full text 1

Aquaculture practices in Northeast India: Current statusand future directions

S. Munilkumar Æ M. C. Nandeesha

Published online: 10 August 2007

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract The northeast region of India, comprised

of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripu-

ra, is blessed with rich biodiversity and fisheries

resources. With more than 90% of population being

fish eaters, there is heavy demand for fish but a wide

gap exists between supply and demand. The region

produces over 0.214 million tons of fish annually,

with almost 50% coming from aquaculture. Aqua-

culture development in the region is taking place at a

rapid rate. However, efforts are necessary to increase

the present level of production through both hori-

zontal and vertical expansion. The region has rivers,

coldwater streams, floodplain wet lands, reservoirs,

lakes, ponds, paddy fields, and mini-barrages to

support large-scale aquaculture activities, which can

not only produce fish to meet regional requirements,

but also export the surplus. This paper describes and

discusses the current status of aquaculture, produc-

tion level, constraints, and future directions towards

achieving ‘‘fish for all’’ in the region.

Keywords Aquaculture � Chinese carps �Indian major carps � Indigenous species �Northeast India � Resources � Rice fields �Wetlands

Introduction

The northeastern states of India, comprised of the

eight landlocked states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,

Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,

and Tripura, is one of the richest regions of India in

terms of biodiversity and natural resources. The land-

locked northeastern states are located between lati-

tude 1� 5700 and 29� 3000 N and longitude 89� 4600 and

97� 3000 E. It is spread over an area of 262,190 sq km,

which represents about 8% of the geographical area

of the country. It is one of the most thinly populated

regions of India, with about 39 million people,

representing about 4% of the whole population of

the country with a population density of 14–

340 km�2, compared to the national average of 324

persons km�2. The region has international borders

with Bhutan, China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh. The

region has rich and diverse aquatic resources in

different topographical and climatic conditions in the

plains of the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys in

Assam, from upland plain lands of the Imphal valley

in Manipur to the predominantly hilly regions of

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim

with elevations ranging from 200–900 m above mean

S. Munilkumar (&) � M. C. Nandeesha

College of Fisheries, Central Agricultural University,

Lembucherra, Tripura West 799 210, India

e-mail: [email protected]

Present Address:S. Munilkumar

Central Institute of Fisheries Education (Deemed

University), Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

Versova, Mumbai 400 061, India

123

Fish Physiol Biochem (2007) 33:399–412

DOI 10.1007/s10695-007-9163-4

sea level (MSL). The annual rainfall in the region

exceeds 2,000 mm and more than 60% of the area is

covered by forest. The soils are mostly acidic in

nature, having pH in the range 4.5–5.0. Fish have

long been an important food item for the inhabitants

of the region, which are predominantly tribal. Fish

has been associated with the life of the people of

northeast India from time immemorial (Viswanath

2002). Not only does it provide nutritious food, but

also forms an unbreakable relationship with the

culture, religion, and traditions of the region (Guru-

mayum et al. 2006). With more than 95% of

population being fish eaters, there is a huge gap

between supply and demand. The current availability

of fish in the region is estimated to be around 6.00 kg

person�1 year�1, which is lower than the national

availability of 9.00 kg person�1 year�1. The require-

ment for fish to meet nutritional requirements is

estimated to be 429,871 tons assuming that 11 kg fish

is required per person whereas the total production in

2003–04 was only 233,709 tons indicating a shortage

of 196,162 tons. To meet the demand of the people,

the region is importing fish to the tune of 38,340 tons

per annum in addition to unaccounted import from

the neighboring countries of Bangladesh and

Myanmar.

Fishery resources and species diversity

Rivers, coldwater streams, floodplain wet lands,

reservoirs, lakes, ponds, paddy fields, and mini-

barrages (Table 1) present ample scope for rational

utilization for the development of fisheries in the

region. The Brahmputra and Barak Rivers along with

their tributaries and basins form resources of unpar-

alleled magnitude and account for over 50% of the

potential water resources in the country (Sinha 1991).

The region is enriched with many freshwater

species of fish and is considered to be one of the hot

spots of freshwater fish biodiversity in the world

(Kottelat and Whitten 1996). A large number of fish

species have been reported by various workers such

as Hora (1921, 1936), Hora and Mukherji (1935),

Menon (1954, 1974), Sehgal (1955), Malhotra and

Suri (1969), Dey (1975), Yazdani (1977), Vishw-

anath and Sarojnalini (1988), Vishwanath (1993),

Barman (1994), Sen (1977, 1995, 1998), Sinha

(1994), Nath and Dey (2000), Selim and Vishwanath

(1998). Sen (2000) described 266 species, which

included all indigenous and exotic species found in

this region. Sarkar and Ponniah (2000) presented

details of 186 potential food, sports, and aquarium

fish species belonging to 27 families under 84 genera.

Out of 186 fish species, 63 (33.87%) are considered

only food fish while 53 (28.44%) are ornamental.

Eleven species (5.91%) have food as well as sports

and ornamental values. Only eight species do not

have any economic importance in terms of food,

sports, or ornamental value. Of 186 species, 34

species have greater market demand than Indian

major carps whereas 19 have similar economic value.

Viswanath (2002) described 239 species of the

region, belonging to 104 genera, 34 families, and

12 orders. So far 267 fish species belonging to 114

genera under 38 families and 10 orders have been

Table 1 Fishery resources of northeast India (values in parentheses indicate area yet to be developed)

States Rivers

(km)

Reservoirs

(ha)

Beel, lake &

swamps (ha)

Ponds/mini-

barrages (ha)

Paddy fields

(ha)

Forest

fisheries

Arunachal Pradesh 2,000 NA 2,500 250 (1,250) 12,000 –

Assam 5050 10,730 100,000 22,500 248,980 5,017

Manipur 2000 100 (40,000) 40,150 5,000 (4500) 15,790 –

Megalaya 5,600 8,430 375 500 (1,900) 15,790 –

Mizoram 1,700 32 NA 1,795 6,810 –

Nagaland 1,600 (27,100) 215 500 (15,00) 14,500 –

Sikkim 900 120,000 – – 450 –

Tripura 1200 4500 (1,500) 3,000 10,264 (3,136) 25,780 –

Northeast 20,050 143,792 (68,760) 500 40,809 (12,286) 340,100* NA

*Estimation based on the assumption that 10% of the paddy fields in the Northeast India would be suitable for paddy-cum-fish

culture. NA: not available. It is assumed that a large area under forest have water bodies suitable for fish culture

400 Fish Physiol Biochem (2007) 33:399–412

123

reported from this region (Bhattacharjya et al. 2003),

which is about 33% of the total Indian freshwater fish

species.

The rich fish diversity of the region has been

attributed to many reasons, viz., the geography,

which consists of hills, plateaus, and valleys and

results in the formation of a variety of torrential hill

streams, rivers, lakes and swamps, and drainage

patterns, which include the Ganga-Brahmaputra,

Koladyne, and Chindwin-Irrawady systems. The

unique tectonic setting in South East Asia resulted

from the collision of the Indian, Chinese, and

Burmese plates, resulting in the formation of the

mighty Himalaya, and the Indo-Burman ranges

(Viswanath 2002).

Cultured species diversity in the region

The major species cultured in the region are the

Indian major carps and Chinese carps. Among the

coldwater species, mahseer and trout are also impor-

tant cultured groups (Table 2). The culture of air-

breathing fishes has not gained momentum in the

region, despite the high market demand for these

species. Culture of other species such as Labeo

gonius, Osteobrama belangiri, Puntius sarana, etc.,

is also being attempted in the region.

Current status of fish production

Since the 1950s, scientific fish farming practices have

been introduced into the region with the culture of

Indian major carp seeds procured from West Bengal.

This started with the breeding of rohu (Labeo rohita),

catla (Catla catla), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala),

common carp, silver carp, and grass carp under a

hypophysation programme. Since then aquaculture

has grown very rapidly from an insignificant level to

the current level where it contributes more than 50%

of total fish harvested from the region (Table 3). The

annual production in the region is estimated to be

213,996 tones from both capture and culture fisheries

with nearly 77% of production coming from Assam

alone. In the plains, the common practice of aqua-

culture is mixed farming with Indian major carps

(catla, rohu, and mrigal) and exotic (common carp,

silver carp, and grass carp) carps. In the case of high

and medium altitudes, there are not yet any organized

culture practices. However, farmers sometimes prac-

tice monoculture of silver carp or common carp and

sometimes adopt mixed culture of exotic carps since

Indian carps do not grow well. Some of the existing

activities in the region are traditional culture methods

of paddy-cum-fish culture, pig-cum-fish culture, as

practised in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal

Pradesh, and Manipur. The traditional rice-fish cul-

tivation in Arunachal Pradesh by the Apatani tribe is

well known (Das 2002; Rai 2005) where common

carp is stocked in paddy fields and grown for a period

of about 4–6 months.

All the states in the region have reported produc-

tivity levels of around 1000–1700 kg ha�1 year�1

with an average of 1500 kg ha�1 year�1, compared to

the national average of more than 2000 kg ha�1

year�1. However, in integrated farming systems,

productivity was better in Assam and Tripura, while

Table 2 Major fish species cultured in North-Eastern States

States Fish species

Assam Rohu (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla catla), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp

(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), common

carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Arunachal Pradesh Rohu, catla, mrigal, silver carp, grass carp, common carp, mahseer (tor spp.),

trout (Salmo gairdnerii, Salmo trutta fario)

Nagaland Rohu, catla, mrigal silver carp, grass carp, common carp

Mizoram Rohu, catla, mrigal, silver carp, grass carp, common carp

Tripura Rohu, catla, mrigal, silver carp, grass carp, common Carp, Pangasius spp

Meghalaya Rohu, catla, mrigal silver carp, grass carp, common carp, and Labeo gonius

Manipur Rohu, catla, mrigal, silver carp, grass carp, and common carp

Sikkim Common carp, grass carp, rainbow trout

Fish Physiol Biochem (2007) 33:399–412 401

123

in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Mizoram, the

productivity was less than 1500 kg ha�1 year�1.

Rice–fish culture is an important activity prevalent

in some areas of the region and the reported

production ranges from 250 to 1200 kg ha�1. Aruna-

chal Pradesh has the traditional farming of rice–fish,

yielding around 500 kg ha�1 year�1.

Seed production in northeast India

Traditional ‘‘Hapa’’ breeding still dominates the seed

production scenario with over 500 units. Chinese

hatchery is the most common large-scale seed

production system. The total amount of seed pro-

duced during 1999–2004 was 11,522.24 million.

Assam, Manipur, and Tripura produce surplus seed

and export to other states. States such as Arunachal,

Pradesh, and Mizoram continue to import large

quantities of seed from other states.

The common agents for induced breeding of the

Indian major carps are fish pituitary extract, the

synthetic hormone Ovaprim, Ovatide, Ovapel, etc.,

which contain domperidone and synthetic

gonadotropin-releasing hormones. Apart from the

commercial breeding of Indian major carps (IMC),

various attempts have been made to induce breeding

of other local species. Chetia et al. (1999) reported

induced breeding of P. sarana to evaluate its culture

potential in Assam. Bhuyan et al. (2002) reported

induced breeding and larval rearing of L. gonius in

the low-temperature range of 14–22�C at the mid-

attitude region of Meghalaya at 1,496 m above MSL.

Das et al. (1994) reported successful breeding and

hatching of P. javanicus, which is gaining acceptance

in the diversified aquaculture systems of the region.

O. belengiri was successfully bred with the synthetic

hormone Ovatide in 1999 during breeding trials in

Manipur.

Status of fish farming in rice fields in the region

The prevailing indigenous rice-fish farming practices

among farmers in the northeastern India can be

categorized into: (a) the rice field capture fishery

system, (b) the wild aquatic cropping system, (c) the

mountain-valley rice-fish farming system, and (d) the

Table 3 Capture fisheries and aquaculture production during the past five years (1999–2004)

States Capture fisheries Aquaculture Production (MT)

MT Total (%) MT Total (%) Total Annual average

Assam 452,120 54.62 375140 45.35 827260 165452

Arunachal pradesh 3325 26.08 9,422 73.92 12,747 2,549.40

Nagaland – – 26,760 100.00 26,760 5,352

Mizoram 1800 10.67 15,070 89.33 16,870 3,374

Tripura 3,434.45 4.45 73,765.05 95.55 77,199 15,439.80

Meghalaya 16,165.47 61.36 10,177.92 38.64 26,343.38 5,268.68

Sikkim 425 76.58 130 23.42 555 111

Manipur 49,350 60.00 32,900 40.00 82,250 16,450

Northeast (Total) 526,619.92 49.22 543,364.97 50.78 1,069,984.38 213,996.88

Table 4 Fish productivity in kg ha�1 yr�1 in various northeastern states

Culture system Assam Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Mizoram Tripura Manipur

Pond culture 1,500 800–1200 1,000 1,300 1,280 1,570–1,700

Integrated farming 2,975 1200 1,200 1,200 2500 –

Rice-fish culture 1,250 250–500 400 245 – –

Reservoir fisheries production (if stocking is done) – – 100 – 173.48 50


123

running-water terrace rice-fish farming system (Das

2002). All the northeastern states lie in a zone with

heavy rainfall and therefore a longer aquatic phase is

possible in these areas than in rain-fed low-lying rice

fields. Harvesting of rice starts in November-Decem-

ber after the recession of floodwater at the end of the

wet season. All the low-lying ditches, marginal

swamps, and natural depressions inside the field area

are also harvested at the same time. This is done

either by pumping out water or by using traditional

nets or traps. The tribal communities of the northeast

use paddy-cum-fish farming along with shifting

cultivation (Jhum). An indigenous method of rice-

fish farming among the Apatani tribe in Arunachal

Pradesh, known as Aji gnui assoni, is a practice of

organic hill farming (Saikia and Das 2004). This is

one of the most advanced cultivation practices (Rai

2005), with the advantage that the land gives

sustained yield year after year unlike the Jhum

system. The economic and energy efficiency of this

agro-ecosystem is exceptionally high. Though wild

fish capture from rice fields was common practice

among Apatani farmers, there was barely any

systematic rice-fish culture until 1956–66 when the

department of fisheries initiated paddy-cum-fish cul-

ture in the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal

Pradesh (Saikia and Das 2004). Since then rice-fish

culture has traditionally been practised by Apatanis.

Seed production commences at the end of March to

coincide with paddy transplantation in April. Strains

of common carp are stocked at the fry stage (3–5 cm)

at the rate of 2500 ha�1 10 days after planting rice

and reared for four months. Farmers harvest 300–

500 kg ha�1 of fish and 3,500–4,000 kg of rice ha�1

year�1 with fish attaining an average size of 500–

700 g after a culture period of five months. The

dykes of rice fields are utilized for growing millet in

June and are harvested during August-September.

Cyprinus carpio specularis, C. carpio communis and

C. carpio nudus are cultured in this way. This type of

culture relies mainly on organic fertilizer, namely

cow dung, poultry droppings, and animal excreta; no

chemical or inorganic fertilizer is applied. Heaps of

decomposed rice stubble is left on the field before its

preparation. Several weeding activities are performed

and weeds are kept in piles in the field to allow

decomposition and retention of their nutrients. Chan-

nels are constructed in the middle of the paddy fields

to maintain the water level.

Baruah et al. (1999) described farming methods

while evaluating the impact of community manage-

ment of rice field systems in Assam. Banas (bamboo

screens) are erected in waterways, i.e., bridges and

culverts, to prevent the escape of farmed fish and the

entry of unwanted weed species. Rice is transplanted

by mid July. Agriculture lime is applied at the rate of

50 kg ha�1. Cow dung and inorganic fertilizers such

as urea are applied at the rate of 10 kg ha�1 and

single superphosphate at 8 kg ha�1. Stocking is done

15 days after transplantation with early fry of C.

catla, C. mrigala, L. rohita, L. calbasu, Hypothala-

michthys molitrix, P. javanicus, C. carpio in the ratio

14:18:14:9:18:9:18 at 20,000 ha�1. Feed consisting

of rice bran and mustard oil cake (1:1) is given at the

rate of 2% of biomass. Production is 2,100–2,300 kg

of rice ha�1 and 400–450 kg of fish ha�1. In Naga-

land, rice-fish culture is the second major resource for

fish production in the state. Presently the total area of

paddy field that can be harnessed for integration with

fish culture is about 75,700 ha. Rice-fish culture is

also practised in the hills of Manipur especially the

Ukhrul disrtict where common carp is mainly

cultured.

Status of indigenous fish species for aquaculture

Puntius gonionotus was suggested as an ideal species

for use in freshwater aquaculture in northeastern

India in paddy-cum-fish culture system (Ayyappan

et al. 2000). Chetia et al. (1999) reported induced

breeding of P. sarana to evaluate its culture potential

in Assam. Bhuyan et al. (2002) reported induced

breeding and larval rearing of L. gonius at low

temperatures of 14–22�C in the mid-altitude region at

1496 m above MSL in Meghalaya. Das et al. (1994)

reported successful breeding and hatching of P.

javanicus, while successful induced breeding of O.

belangiri (Fig. 1) with synthetic hormones was

reported. Attempts were made to assess the prospects

of feeding and culturing O. belangiri. It was found

that chicken gut and snail meat could substitute fish

meal in O. belangiri diet as inexpensive and readily

available protein sources (Basudha and Vishwanath

1993, 2001, 2002). Suresh (2000a) evaluated the food

habits and composite culture potential of O. belangiri

in Manipur. Reddy (2000) reported the captive

breeding of O. belangiri with carp pituitary extract.


123

The results showed a fertilization rate of 75–80%

hatching in 13–14 h. Within 25 days fry could be

raised for stocking in rearing ponds. A non-air-

breathing catfish O. pabda, a piscivorous fish com-

monly known as the butter fish, is a delicacy and has

high market value in northeast India, especially in the

Bengali-inhabited areas of Assam and Tripura.

Bhowmik et al. (2000) first reported breeding trials

of the fish using Ovaprim, a synthetic hormone, at the

rate of 5 ml kg�1 body weight. Females weighing

12–50 g and males weighing 20–40 g were found to

have a fecundity of 35,000–40,000 per 100 g. Spawn

hatched 18–20 h after fertilization and were reared in

glass jars and fiber-glass tanks

Impact of exotic fish species

A hybrid catfish (Clarias gariepinus x C. macro-

cephalus) (Fig. 2) was reported to have been

introduced in Assam by the private fish seed traders

of middle and lower Assam in 1994 (Baruah et al.

1999). It was reported to grow up to 6.8 kg in a year

and has become highly popular among fish farmers.

About 90% of the farmers adopted this species in

1995 without complete knowledge of its biology and

culture technique. The fish achieves sexual maturity

in ponds and migrates to nearby water bodies and

breeds in confined waters. Baruah et al. (1999)

described the possibility of colonization and alter-

ation of the local fish population and community

dynamics due to its predatory habits. African catfish

(C. gariepinus (Burchell) has been introduced in

Tripura from neighboring Bangladesh by some

private fish farmers; it was found to thrive and

grow well. Subsequently, attempts have been made

to breed the fish in confined conditions (Saha 1996).

The exotic species that have found a place in the

ecosystem of the region include bighead carp

(Aristichthys nobilis), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis

niloticus), African catfish and Pangasius sutch.

These were introduced by farmers and seed traders

illegally. In addition, species such as common carp,

silver carp, and grass carp were introduced by

Government agencies to augment local fish produc-

tion (Chandra et al. 1991). Introduction of these

species is reported to have the following perceived

impacts: (i) invasion into natural water bodies, (ii)

competition for food and shelter in certain ecological

niches with native species, (iii) the establishment of

natural breeding grounds, and (iv) the possibility of

Fig. 1 Osteobrama belengiri: a species successfully bred but

yet to be commercially cultured in pond ecosystems

Fig. 2 Hybrids of C. gariepinus x C. macrocephalus, a species

which has found its way into the region


123

hybridization between local and exotic species

(Singh 2000).

Culture of exotic coldwater fish

The most common exotic species cultured are

rainbow trout, brown trout, and common carp. In

the beginning of the 1990s farming of trout was

started on several fish farms in the northeastern states

of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. Common carp is

produced in fish farms of the State Fisheries

Departments of all the northeastern states. Aquacul-

ture of common carp in terraced paddy fields in the

states of Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya in the

northeastern Himalaya is more recent. While select-

ing the site for paddy-cum-fish culture, the

availability of a moderate water flow of 1–2 l s�1

is preferred to ensure good growth of common carp.

Along the perimeter of a paddy field a canal 50 cm

deep is dug. The paddy field is stocked with

fingerlings at a stocking density of 6,000 fingerlings

ha�1. In Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh the

fingerlings grow to an average weight of 180 g. With

the application of cow dung at a rate of 2–3 t ha�1

and supplementary feeding with rice bran and oil

cake mixture at 4% body weight, the yield ranges

from 186 to 800 kg ha�1 during the paddy growing

period.

Constraints

The factors limiting enhanced fish production in the

region are inadequate technology transfer, lack of

private entrepreneurship, lack of good infrastructure

facilities particularly communication, and low tem-

perature, which is not conducive to the culture of

Indian major carps. In addition, the complex land

ownership pattern and small fragmented land hold-

ings make financial support for the system difficult to

implement. Further, non-availability of quality seed

is considered to be one of the major constraints on

aquaculture development in the region. Ponniah and

Sarkar (2000) identified the constraints for develop-

ment as the lack of availability of funds from the

banks, deterioration in the quality of seed produced

by hatcheries, and the inadequate extension of culture

technologies.

Future directions towards enhanced aquaculture

production

Expansion of aquaculture practices

With more than 95% of population being fish eaters

and the present level of production inadequate to feed

the local population, the production level has to be

expanded both horizontally and vertically to meet the

demand. Interestingly, the area still available for

aquaculture is larger than the area under aquaculture,

providing opportunities for increases in production

through lateral expansion (Table 5).

In addition, pond productivity in the region is still

low compared to the national average of more than

2,000 kg ha�1 year�1. With a large population of

domestic animals and huge resources of green foliage

in the region, there is ample scope for increasing this

productivity to meet demand. Development of site-

specific farming systems suitable for the local

elevation and climatic conditions is required for the

region.

Prioritization of indigenous species for

diversification

At present Indian major carps, Chinese carps, and

common carp are the major species cultured in the

region. There is a need to diversify the species not

only to utilize different niches efficiently, but also to

identify and develop culture systems suitable for small

farmers with short favorable periods during the year

Table 5 Area utilized for aquaculture and potential area

suitable for aquaculture

States Area under

aquaculture (ha)

Area available

for aquaculture (ha)

Assam 60,000 31,232

Arunachal pradesh 2,270 6,500

Nagaland 3,000 30,000

Mizoram 2,600 24,000

Tripura 21,169.24 2,000

Meghalaya 2,500 6.03

Sikkim 38 38

Manipur 17,000 26,986

Northeast (Total) 108,577.24 120,762.03


123

fish culture. Fish can be grouped into three categories

for culture depending on their suitability at different

elevations (Ponniah and Sarkar 2000). Ompok pabda

(Fig. 3), Rasbora elanga, P. sarana, L. gonius, Mystus

vittatus, Clarias batrachus are more suitable for

culture in foothills, whereas species such as Neolis-

socheilus hexagonolepis, Tor tor, T putitora, L.

dyocheilus, Schizothorax spp., Raiamas bola are

suitable for mid-altitude culture systems. Rainbow

trout and brown trout may be cultured at higher

altitudes. The other potential candidate species are O.

belangiri, Notopterus spp., Anguilla bengalensis,

Monopterus albus, M. cuchia, Amblypharygodon

mola, Bangana dero, Chagunius spp., Cirrhinus reba,

L. bata, L. goinius, L. pangusia, Puntius spp. Among

other hill stream fishes Poropuntius spp., Semiplotus

spp., T. progenies, and Barilius bendelisis could also

be tried out for culture.

Integration of fish culture with nonconventional

aquatic plants such as Thangjing (Euryale ferox),

Heikrak (Trapa natans) Nungsham (algal mats grown

in hill streams), and Ikaithabi in Manipur will help to

improve resource utilization.

Scope of paddy-cum-fish culture

There is excellent scope for rice-fish farming in the

region (Fig. 4). Studies conducted in Assam have

indicated that rice-fish culture is a viable, environ-

mentally friendly, low-cost, low-risk additional

economic activity with multiple benefits including

increased income and greater availability of fish to

the rural farming community (Goswami et al. 2004).

A modest utilization of 10% (0.26 million ha) of the

area available in Assam could produce 0.13 million

tons per season (Bhagowati et al. 1997). Production

varies from 2,100 to 2,300 kg of rice ha�1 and from

400 to 450 kg ha�1 of fish in Assam (Baruah et al.

1999). Greater benefits from rice-fish culture have

been derived through collective management instead

of individually managed small installations. Baruah

et al. (2000) evaluated the prospects for fish farming

in rice fields in Assam, identifying potential produc-

tion of 501.1 kg ha�1 in four months with an increase

in rice production of 17.65%, with 10–20% of the

plot utilized for dykes, refuge ponds, and ditches. The

northeastern region of India is recognized as the best

zone for organic farming due to its negligible usage

of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and other

Fig. 3 Ompok pabda (butter fish), a delicacy of high market

value and ideal for mid-altitude culture

Fig. 4 Rice–fish culture system, a sustainable environmentally

friendly farming system with low input and risk. It offers ample

scope for rice farmers to access additional income


123

chemicals. This present scenario presents an excellent

opportunity to utilize vast tracts of rice fields to

culture a variety of fishes to augment fish production

in the region. There is also a need to study the rice-

fish culture practised by the Apatani tribes in

Arunachal Pradesh in depth to adapt these culture

techniques to other areas for sustainable fish

production.

Opportunities of air-breathing fish culture in

northeastern India

The northeastern states receive fairly heavy rainfall,

which results in water logging of low-lying areas.

This contributes to the availability of large quantities

of fish food organisms including macrophytes and

benthos, which are suitable for the culture of air-

breathing fishes. Culture of Channa spp. in swampy

waters by feeding with forage fish species such as

minnows and minor barbells has been successfully

demonstrated. These air-breathing fishes are also

suitable for pen and cage culture with a high stocking

density (50,000–100,000 ha�1) in such water bodies.

Another growth area could be the development of

rice-fish culture systems using air-breathing fish

species. C. batrachus is best suited for culture in

shallow water bodies, particularly in rice fields

having a depth of not more than 1–1.5 m.

Seed production technologies of two important

species, C. batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis,

have been standardized. Three hatchery units have

been established in the states of Tripura, Manipur,

and Meghalaya by the Central Institute of Freshwater

Aquaculture (CIFA), Bhubaneswar in a major exten-

sion programme. With successful operation in the

future, a significant increase in aquaculture opera-

tions can be expected in these states. Air-breathing

mud eel (M. cuchia and M. albus) is a local air-

breathing species available in most swampy areas of

Assam, Tripura, and Manipur. These species are

excellent food fish with high nutritional value, taste,

flavor, medicinal properties, and are high in copper

and iron. The population of these fishes in natural

water bodies is diclining due to strong market

pressure and heavy fishing. Some preliminary trials

conducted in Manipur have indicated the possibility

of breeding these species artificially. These air-

breathing fishes not only serve as an important food

resource, but are also important in many customs and

religious ceremonies for people in the region.

Scope of pen and cage culture, and aquaculture

development in wetlands

Loktak lake is the biggest freshwater lake in the

northeastern region, covering an area of about

286 km2 at an elevation of 786.6 m above MSL. At

present about 72% of the lake surface area is covered

by the floating-soil vegetation mass locally known as

‘‘phumdi’’ and only about 65 km2 is open water. The

lake can be considered one of the main repositories of

fish genetic resources of Manipur (Singh 2000).

Floodplain wetlands (oxbow lakes, tectonic depres-

sions, and other wetland formations on the floodplains

of rivers) constitute an important fishery resource of

northeastern India. There is an urgent need to utilize

wetlands for the development of environmentally

friendly aquaculture systems. Stocking of species that

are environmentally friendly can increase fish pro-

duction from wetlands. Use of the pen culture system

for nursing fish seed and stocking to produce market-

size fish also holds promise (Fig. 5). Cage culture

practices have remained unexploited. As most of the

open water in this region is underexploited, aquacul-

ture intervention through pen and cage culture

seems promising. Cage and pen construction materi-

als such as bamboo and wood are locally available,

which minimizes construction costs. Large-scale

Fig. 5 Pen enclosure-an economically viable and environment

friendly technique, with great potential in the wetlands of low-

altitude areas


123

experiments of cage culture in beels (wetlands) of

Assam since 2002 have shown that cage culture is

suitable for carp fingerlings, particularly during the

rainy season, for stocking in wetlands.

The present yield from floodplain wetlands is very

low (100–200 kg ha�1 year�1) but their potential

production ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 kg ha�1

year�1. Fish culture in pen and cage enclosures in

the beels (similar to enhancement of their capture

fisheries) has been carried out by the Central Inland

Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), Guwahati in

wetlands in northeastern India, especially in Assam.

Experiments on cage culture in northeastern India

were initiated in 1974 by CIFRI (Dehadrai et al.

1974). The cages (Fig. 6) were made from split

bamboo screens with a net lining (125 · 76 · 76 cm)

and were installed in Gharajan beel near Guwahati to

rear the air-breathing fishes H. fossillis and Anabas

testudineus.

Cage culture

To compensate for insufficient autostocking due to

the failure of natural recruitment, stocking of beels

with fingerlings of 10–15 cm size was felt necessary

to achieve an estimated production of 1,000–1,500 kg

ha�1 year�1. Therefore, in situ rearing of fry to the

advanced fingerling stage was tried using cages. The

technology developed by CIFRI, Guwahati uses

empty polyvinylchloride (PVC)/metallic drums

(200–250 l) as floats, 13-m-long bamboos, and nuts

and bolts to construct the cage frame. Twelve floats

are arranged longitudinally 3 m apart in three rows.

Bamboos are placed above the floats and walkways

are made with half-split bamboos using coir rope

across the frame. Cages have dimensions of

6 · 3 · 1.5 m and are made using nylon net with a

1 mm mesh size. The stocking density is 550–750 fry

(1–1.5 cm) per 18 m3 cage. The species are Indian

major carps, minor carps such as C. reba, L. bata, L.

goinius, and L. calbasu in addition to grass carp,

common carp, and Puntius spp. The stocked fishes

are fed with 4% of their body weight. The ration is

adjusted every 15 days based on increased biomass.

Locally available ingredients such as rice polish and

mustard oil cake in equal quantities are made into

balls which are kept in submerged feeding trays

hanging from two opposite corners of the cage.

Feeding is carried out twice daily. Within two

months fishes grow to fingerling size of 10–15 cm

for stocking in the beel. In the case of table-size fish

production, the culture period is five months in

modified cage with a net with a larger mesh size

(1 cm) to facilitate better water exchange. Nylon net

with a 1 mm mesh size is used on the bottom.

Fingerling production starts with the availability of

fry in April. Three crops of advanced fingerling every

two months of rearing between April to October are

possible while a crop of table-size fish is taken by

rearing for five months from November to March.

Pen culture

Studies conducted by CIFRI, Guwahati in the beels of

Assam have shown that the marginal areas of beels

can be enclosed as pens using split bamboo screens/

netting while net cages of various sizes and shapes can

be suspended from floating bamboo/wooden/plastic

platforms in deeper areas (Bhattacharjya 2004). The

pen is erected in areas with small gradients and water

depths of at least 1–2 m for four months. Generally

culture is carried out from September to December

and February to May. The pen is constructed within an

area of 500 m2 using bamboo poles (5–8 cm diame-

ter) that are driven into the bottom every 1.5–2.0 m.

At least 50 cm of the poles remains above the water

surface. The main frame of the pen is made by tying

half-split or full bamboo (5 cm diameter) onto the

poles. The screen for encircling the pen is made by

weaving split bamboo strips (8–10 mm thickness)Fig. 6 A simple cage made of bamboo, ideal for rearing air-

breathing fishes


123

with coir ropes. To prevent movement of fishes to and

from pens, cheap polyethylene mosquito netting is

stitched into the inner walls of the split bamboo

screen, locally known as bana. Quick lime is applied

at a dose of 500 to 650 kg ha�1 based on the pH of

water. Carp fry (4–6 cm) are stocked at 20,000–

30,000 ha�1 for fingerling culture, while carp finger-

lings (8–10 cm) are stocked at 8,000–10,000 ha�1 for

table-size fish. Supplementary feed is given at the rate

of 5% body weight. Rice polish and mustard oil cake

are mixed in equal quantities and made into balls to be

placed in submerged feeding trays. Feeding is carried

out twice daily. The rearing period generally lasts 3–

4 months. Liming is carried out every month at a rate

of 100–150 kg ha�1. An average fish production of

over 2,000 kg ha�1 is achieved in four months while

in the case of fry rearing 16,000–24,000 ha�1

advanced fingerlings are harvested.

Introduction of genetically improved carps to the

region

As most of the widely cultured species are carps,

genetically improved varieties of carps available in

the mainland of the country have been introduced

with a view to help the farmers. The rohu (Labeo

rohita) variety Jayanti developed by CIFA, Bhu-

baneshwar through a series of selective breeding

involving stocks from different locations, has been

tried out in the region. Growth is reported to be

20�40% higher compared to normal rohu. Its utility

in subsistence farming system is yet to be evaluated

in the context of the experience of Andhra Pradesh

farmers. Efforts to build up brood stock of this variety

at the College of Fisheries, Tripura and successful

breeding have made seed available in the region.

Another variety of common carp known as Amur

carp, which was developed and released by the

University of Agriculture Sciences, Bangalore based

on parent stock procured from Hungary, has also

been introduced to the region for further assessment.

It is reported that the species grows 20–30% faster

than local strain and that it matures in its second year.

Periphyton-based aquaculture system

Research results emanating from various tropical

countries indicate the benefit of substrate-based

aquaculture systems (Azim et al. 2001, 2002, 2003;

Keshavanath et al. 2001; van Dam et al. 2002). Carps

such as rohu and calbasu are known to feed heavily

on periphyton and growth is increased by 40–60% in

ponds with substrates. The northeastern states are

blessed with green vegetation throughout the year.

The biodegradable leaves, stems, and branches of

plants and trees, especially bamboos, can be used to

provide substrates for periphyton growth.

In states such as Tripura where poaching is a major

problem, substrates are used to prevent casting of

nets. In Tripura, Manipur, and Assam, the substrates

are used as fish-aggregating devices. In Manipur, the

substrate-based aquaculture system is prevalent in the

Loktak lake. Floating islands formed through the

dense growth of aquatic weeds and grasses are spread

throughout the lake and are used as natural fish-

aggregating devices. These circular weed mats are

locally called ‘‘Phums’’ and fishers even build houses

and reside permanently on these weed mass (Suresh

2000b). Production levels obtained from these phum

areas are reported to be around 300 to 1,000 kg

phum�1 of 100–200 m2. This is a simple technique

that only requires the introduction of substrates on

10–50% of the surface area of a pond to enhance

periphyton growth, which in turn provides additional

natural food for fish. As the inputs are locally

available and the technique is simple, periphyton-

based aquaculture (Fig. 7) is sustainable and suitable

in northeastern India.

The project on increasing fish productivity through

periphyton-based aquaculture system funded by the

Fig. 7 Bamboo substrates for periphyton growth in a pond, a

sustainable aquaculture practice with several advantages


123

Indian Council of Agricultural Research and con-

ducted at the College of Fisheries, Tripura has shown

the advantages of substrates such as bamboo, palm

leaves, bamboo trimmings, date palm leaves, etc., in

increasing the productivity. The introduction of

bamboo substrates has been shown to enhance

productivity by 15.22% compared to previous years

with an average production of 1,952 kg ha�1.

Fish culture in high altitudes

Coldwater fish farming has been largely ignored. The

probable reasons could be the lack of suitable

technology, poor growth of fish, and poor market

demand. However, fish culture at high altitudes has

the potential to produce food for people using proven

technologies in addition to the potential of ecotour-

ism. High-altitude fishes are known to be good game

fishes for sports fishing. As the northeastern states are

increasingly being marketed as tourist destinations,

the potential for the development of recreational

fisheries and allied activities including bait fish

culture hold much promise. The important coldwater

species in northeastern India include Neolissoceilus

hexagonolepis (khasaw in the Khasi language of

Meghalaya), T. chelynoides, T. putitora, T. tor among

the mahaseers, Schizothorax richardsonni, and

Schizothoraichthys progastus (Mohan 2000). Com-

mon carp have been used as the main species for hill

farming up to a height of 1,500 m above MSL with

stocking of 6,000 fingerlings ha�1 and harvests of

200–300 kg ha�1 (Nayak and Mandal 1989).

References

Ayyappan S, Jena JK, Aravindakshan PK, Muduli HK, Singh

SK (2000) Puntius gonionotus (Bleeker)–a potential

candidate species for large scale culture in Northeast

India. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (eds) Fish Biodi-

versity of North-East India. NATP Publ. 2. National

Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, India, pp

126–127

Azim ME, Wahab MA, van Dam AA, Beveridge MCM, Ver-

degem MCJ (2001) The potential of periphyton-based

culture of two Indian major carps, rohu Labeo rohita(Hamilton) and gonia Labeo gonius (Linnaeus). Aquac

Res 32:209–216

Azim ME, Verdegem MCJ, Khatoon H, Wahab MA, van Dam

AA, Beveridge MC.M (2002) A comparison of fertiliza-

tion, feeding and three periphyton substrates for

increasing fish production in freshwater pond aquaculture

in Bangladesh. Aquaculture 212:227–243

Azim ME, Verdegem MCJ, Singh M, van Dam AA, Beveridge

MCM (2003) The effects of periphyton substrates and fish

stocking density on water quality, phytoplankton,

periphyton and fish growth. Aquac Res 34:685–695

Barman RP (1994) Fish fauna of Tripura, N.E. India. J Bombay

Nat Hist Soc 91:37–46

Bhattacharjya BK, Choudhury M, Sugunan VV (2003) Ich-

thyo-faunistic resources of Assam with a note on their

sustainable utilization. In: Mahanta PC, Tyagi LK (eds)

Proceedings of the workshop on participatory approach

for fish biodiversity conservation in Northeast India,

National Bureau of Fish Genetics, Lucknow, India, pp 85–

105

Bhattacharjya BK (2004) Floodplain wetlands of Assam:

Management options and issues from fisheries perspec-

tives. In: Choudhury M, Shrivastava NP, Mana RK (eds)

Workshop proceedings on Participatory approach to

research and development of Inland fisheries resources of

Northeast India, 2–12 Dec 2003, CIFRI, Guwahati pp 79–

86

Baruah UK, Bhagowati AK, Goswami UC (1999) Culture of

hybrid magur (Clarias gariepinus x C. macrocephalus) in

Assam, India. Indian J Fisher 46:265–272

Baruah UK, Bhagowati AK, Talukdar RK (2000) Prospects of

fish farming in rice fields in Assam. Indian J Fisher

47:149–159

Baruah UK, Talukdar RK, Goswami UC, Bhagowati AK

(1999) Impact of evaluation of community management

of rice field system in Assam, India. Indian J Fisher

46:205–209

Basudha Ch, Vishwanath W (1993) Nutritive value and growth

response of formulated aquatic fern Azolla based diets on

advanced fry of endemic medium carp Osteobrama be-langiri. J Freshwater Biol 5:159–164

Basudha Ch, Vishwanath W (2001) Growth and feed utiliza-

tion efficiency of Osteobrama belangiri fed diets

containing different level of protein. Fishery Technology

38:110–114

Basudha Ch, Vishwanath W (2002) Nutritional evaluation of

chicken gut, snail meat as diet of Osteobrama belangiri(Val). Indian J Fisher 49:211–215

Bhowmik ML, Mondal SL, Chakrabarti PP, Das NK, Das KM,

Saha RN, Ayyappan S (2000) Captive breeding and

rearing of Ompok pabda (Hamilton-Buchanan)- a threa-

tened species. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (eds) Fish

Biodiversity of North-East India. NATP Publ. 2. National


120–121

Bhuyan RN, Sarma D, Bordoloi S (2002) Induced breeding and

larval rearing of Labeo gonius (Hamilton Buchanan) in

the low temperature the mid attitude region, Shillong,

Meghalaya. J Inland Fish Soc India 34:54–85

Chetia BB, Bhagowati AK, Biswas SP (1999) Response of

Puntius sarana (Ham.) to induced breeding by ovaprim

administration. J Inland Fish Soc India 31:13–17

Das DN (2002) Fish farming in rice environments of North

Eastern India. Aquaculture Asia 7:43–47


123

Das SK, Bhattacharjya BK, Sharma K (1994) Induced

spawning and hatching of Tawes Puntius javanicus(Bloch). Asian Fisher Sci 7:191–194

Dehadrai PV, Pal RN, Choudhury M, Singh DN (1974)

Observation on cage culture of air breathing fishes in

swamps in Assam. J Inland Soc Inland 6:89–92

Dey SC (1975) Ecomorphology of the ichthyofauna of the river

Pabladia within Kamrup dist. J Assam Sci Soc 18:1–5

Goswami M, Biradar RS, Sathiadhas R (2004) Techno-eco-

nomic viability of rice-fish culture in Assam, India. Aquac

Econ Manag 8(5/6):309–317

Gurumayum SD, Devi GA, Nandeesha MC (2006) Women’s

participation in fisheries activities in Manipur Valley in

India with traditional fish-based beliefs and customs. In:

Poo PS, Hall SJ, Williams MJ (eds) Global symposium on

gender and fisheries. 7th Asian Fisheries Forum 1–4 Dec

2004 World Fish Centre, Penang, Malaysia, pp. 149–158

Hora SL (1921) Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some

observations on those of the Naga hills. Rec Indian Mus

Calcutta 22:165–210

Hora SL (1936) On a further collection of fish fauna from the

Naga hills. Rec Indian Mus Calcutta 38:317–331

Hora SL, Mukherji DD (1935) Fish of the Naga hills, Assam.

Rec Indian Mus Calcutta 37:381–404

Keshavanath P, Gangadhar B, Ramesh TJ, van Rooji JM,

Beveridge MCM, Baird D, Verdegem MCJ, van Dam AA

(2001) Use of artificial substrates to enhance production

of freshwater herbivorous fish in pond culture. Aquac Res

32:189–197

Kottelat M, Whitten T (1996) Freshwater biodiversity in Asia

with special reference to Fish. In: World Bank Tech.

Paper No. 343. The World Bank, Washington, DC, pp 17–

22

Malhotra YR, Suri SN (1969) Fishes of Nagaland. J Assam Sci

Soc 12:145–155

Menon, AGK (1954) Further observation of the fish fauna of

Manipur state. Rec Indian Mus 52:21–26

Menon AGK (1974) A checklist of fishes of Himalayan and

Indo Gangetic plain. Spl Publ No.1. Inland Fish Soc,

India, Barrackpore p 136

Mohan M (2000) Culture possibilities of coldwater fishes in

Northeastern hill region of India. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar

UK (eds) Fish Biodiversity of North-East India. NATP

Publ. 2. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,

Lucknow, India, pp. 118–119

Nath P, Dey SC (2000) Fish and Fisheries of Northeast India.

Narendra Publications & Book Sellers, New Delhi p 207

Nayak PK, Mandal BK (1989) Feasibility of paddy-cum-fish

culture in hills. J Hill Farm 2:69–70

Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (2000) Overview of fish diversity of

Northeast India. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (eds) Fish


Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, India, pp 1–

10

Rai SC (2005) Apatani paddy-cum-fish cultivation: An indig-

enous hill farming system of North East India. Indian J

Trad Knowl 4:65–71

Reddy PVGK (2000) Captive breeding of Osteobrama be-langiri (Val.)- a threatened food species. In: Ponniah AG,

Sarkar UK (eds) Fish Biodiversity of North-East India.

NATP Publ. 2. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resour-

ces, Lucknow, India, pp 122–123

Saha R (1996) Effects of various doses of Ovaprim for

breeding of Clarias species in Tripura. J Inland Fish Soc

India 28:75–84

Saikia SK, Das DN (2004) ‘Aji gnui assonii’- a practice of

organic hill farming among the Apatani tribe of Eastern

Himalaya. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 11:211–217

Sarkar UK, Ponniah AG (2000) Evaluation of North East

Indian fishes for their potential as cultivable, sport and

ornamental fishes along with their conservation and

endemic status. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (eds) Fish



11–30

Sehgal KL (1955) On a collection of fishes from Assam. J

Bombay Nat Hist Soc 56:147–149

Selim K, Vishwanath W (1998) A new record of Homalopteramodesta (Vinciguerra), Cyprinidae from Manipur. J

Bombay Nat Hist Soc 95:352–354

Sen N (1977) On a small collection of fishes from Mizoram.

Bull Meghalaya Sci Soc 2:21–22

Sen N (1995) Fauna of Meghalaya (Pisces). State fauna series

4. Part I. Vertebrates, Zool Surv India, Calcutta, pp 483–

606

Sen N (1998) On collection of fishes from Subansiri and Siang

district of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Rec Zool Surv India

97:141–144

Sen N (2000) Occurrence, distribution and status of diversified

fish fauna of North East India. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK

(eds) Fish Biodiversity of North-East India. NATP Publ.

2. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow,

India, pp 31–48

Singh AK (2000) Impact of unauthorized exotic fish intro-

duction on conservation and aquaculture development of

the Northeastern states. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (eds)

Fish Biodiversity of North-East India. NATP Publ. 2.

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow,

India, pp 155–156

Sinha M (1991) Prospects and policy issues of reservoir fish-

eries development in North east. J Indian Fisher Soc India

23:91–98

Sinha M (1994) Fish genetic resources of the Northeastern

Region of India. J Inland Fish Soc India 26:1–19

Suresh VR (2000a) Food habits and composite culture potential

of an endangered medium carp Osteobrama belangiri(Val.) in Manipur. In: Ponniah AG, Sarkar UK (eds) Fish



134–135

Suresh VR (2000b) Floating Islands: a unique fish aggregating

method. Naga 23(1):11–13

Van Dam AA, Beveridge MCM, Azim ME, Verdegem MCJ

(2002) The potential of fish production based on periph-

yton. Fish Biol Fisher 12:1–31

Vishwanath W (2002) Fishes of North East India. Manipur

University, India. p 198

Vishwanath W (1993) On a collected fishes of the genus GarraHamilton from Manipur, India with description of a new

species. J Freshwater Biol 5:59–68


123

Vishwanath W, Sarojnalini C (1988) A new cyprinid fish,

Garra manipurensis from Manipur, India. Jpn J Ichthyol

35:124–126

Yazdani GM (1977) Fishes of Khasi hills, Meghalaya (India)

with observations on their distributional pattern. J Bom-

bay Nat Hist Soc 74:17–28


123

full text 1

Documents