Framing Differences inFraming Differences inGender-Related Sport CoverageGender-Related Sport Coverage

by Internet Sitesby Internet Sitesand Newspapers and Newspapers

Presented by Edward (Ted) M. Kian, Ph.D.Presented by Edward (Ted) M. Kian, Ph.D.

University of Central FloridaUniversity of Central Florida

Sport Leadership and CoachingSport Leadership and Coaching

The International Symposium on Online The International Symposium on Online Journalism, April 17-18, 2009, Austin, TXJournalism, April 17-18, 2009, Austin, TX

New MediaNew Media

New media are changing the way news New media are changing the way news is gathered, distributed, accessed, and is gathered, distributed, accessed, and consumed consumed (Shultz & Sheffer, 2007).(Shultz & Sheffer, 2007).

Internet readers tend to be younger Internet readers tend to be younger than other media consumers. The than other media consumers. The Internet has now surpassed newspapers Internet has now surpassed newspapers as a primary news source for as a primary news source for Americans, and rivals television as the Americans, and rivals television as the predominant news source for U.S. youth predominant news source for U.S. youth

(Pew Research, 2008).(Pew Research, 2008).

Research on Sport MediaResearch on Sport Media

Content and textual analyses on Content and textual analyses on magazine, newspaper, and magazine, newspaper, and television sport coverage over the television sport coverage over the past 35 years have generally past 35 years have generally shown men receive more overall shown men receive more overall coverage than women at all levels coverage than women at all levels of sport of sport (e.g., Bishop, 2003; Eastman & Billings, (e.g., Bishop, 2003; Eastman & Billings, 2000; Kian, 2008).2000; Kian, 2008).

Research on Sport MediaResearch on Sport Media

Sport media often frame female Sport media often frame female athletes as sex objects, are more athletes as sex objects, are more likely to delve into the personal likely to delve into the personal lives of women in sport, and lives of women in sport, and minimize their accomplishments minimize their accomplishments and skill by regularly comparing and skill by regularly comparing their abilities to mentheir abilities to men

(Hardin et al., 2005; Vincent, 2004).(Hardin et al., 2005; Vincent, 2004).

FramingFraming

Framing is a term regularly employed Framing is a term regularly employed to describe the means through which to describe the means through which journalists make sense of news journalists make sense of news events by selecting facts and events by selecting facts and embedding them in storylines. Media embedding them in storylines. Media not only determine which stories are not only determine which stories are newsworthy, but also the ways in newsworthy, but also the ways in which those news events are framed which those news events are framed and portrayedand portrayed

(Kuypers, 2002; Lind & Salo, 2002). (Kuypers, 2002; Lind & Salo, 2002).

Research on Sport MediaResearch on Sport Media

Historically, in most of the world, sport Historically, in most of the world, sport has served as a hegemonic institution, has served as a hegemonic institution, helping to preserve the power of men helping to preserve the power of men over women over women (Schell & Rodriguez, 2000).(Schell & Rodriguez, 2000).

Numerous scholars contended the Numerous scholars contended the institutions of sport and mass media institutions of sport and mass media are two of the primary forces are two of the primary forces reinforcing hegemonic masculinity in reinforcing hegemonic masculinity in Western society Western society (e.g., Connell, 1990; Duncan & (e.g., Connell, 1990; Duncan & Messner, 1998; Kian & Hardin, 2009).Messner, 1998; Kian & Hardin, 2009).

PurposePurposeA challenge to the traditional framing of A challenge to the traditional framing of men’s and women’s sport by men’s and women’s sport by mainstream media may be emerging mainstream media may be emerging with the increasing prevalence of the with the increasing prevalence of the Internet.Internet.

Several authors have found the Several authors have found the community nature of the Internet is community nature of the Internet is more accommodating to women than more accommodating to women than traditional forms of communicationtraditional forms of communication(e.g., Royal, 2008; Spender, 1995; Turkle, 1995).(e.g., Royal, 2008; Spender, 1995; Turkle, 1995).

PurposePurpose

However, research on Internet sport However, research on Internet sport media is in its infancy media is in its infancy (Real, 2006). (Real, 2006). The few The few published studies on gender have published studies on gender have provided mixed results provided mixed results (e.g., Cunningham, (e.g., Cunningham, 2003; Kian et al., in press; Jones, 2004; Sagas et al. 2003; Kian et al., in press; Jones, 2004; Sagas et al. 2000).2000).

None of those published works compared None of those published works compared Internet content of female athletes with Internet content of female athletes with coverage of women’s sport through more coverage of women’s sport through more traditional mediums.traditional mediums.

PurposePurposeThis study attempts to determine if any This study attempts to determine if any significant differences are present in how significant differences are present in how more traditional media (newspapers) and more traditional media (newspapers) and newer media (Internet) use descriptors to newer media (Internet) use descriptors to frame coverage of the same men’s and frame coverage of the same men’s and women’s sport.women’s sport.

Since tennis is one of the only sports where Since tennis is one of the only sports where the women’s and men’s games have similar the women’s and men’s games have similar levels of popularity, the U.S. Open was levels of popularity, the U.S. Open was selected for examination.selected for examination.

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

Research questions were employed Research questions were employed rather than hypotheses for this rather than hypotheses for this exploratory study. Three overriding exploratory study. Three overriding research questions guided this study:research questions guided this study:

RQ1: What significant differences – if any RQ1: What significant differences – if any – exist in the gender-specific descriptors – exist in the gender-specific descriptors used to frame newspaper articles on the used to frame newspaper articles on the U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s tournament, and articles on both?tournament, and articles on both?

Research QuestionsResearch QuestionsRQ2: What significant differences – if any – RQ2: What significant differences – if any – exist in the gender-specific descriptors used exist in the gender-specific descriptors used to frame Internet articles on the U.S. Open to frame Internet articles on the U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s tournament, and men’s tournament, women’s tournament, and articles on both?articles on both?

RQ3: What significant differences – if any – RQ3: What significant differences – if any – exist in the gender-specific descriptors used exist in the gender-specific descriptors used to frame newspaper articles on the U.S. Open to frame newspaper articles on the U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s tournament, and men’s tournament, women’s tournament, and articles on both compared to descriptors in articles on both compared to descriptors in online sport sites on the same tournaments?online sport sites on the same tournaments?

MethodologyMethodology

Content analysis of all byline (name of Content analysis of all byline (name of author) U.S. Open tennis articles author) U.S. Open tennis articles published in three daily newspapers (published in three daily newspapers (The The Los Angeles TimesLos Angeles Times, , The New York TimesThe New York Times, , USA TodayUSA Today) and three mainstream online ) and three mainstream online sport media sites (ESPN Internet, sport media sites (ESPN Internet, FoxSports.com, SI.com) over a 16-day FoxSports.com, SI.com) over a 16-day period in fall, 2007.period in fall, 2007.

Byline articles…Byline articles…

Coding Categories and ProceduresCoding Categories and Procedures

Text of articles were coded for nine Text of articles were coded for nine descriptive categories derived from descriptive categories derived from pervious research: (1) physical pervious research: (1) physical appearances/attire; (2) athletic appearances/attire; (2) athletic prowess/strengths; (3) athletic prowess/strengths; (3) athletic weaknesses/limitations; (4) positive skill weaknesses/limitations; (4) positive skill level/accomplishments; level/accomplishments;

Coding Categories and ProceduresCoding Categories and Procedures

(5) negative skill level/failures; (6) family (5) negative skill level/failures; (6) family role/personal relationships; (7) role/personal relationships; (7) psychological/emotional strengths; (8) psychological/emotional strengths; (8) psychological/emotional weaknesses; (9) psychological/emotional weaknesses; (9) humor.humor.

Pretest and Intercoder reliabilityPretest and Intercoder reliability

Excel; ANOVA (alpha=0.05); Pairwise Excel; ANOVA (alpha=0.05); Pairwise comparisons; Binomial test for comparisons; Binomial test for proportionsproportions

Assumptions Based on Assumptions Based on Previous ResearchPrevious Research

Women’s stories would Women’s stories would include more descriptors include more descriptors on physical on physical appearances, family appearances, family roles or personal roles or personal relationships, athletic relationships, athletic weaknesses, negative weaknesses, negative skill level or failures, skill level or failures, psychological or psychological or emotional weakness, emotional weakness, and humor.and humor.

Men’s articles would Men’s articles would include more include more descriptors on descriptors on athletic prowess, athletic prowess, positive skill level or positive skill level or accomplishments, accomplishments, and psychological or and psychological or emotional strengths emotional strengths (e.g., Billings et al., (e.g., Billings et al., 2002; Harris & Clayton, 2002; Harris & Clayton, 2002; Kian et al., 2008).2002; Kian et al., 2008).

General FindingsGeneral Findings

Internet ArticlesInternet Articles Total ArticlesTotal Articles % of all Articles% of all Articles

Men’s TennisMen’s Tennis 2727 48.2%48.2%

Women’s TennisWomen’s Tennis 1414 25%25%

BothBoth 1515 27%27%

TotalTotal 5656 100%100%

Newspaper ArticlesNewspaper Articles Total ArticlesTotal Articles % of all Articles% of all Articles

Men’s TennisMen’s Tennis 5757 41.9%41.9%

Women’s TennisWomen’s Tennis 2626 19.1%19.1%

BothBoth 5353 39%39%

TotalTotal 136136 100%100%

RQ1 and RQ 2RQ1 and RQ 2For all newspaper articles examined, pairwise For all newspaper articles examined, pairwise comparisons showed results mostly reinforcing comparisons showed results mostly reinforcing previous sport media research.previous sport media research.

Among the 10 significant differences, the only Among the 10 significant differences, the only unexpected results were humor was unexpected results were humor was significantly more likely to be used in articles significantly more likely to be used in articles about men’s tennis than articles on women’s about men’s tennis than articles on women’s tennis or on both genders. tennis or on both genders.

Coding and pairwise comparisons of Internet Coding and pairwise comparisons of Internet articles offered mixed results that overall did articles offered mixed results that overall did not reinforce traditional stereotypes in sport not reinforce traditional stereotypes in sport media coverage as assumed, since only five of media coverage as assumed, since only five of the 11 significant findings were expected.the 11 significant findings were expected.

““Both” as a category impacting results…Both” as a category impacting results…

RQ3RQ3When comparing newspaper and Internet articles only When comparing newspaper and Internet articles only on men’s tennis, online articles were significantly on men’s tennis, online articles were significantly more likely to use descriptors on psychological more likely to use descriptors on psychological strengths and physical weaknesses, while strengths and physical weaknesses, while newspapers significantly used more descriptors on newspapers significantly used more descriptors on family roles and humor.family roles and humor.

For articles solely on women’s tennis, newspapers For articles solely on women’s tennis, newspapers were significantly more likely to employ descriptors were significantly more likely to employ descriptors on physical appearances, athletic weaknesses, and on physical appearances, athletic weaknesses, and family roles. Online articles were more likely to use family roles. Online articles were more likely to use attributes on positive skill level, psychological attributes on positive skill level, psychological strengths, and psychological weaknesses on women’s strengths, and psychological weaknesses on women’s tennis.tennis.

RQ3RQ3In articles focusing on both men’s and In articles focusing on both men’s and women’s tennis, the binomial tests for women’s tennis, the binomial tests for two proportions showed newspapers two proportions showed newspapers were significantly more likely to use were significantly more likely to use descriptors on athletic prowess, athletic descriptors on athletic prowess, athletic weakness, and family roles. Internet weakness, and family roles. Internet sites used significantly more descriptors sites used significantly more descriptors per article for positive skill level and per article for positive skill level and negative skill level in articles on both negative skill level in articles on both genders.genders.

DiscussionDiscussionResults for descriptors within newspaper articles Results for descriptors within newspaper articles reinforced the plethora of previous gender-related reinforced the plethora of previous gender-related sport media research, minimizing the athleticism of sport media research, minimizing the athleticism of women and trivializing their accomplishments.women and trivializing their accomplishments.

Results within Internet articles were mixed but did Results within Internet articles were mixed but did not represent a significant challenge to traditional not represent a significant challenge to traditional framing of men’s and women’s sport.framing of men’s and women’s sport.

However, comparisons between mediums showed However, comparisons between mediums showed Internet articles were significantly more likely to Internet articles were significantly more likely to alter the ways media frame female athletes than alter the ways media frame female athletes than were newspaper articles.were newspaper articles.

Thus, hegemonic masculinity was challenged far Thus, hegemonic masculinity was challenged far more in online articles.more in online articles.

Limitations/DelimitationsLimitations/Delimitations

This research only examined six major media This research only examined six major media outlets, and focused on one men’s and outlets, and focused on one men’s and women’s sport played at the highest level. women’s sport played at the highest level. Generalizations cannot be made from Generalizations cannot be made from examining six sport news outlets based in the examining six sport news outlets based in the United States, where tennis is not construed as United States, where tennis is not construed as an overly masculine sport.an overly masculine sport.

These six newspapers or online sites are all These six newspapers or online sites are all very popular, national outlets. However, no very popular, national outlets. However, no smaller, or regional outlets were examined. smaller, or regional outlets were examined. Therefore, the scope of this research may have Therefore, the scope of this research may have been too broad.been too broad.