fundamentals of al

7/29/2019 fundamentals of AL

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Adult learning


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Adult learning

Learning :is the process whereby individuals

acquire knowledge, skills& attitudes through

experience reflection study or instruction.

Adult : is someone who has achieved the self

concept of being responsible for their own life.


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Knowles' - concept1. As they mature, adults tend to prefer self-direction. The role of the

instructor is to engage in a process of inquiry, analysis, and decision-making with adult learners, rather than to transmit knowledge.

2. Adults' experiences are a rich resource for learning. Active participation

in planned experiencessuch as discussions or problem solving

exercises, an analysis of those experiences, and their application to work

or life situationsshould be the core methodology for training adults.Adults learn and retain information more easily if they can relate it to

their reservoir of past experiences.

3. Adults are aware of specific learning needs generated by real-life events.

Adult learners' needs and interests are the starting points and serve as

guideposts for training activities.4. Adults are competency-based learners, meaning that they want to learn a

skill or acquire knowledge that they can apply pragmatically to their

immediate circumstances.


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Principles and issues of adult learning

1. Reinforcement: learnt material that leads to some kind of reward orreinforcement is more likely to be retained than material which leads to

punishment or no reward.2. Motivation: greater efficiency in learning occurs when the learner is motivated

to learn i.e. learning satisfies some needs of the individual participant undergoingtraining.

3. Knowledge of results: providing information to the learners about theeffectiveness of their learning is to provide knowledge of results. It isfundamental principle of learning that one correct response leads to increased

effort expended on the next repetition.4. Active practice: learning requires opportunity for repetition & practice.

Repetition of mistake can lead to permanent negative learning. New conceptsrequire repetition if they have to become a permanent part.

5. Whole verses part learning: this principles suggest that learning large self-contains units of a task is preferable to learning small segmented parts.

6. Transfer of training: material learnt during the training experience should haverelevance for the job situation. Role playing is an effective procedure from thestand point of training what is learnt in training to actual job behavior.

None of these principles of learning are implied to be applicable to allsituation circumstances. The basic issues underlying these principles could bebetter understood with the help of the hierarchy of human learning from simple

to the most complex.


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Hierarchy of learning

1 signal learning Individual learns to make a general diffuse

response to signal (Pavlov's conditioned

response).

2 stimulus-response (s-r) learning Person acquires a precise response to

discriminated stimulus.

3 chaining Learner acquires a chain of 2 or more s-r

connections

4 verbal association Individual learns chains that are verbal.

5 multiple discrimination persona learns to make a variety of

identifying response to as many different

stimulti,which resemble each other.

6 concept learning Learner acquires the ability to make a

common response to class of stimulidiffering from each other.

7 principle learning Person chains together 2 or more concepts

to establish a process

8 problem solving Individual chains principles together in a

kind of learning requiring the internalevents usually called learning.


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Adult Learning Theory

How do adults learn?

Adults need to dosomething concrete

or have an

experience

Adults observe, think

about what they havedone (or about their

experience) and how

they reacted to it

He absorbs what he has

felt and observed, comes

up with a conceptual

framework and relates it

to his past

knowledge/experience

Tests and applies to actual

work or life situations. If

he can his learning is

long-lasting. If he cannot,

his learning is short-lived


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Adult Learning Theory

Learning

experience

Observe and

reflect

Experiment

and integrate

Generalize

andconceptualize


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People learn faster and better when:

When they want to learn and know it is imp. to learn

Believe that learning will help in real ways

Are in supportive environment free from threat Are provided information in several different ways

Learn by doing the task

Have a chance to practice what they learned

Given feedback on their performance

Are praised when they do well

Adult learning involves the ego so they need peer

support and to reduce fear of judgment during learning


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Summary of principles of adult learning

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction

2. Experience, incl. mistakes, provide the basis for learning activities

3. Adults are more interested in learning subjects that have immediate

relevance to their job or personal life

4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented


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Andragogy vs. Pedagogy

Pedagogy

( Greek word Ped : child &agogus : Leader )

is teacher-centered and subject-centered.

Andragogy (Greek word andrmeaning man, not boy.)

is student-centered.

Malcolm Knowles (1968). Theconcept of andragogy implies self-

directedness and an active studentrole, as well as solution-centeredactivities.

Whoever adults are, they need to be taught by methods which acknowledge and

respect the fact that they are adults and not children.


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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS ASLEARNERS

CHILDREN ADULTS

Rely on others to decide what is

important to be learned.

Decide for themselves what important

to be learned.

Accept the important being

presented at face value.

Need to validate the information based

on their beliefs and experience.

Expect what they are learning to beuseful in their long-term future.

Expect what they are learning to beimmediately useful

Have little or no experience upon

which to draware relatively clean

slates.

Have much experience upon whichtodraw may have fixed viewpoints.

Little ability to serve as a

knowledgeable resource to teacher or

fellow classmates.

Significant ability to serve a

knowledgeable resource to trainer and

fellow learners


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What Is Andragogy?

Andragogy consists of learning strategies

focused on teaching adults.

It is often interpreted as the process of

engaging adult learners in the structure of

the learning experience.


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Andragogy, initially defined as "the art and science ofhelping adults learn,"

The andragogic model asserts that five issues be

considered and addressed in formal learning.

(1) letting learners know why something is important to learn,

(2) showing learners how to direct themselves through information,

and

(3) relating the topic to the learners' experiences. In addition,

(4) people will not learn until they are ready and motivated to learn.Often this

(5) requires helping them overcome inhibitions, behaviors, and

beliefs about learning.


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Theory of Adult Education

The term Andragogy was originally used

by Alexander Kapp (a German educator)

in 1833, and was developed into a theory

of adult education by the American

educator, Malcolm Knowles.


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Malcolm Knowles


Knowles' theory can be stated as four

simple postulates:

Adults need to be involved in the planning and

evaluation of their instruction.

Experience (including mistakes) provides the

basis for learning activities.


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Malcolm Knowles


Adults are most interested in learning subjects

that have immediate relevance to their job or

personal life.

Adult learning is problem-centered rather than

content-oriented (Orientation to learning).


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Andragogy is based on four crucial assumptions about the

characteristics of adult learners that are differentfrom theassumptions about child learners.

As persons mature, their self concept moves from

being a dependent personality toward one of being a

self-directing human being

they accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that

becomes an increasing resource for learning

their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to

the developmental tasks of their social roles, and

their time perspective changes from one of postponed

application of knowledge to immediacy of application.


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Andorgogy can be defined as an organized effort to assist adults to

learn in a way that enhances their capacity to function as self

directed learners. To do this the trainer should;

- Assist the learners to define their learning needs

- Design learning events to suit an individual learners entry behaviour

- Help the learner to understand how to use learning resources

- Emphasize experimental & participative training methods

- Facilitate problem posing, solving & participative training methods- Progressively decrees the learners dependency on the trainer

- Assist learners to assume increasing responsibility for planning their

own learning

- Reinforce the self-concept of the learner to encourage achievements

of objectives

- Encourage the use of formative assessment techniques including

free exchange of feedback


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Leaning curve

The learning curve can represent a short training session to enable

person to achieve a modest increase in performance or it canrepresent a long period for professional development. In all except

the most simple learning situations ,it is useful to consider design

through several building blocks or learning units, each providing

opportunities for progressive learning towards a satisfactory

standard performance.


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An illustration shows two learning units, training course and on the job

training. A course has been designed to meet the general needs of

people. The course can be run at a training institution over a fixed

period.

A course is unlikely to help people achieve a high standard of

performance. Due to limited skills there is risk that the performance

will deteriorate thereby negating the value of the training. So,

instead of the learning curve continuing to rise to show an increasing

standard of performance, it might falls as trainees forget of

information & lose their skills.


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Figure shows that a second learning unit is designed to

ensure that a trainees performance can be maintained

or improved. That this is by means of on the job training.

This will done under the supervision to ensure effective

of learning.

The learning curve continues beyond the unit designed for

on the job training. This is because many tasks are

highly productive & a person will probably continue tolearn & gain more experience long after their formal

training is completed.


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Adult learning principles

1 learning can be described as a relatively permanentchange in behaviour resulting from instruction or

stimulation from external sources. Learning takes place

as a result of perception which is the ability to observe

the outside world through the senses. We perceive when

we

-recognize objects,sounds,etc.,

-discriminate b/w facts, right & wrong, success & failures

-relate similar objects with one another, parts to the whole

etc.,

-select what is of interest to us


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2 designing and implementing the training programme: it is

worthwhile to examine the basic principles of learning &

see how these principles could be out into practice while

designing the course. For better understanding of the

principles of learning we shall enumerate them under the

following heads:

-the learning process

-the training process

-requirements on the part of trainer

-the environment of learning & training

-the environment of the work org.


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3 learning process

the training should meet the training needs of the learner.

He should be convinced that after training he will be inposition to apply the lessons learn to his practical work

situations. Then alone he will be motivated to make the

best use of the programme.


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4 The training process

The learning must be sequential. Appropriate training

material must be prepared & arranged in proper

sequence & order.

Presentation & demonstrations help in this process.

Repetition fixes what has been learnt.

Time must be provided for practicing the learning.

Variety of training methods must be used to suit the

material

Suitable feedback must be given to the trainees


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5 Requirements on the part of the trainee

Acceptance on the part of the trainee that all persons

can learn. The trainee must be aware of present inadequacies.

There must be mental readiness or set towards learning.

The trainee should have mental & physical capacity &

intelligence.

Trainee must be motivated to learn.

Intrinsic motivation: interest or challenge in the learning

own expectations to succeed in learning & achieving in

the field o f work.

Extrinsic motivation: reward or punishment scheme.


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6 Characteristics of the adult learner

Learner has the self concept of a self directing person. The

trainer must accept it.

Life experiences are important to an adult.

There is no decline in intelligence with increasing years but

older people make a more errors.

7 requirements on the part of the trainer

The trainer must accept all persons irrespective of their

age can learn.

The trainer should know his audience & learn more aboutthe learners.

He should motivate his trainees.

He should help the trainee to learn from daily experiences.


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8 the environment of learning & training

The basics physiological needs of trainees must be

attended to.

Seating arrangements of chairs & tables should be

comfortable. Chalkboard, charts etc., must be ensured

for all participants.

An informal & friendly climate should be developed in the

classroom.

The training situations must not be different from the

organizational setting. The learning, atmosphere etc.,

should be relevant to the work setting.

The dynamics of group behaviors must be attended to.


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9 Environment of the work organization

The work org. should be supportive to implement the

ideas of the returning trainees. Resistance on the part of colleagues & subordinates to

change is a barrier to learn.


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Learning styles

Learning styles refer to the preferred way individual

processes information. Unlike individuals differ inabilities, styles describe a persons mode of thinking,

remembering, problem solving etc., some of the styles

are

1 Field independence vs. field dependence: a field

independent person approaches the environment in an

analytical way & able to distinguish figures as discrete

from their backgrounds.A filed dependent person approaches the environment in a

global way & experiences the events in an

undifferentiated way.


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2 Leveling vs. sharpening: individual variations in

remembering that pertain to the distinctiveness of

memories.3 Reflection vs. impulsivity: individual consistencies in the

speed & adequacy with which alternative hypothesis are

formed.

4 Serialist vs. holist: serialist prefer to learn in a sequentialfashion, whereas holist prefer to learn in a hierarchical

manner. (top down)


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Learning Styles:

Are simple but different approaches or

ways of learning.

Types of learning styles:

1.Visual learners

2.Auditory learners

3.Tactile/ Kinetics - moving, doing &touching

Kolb's experiential learning theory (learning


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Kolb s experiential learning theory (learningstyles) model

Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinctlearning styles (or preferences), which arebased on a four-stage learning cycle. since it

offers both a way to understand individualpeople's different learning styles, and also anexplanation ofa cycle of experiential learningthat applies to us all.


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Kolb's model t works on two levels - a four-stage cycle:

Concrete Experience - (CE)

Reflective Observation - (RO) Abstract Conceptualization - (AC)

Active Experimentation - (AE)


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Kolb provides one of the most useful (but contestable)

descriptive models available of the adult learning

process, inspired by the work ofKurt Lewin.
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/experience.htmhttp://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/experience.htm


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This suggests that there are four stages in learning whichfollow from each other: Concrete Experience isfollowed by Reflection on that experience on a personalbasis.

This may then be followed by the derivation of generalrules describing the experience, or the application ofknown theories to it (Abstract Conceptualization), and

hence to the construction of ways of modifying the nextoccurrence of the experience (Active Experimentation),leading in turn to the next Concrete Experience.

All this may happen in a flash, or over days, weeks ormonths, depending on the topic, and there may be a

"wheels within wheels" process at the same time.


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Kolb includes this 'cycle of learning' as a central

principle his experiential learning theory,

typically expressed as four-stage cycle of

learning, in which 'immediate or concreteexperiences' provide a basis for'observationsand reflections'. These 'observations andreflections' are assimilated and distilled into

'abstract concepts' producing new implicationsfor action which can be 'actively tested' in turncreating new experiences.


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Experiential Learning Styles


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Honey and Mumford (1982) have built a

typology of Learning Styles around this

sequence, identifying individual preferences for

each stage (Activist, Reflector, Theorist,Pragmatist respectively), Kolb also has a test

instrument (the Learning Style Inventory) but has

carried it further by relating the process also to

forms of knowledge.


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Learning styles mean that:

At a minor level there is a need for adjustment between

learner and teacher: sometimes their preferences arecomplementary, sometimes antagonistic, (aggressive)

and of course sometimes collusive if they both tend to go

for the same stages in the cycle.

At a major level, neglect of some stages can prove to be a

major obstacle to learning.

F f K l d d th L i C l


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Forms of Knowledge and the Learning Cycle

The four quadrants of the cycle are associated

with four different forms of knowledge, in Kolb's

view. Each of these forms is paired with its

diagonal opposite.


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four-type of learning styles

Diverging (CE/RO)

Assimilating (AC/RO)

Converging (AC/AE) Accommodating (CE/AE)

k l d b i b b f f


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convergent knowledge brings to bear a number of factsor principles on a single topic: problems have "right" and

"wrong" answers convergent learners tended to be more

highly valued in school, because most assessmentapproaches focus on convergent skills. Examples

include applied maths, engineering.

Divergent knowledge on the other hand, is (verybroadly) more about creativity it is about the

generation of a number of accounts of experience. It is

generated between Concrete Experienceand Reflective

Observation.


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Kolb Learning Style theory

4 learning styles:

Diverging: perceive info concretely and process it

reflectively Use both interpersonal interaction and info gathering

Can view a situation from many divergent perspectivesand brainstorm alternatives

Ask why questions, like working in groups

Often found in humanities, arts, service careers

Assimilating: perceive info abstractly and process itreflectively (analytical learners)

Can assimilate data into a meaningful unit

Ask what if questions (what if I change this)

Prefer readings, lectures, traditional classrooms

In math, basic science, educational research


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Converging: perceive info abstractly and process itactively

Combine analytical thinking with doing

Ask how questions (how does this work?)

Like lab work, simulations, instructor as a coach,

prefer to work alone

In applied science, technology careers

Accommodating: perceive info concretely and process itactively

Use both interpersonal interaction with doing

Ask what if (what happens if I change this?)

Like to learn hands on, but prefer to work in a group

Marketing, sales, business management, some teachers

diagrams of Kolb's learning styles


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diagrams of Kolb's learning styles


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Kolb explains that different people naturallyprefer a certain single different learning style.Various factors influence a person's preferredstyle:

notably in his experiential learning theory model(ELT) Kolb defined three stages of a person'sdevelopment, and suggests that our propensityto reconcile and successfully integrate the fourdifferent learning styles improves as we maturethrough our development stages. Thedevelopment stages that Kolb identified are:


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Acquisition - birth to adolescence -

development of basic abilities and 'cognitivestructures'

Specialization - schooling, early work and

personal experiences of adulthood - the

development of a particular 'specialized

learning style' shaped by 'social, educational,

and organizational socialization'

Integration - mid-career through to later life -expression of non-dominant learning style in

work and personal life.

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