 16; 346(8990):1625.
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Chloroquine
• GI absorption: rapid, almost complete
• Peak plasma concentration: 1.5 to 3 hours
• Elimination half-life in children: 75 to 136 hours
Cann HM, et al. Pediatrics 1961;27:95–102.
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Chloroquine
• Therapeutic dose: 10 mg/kg
• Toxic effects: 20 mg/kg
• Lethal dose: 30 mg/kg
• Confirmed toddler death at 27 mg/kg
• Equivalent to 300mg tablet in 8 kg 12-month-old
Cann HM, et al. Pediatrics 1961;27:95–102.
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Chloroquine
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Antimalarials
Drug Minimal potential fatal dose
Maximal dose
available
No. of tabs that can
cause fatality
Chloroquine 20 mg/kg 500 mg 1
Hydroxy-chloroquine
20 mg/kg 200 mg 1
Quinine 80 mg/kg 650 mg 1
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Clonidine
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Clonidine
• Initially nasal decongestants
• Later marketed as central acting antihypertensive
• Alpha2-adrenergic agonist – central adrenergic tone
• Also bind to imidazoline receptors in medulla
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Imidazolines
• Decongestant imidazolines: naphazoline, oxymetazoline, tetrahydrozoline, xylometazoline
• Ophthalmologic brimonidine and apraclonidine used to treat glaucoma
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Imidazolines
• 2001: 1438 clonidine exposures in children younger than 6 years old
• 922 tetrahydrozoline exposures in preschool children
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Toxicity
• Oral, transdermal delivery
• Patches contain 2.5 mg, 5 mg, and 7.5 mg of clonidine,
• OD resembles opioid: LOC, bradycardia, hypotension, respiratory depression, miosis, hypotonia
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Toxicity
• Toxicity in 30 to 90 minutes
• May persist for 1 to 3 days
• Children most at risk for bradycardia, respiratory depression, intermittent apnea
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Cases
• Case series: 80 children admit for clonidine ingestion
• Average time to onset of symptoms: 35 minutes
• Most common presenting sign or symptom: reduced level of consciousness (96%)
Nichols MH, et al. Ann Emerg Med 1997;29:511
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Cases
• Six required intubation
• No deaths reported
• 54% of the clonidine belonged to patients’ grandmothers
Nichols MH, et al. Ann Emerg Med 1997;29:511
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Cases
• 21-month-old girl: coma, bradycardia, hypotension after ingesting 0.3-mg tablet
• 6-year-old girl: obtundation, bradycardia after applying patch she mistook for bandage Killian CA, et al. Pediatr Emerg Care 1997; 13:340–1.
Neuvonen PJ, et al. Clin Toxicol 1979;14:369–74.
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Cases
• 9-month-old boy lethargic 90 minutes after sucking on a discarded clonidine patch
• 2-year-old child bradycardic, recurrent apnea after ingesting 5 mL apraclonidine Everson G, et al. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999; 37:629.
Caravati EM, et al. Ann Emerg Med 1988;17:175
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Management
• Imidazoline: supportive
• Symptomatic patients respond variably to naloxone up to a total of 10 mg
• Retrospective review: 39 / 80 patients (49%) got naloxone – Positive response in 4 patients
Nichols MH, et al. Ann Emerg Med 1997;29:511
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Management
• Symptomatic bradycardia: start with atropine
• Hypotension unresponsive to fluid resuscitation or complicated by persistent bradycardia: dopamine
Maggi JC, et al. Clin Paediatr 1986;25:453–5.
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Tricyclic Anti-depressants
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Cyclic Antidepressants
• Leading cause of poisoning fatality in the United States until 1993
• Presently 2nd most common class of agents ingested in fatalities reported to AAPCC
Litovitz TL, et al. Am J Emerg Med 2002; 20:391–452.
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Cyclic Antidepressants
• All TCAs dangerous in excess
• Desipramine seems especially dangerous in children
• Anticholinergic toxidrome (remember the mnemonic??)
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Toxidrome Mnemonic
“blind as a bat” – dilated pupils
“dry as a bone” – dehydrated
“mad as a hen” – hallucinations
“red as a beet” – skin flushing
urinary retention
tachycardia
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Pathophysiology
• Mortality 2o to cardiotoxicity, CNS toxicity
• BP may be 2o arrhythmia-induced cardiogenic shock, PVR 2o to alpha-adrenergic blockade, sympathomimetic amine depletion
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Pathophysiology
• Seizures associated with cyclic antidepressant toxicity typically generalized tonic-clonic, self-limited
• Status epilepticus has been reported
Lipper B, et al. Am J Emerg Med 1994;12:451–7.
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Pathophysiology
• Seizure activity greatest in antidepressants showing dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibition: bupropion, amoxapine, venlafaxine
• Significant toxicity presents within 6 hours of ingestion
Lipper B, et al. Am J Emerg Med 1994;12:451–7.
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Morbidity / Mortality
• 10 to 20 mg/kg ingestion of most TCAs likely to result in significant CNS, CV symptoms
• 15 to 20 mg/kg ingestion believed to represent lethal exposure
Frommer DA, et al. JAMA 1987;257:521–6.
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TCA Case Reports
• 3-year-old girl: seizures, cardiac dysrhythmias after ingestion 100 mg desipramine
• 250 mg imipramine, amoxapine have resulted in child fatality
Jue SG. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1976;10:52–3.
Linakis JG. Clin Toxicol Rev 1988;10.
Manoguerra AS. Crit Care Q 1982;43–51.
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Management
• Lecture in itself
• Sodium bicarbonate remains mainstay of treatment to reverse cardiotoxic effects
• Beneficial with even normal arterial pH
• Optimal dosing strategy remains to be determined
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Tricyclic Antidepressants
Drug Minimal potential fatal dose
Maximal dose
available
No. of tabs that can
cause fatality
Amitriptyline 15 mg/kg 100 mg 1 – 2
Imipramine 15 mg/kg 150 mg 1
Desipramine 15 mg/kg 75 mg 1 – 2
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Calcium Channel
Antagonists
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Epidemiology
• 9264 CCA exposures in 2001
• 100% increase from 1990
• 2249 in children under 6 years
• 88 moderate to major outcomes
• No pediatric deaths reported
• 10 CCAs available in US
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Categories
• Phenylalkylamines: verapamil
• Benzothiaprines: diltiazem – Act predominantly on cardiac
tissue
• Dihydropyridines: nifedipine – Acts predominately on vascular
smooth muscle
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Presentation
• Hallmark: disturbance of cardiovascular system
• Classic manifestations: hypotension, bradycardia,
• Reflex tachycardia can be seen with dihydropyridines
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Presentation
• Conduction: 2nd and 3rd degree heart block
• Negative inotropy: cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest
• Can be delayed in sustained-release preparation ingestion
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Presentation
• Hypotension can last >24 hours despite therapy,
• Hyperglycemia: multifactorial – Hyperglycemia in setting of
bradycardia and hypotension suggests CCA ingestion
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Case #1
• 11-month-old girl developed seizures 45 minutes after ingesting 400 mg verapamil
Passal DB, Crespin FH. Pediatrics 1984;73:543–5.
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Case #2
• 14-month-old girl pale, hypotensive, tachycardic after ingesting single 10 mg nifedipine tablet – Aggressive interventions
– Bradycardia pulseless
– Died 3 hours after presentation
Lee DC, et al. J Emerg Med 2000;19:359–61.
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Case Series
• Pediatric case series: 16 symptomatic patients among 283 recorded exposures
• Five occurred after ingestion single tablet
• Maximal time to symptom onset from 3 to 14 hours
Belson MG, et al. Am J Emerg Med 2000;18:581.
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Therapy
• Atropine: 1st-line agent in bradycardia, only moderately successful
• Optimal pharmacotherapy poorly defined
• Calcium: conflicting data – Most beneficial in mild toxicity
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Therapy
• TOC refractory CCA toxicity: high-dose glucose-insulin – Insulin: positive inotrope
• Case series: 5 patients with refractory shock after CCA overdose improved after glucose-insulin infusions
Yuan TH, et al. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999;37:463–74.
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Calcium Channel Blockers
Drug Minimal potential fatal dose
Maximal dose
available
No. of tabs that can
cause fatality
Nifedipine 15 mg/kg 90 mg 1 – 2
Verapamil 15 mg/kg 360 mg 1
Diltiazem 15 mg/kg 360 mg 1
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Sulfonylureas
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Sulfonylureas
• Children 12 years and under
• Hypoglycemia in 56/185 (30%)
• 54/56 (96%) developed hypoglycemia within 8 hours of ingestion
• Clinical observation with oral feeding alone appears safe Spiller HA, et al. J Pediatr. 1997 Jul;131(1 Pt 1):141-6.
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Sulfonylureas
• Clear symptoms hypoglycemia or glucose levels < 60 mg/dL: admit for supplemental glucose (oral or IV), monitor
• Refractory to IV glucose: octreotide, diazoxide may help
Little GL, et al. J Emerg Med. 2005 Apr; 28(3):305-10.
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Sulfonylureas
• 2-year-old boy observed to ingest 5 mg glipizide
• Activated charcoal given within 35 minutes
• Hypoglycemia with serum glucose 49 mg/dL 11 hrs later
Szlatenyi CS, et al. Ann Emerg Med. 1998 Jun; 31(6):773-6.
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Oral Hypoglycemics
Drug Minimal potential fatal dose
Maximal dose
available
No. of tabs that can cause
fatality
Chlorpropamide 5 mg/kg 25 mg 1
Glibenclamide 0.1 mg/kg 2.5 mg 1
Glipizide 0.1 mg/kg 5 mg 1
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Opioids & Opiates
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Epidemiology
• 5914 reported ingestions by children younger than 6 years old in 2001
• Most common: hydrocodone with acetaminophen (Vicodin®)
• Time to peak toxicity: 1 hour
• Most deaths 2o to respiratory depression, hypoxia
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Pathophysiology
• Infants and children more susceptible to toxic effects
• Half of children exposed to more than 1 mg/kg of codeine develop toxicity
• 2.5 mg of hydrocodone has been lethal in infant
OMA Committee on Pharmacy. Codeine: Ont Med Rev 1977;44:447–8.
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Treatment
• Supportive
• Naloxone as needed – Onset of action: < 2 minutes
– Duration of action: 20 – 90 minutes
– Elimination half-life: 60 – 90 minutes
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Opioids / Narcotics
Drug Minimal potential fatal dose
Maximal dose
available
No. of tabs that can
cause fatality
Codeine 7-14
mg/kg 60 mg 1 – 2
Hydrocodone elixir
1.5 mg/kg
60 mg / 5mL
<1 tsp
Methadone 1-2
mg/kg 40 mg 1
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Special Case: Lomotil®
• Antidiarrheal agent – 2.5 mg opioid diphenoxylate
– 0.025 mg antimuscarinic atropine
• Both absorbed rapidly – May be delayed in overdose
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Special Case: Lomotil®
• Diphenoxylate metabolized to difenoxin, 5x more active than parent compound
• Elimination half-life 12 – 14 hours
• Little correlation between ingested dose and outcome
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Special Case: Lomotil®
Classically described as “biphasic reaction”
• Initial antimuscarinic symptoms in 2 – 3 hours
• Delayed opioid symptoms
• Recent studies show this occurs in only few cases
McCarron MG, et al. Pediatrics 1991;87:694–700.
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Special Case: Lomotil®
Case series
• 4/36 developed early anticholinergic symptoms
• 15/36 developed opioid toxicity only
McCarron MG, et al. Pediatrics 1991;87:694–700.
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Special Case: Lomotil®
• Catastrophic outcomes reported after ingestion by children Wasserman GS, et al. Am Fam Physician 1975; 11:93–7.
• Toxicity reported after ingestion of one-half tablet Ginsberg CM, et al. Clin Toxicol 1969;2:377–82.
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Management
• Similar to other opioids
• Initial symptoms, including coma, may be delayed
• Symptoms have recurred 24 hours after initial resolution
• Recommend: admit, monitor for no less than 24 hours Manoguerra AS, et al. Poisindex, Vol. 117; 9/2003.
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Household Products
• Methanol in deicing solutions, windshield washer fluid, carburetor cleaners
• Concentration may be 95%
• Ingestion of 4 mL by 10-kg toddler serum methanol concentration of 50 mg/dL
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Household Products
• Ethylene glycol in antifreeze, some fire extinguishers, inks, and adhesives
• Concentration may be 95%
• Ingestion of 2.9 mL by 10-kg toddler serum ethylene glycol concentration of 50 mg/dL
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…and Don’t Forget
• Theophylline still in use
• Extended release preparation available
• Minimal fatal dose: 8.4 mg/kg
• Maximal available unit dose: 500 mg
• One tablet can definitely kill
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Primum non Nocere
• No literature suggests better outcomes with charcoal
• Deaths reported from activated charcoal aspiration – Some in children when they
consumed nontoxic products
Menzies DG, et al. BMJ 1988;297:459–460.
Harsch HH. N Engl J Med 1986;314:318.
Elliott CG, et al. Chest 1989;96:672–674.
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Drugs Causing Toddler Deaths: 1990-2000
Number of Fatalities
Iron supplements 32
Antidepressants 13
Methadone 6
Nifedipine 5
Methyl salicylate 3
Diphenoxylate 1
Clonidine 1
Flecainide 1
Glipizide 1
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Summary
• Vast majority of toddler ingestions are benign
• Dozen or so medicines can kill 10-kg toddler with one pill or swallow
• Treatment: usually supportive
• Activated charcoal can kill