Framework for the Study

A framework for the study

• A focus for the study

• A paradigm for the study

• Methods associated with the paradigms

• A format for composing sections

• Summary

A focus for the study

• Focus for a study is central concept being examined in a scholarly study.

• May emerge– extensive literature review– be suggested by colleagues, researchers– developed through practical experiences

Focus the topic

• describe it succinctly, draft a working title, and consider whether it is researchable

• complete the following sentence: “My study is about . . . “

Describe the topic succinctly

• Frame the answer to the question so that another scholar might grasp easily meaning of project

• Avoid complex and erudite language.

• Good, sound research projects begin with straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts, easily read and understood.

Draft working title for the study

• Will help focus direction of research

• Will help position the central concept before the writer at the beginning.

• Don’t worry -- the working title will be modified -- many times as you proceed with the project

Draft working title for the study

• Be brief and avoid wasting words, e.g, eliminate unnecessary words such as “An Approach to . . . “ and “A Study of . . .”.

• Use single title or a double title– Consider title no longer than 12 words– Eliminate most articles and prepositions– Include focus or topic of the study

Consider whether the topic is researchable• Is topic researchable, given time, resources

and availability of data?

• Is there personal interest in topic to sustain attention?

• Will results be of interest to others (e.g., in the state, region, nation)?

Consider whether the topic is researchable• Is topic likely to be publishable in scholarly

journal (or attractive to dissertation committee)?

• Does study (a) fill a void, (b) replicate, (c) extend, or (d) develop new ideas in scholarly literature?

• Will the project contribute to career goals?

Consider whether the topic is researchable• Needs to weight these factors before

proceeding with study

• Ask others for reactions to the topic

A paradigm for the study

• Once we have specific focus we must select overall paradigm for the study

• Two paradigms:– qualitative – quantitative

• Both have roots in 20th-century philosophical thinking

Quantitative Approach

• Termed traditional,

• Positivist,

• Experimental, or

• Empiricist paradigm.

• Comte, Mill, Durkheim, Newton and Locke

Qualitative Approach

• Constructivist approach or naturalistic

• Interpretative approach

• Postpositivist or postmodern perspective

• Began as countermoverment to positivist tradition in late 19th century

• Dilthey, Weber and Kant.

Assumptions of the paradigms

• Ontological:– What is the nature of reality?

• Epistemological:– What is the relationship of the researcher

to that being researched?

• Axiological:– What is the role of values?

Assumptions of the paradigms

• Rhetorical– What is the language of research?

• Methodological– What is the process of research?

• Important to understand these assumptions because they will provide direction for designing all phases of a research study

What is the nature of reality?

• (Quantitative) Reality is objective and singular and apart from the researcher.

• (Qualitative) Reality is subjective and multiple as seen by participants in a study.

What is relationship of researcher to that being researched?• (Quantitative) Researcher is independent

from that being researched.

• (Qualitative) Researcher interacts with that being researched.

What is the role of values?

• (Quantitative) Value-free and unbiased

• (Qualitative) Value-laden and biased

What is language of the research

• (Quantitative) Formal, based on set definitions, impersonal voice, use of accepted quantitative words

• (Qualitative) Informal, evolving decisions, personal voice, use of accepted qualitative words

What is the process of research?

• (Quantitative) deductive process– cause and effect– static design -- categories isolated before study– context-free– generalization leading to prediction,

explanation and understanding– accurate and reliable through validity and

reliability

What is the process of research?

• (Qualitative) inductive process– mutual simultaneous shaping of factors– emerging design -- categories identified during

research process– context-bound– patterns, theories developed for understanding– accurate and reliable through verification

Single paradigm for the study

• Identify a single research paradigm for the overall design of the study.

Why not use both paradigms?

• To use both adequately and accurately extends dissertation studies beyond normal limits of size and scope.

• Studies that employ combined paradigms tend to be funded projects with multiple investigators collecting data over an extended period of time.

Why not use both paradigms?

• Expensive, time-consuming, and lengthy

• Researchers and faculty seldom are trained in skills necessary to conduct studies from more than one paradigm.

• Individuals learn one paradigm and this perspective becomes the dominant view in their research.

Criteria for selection

• Worldview of the researcher

• Training and experiences

• Psychological attributes of the researcher

• Nature of the problem

• Audience for the research

Worldview of the researcher

• (Quantitative) more comfortable with an objective stance using survey or experimental instruments

• (Quantitative) see reality as subjective and want a close interaction with informants

Training and experience

• (Quantitative) technical writing skills; computer statistical skills; library skills

• (Qualitative) literary writing skills; computer text analysis skills; library skills

Psychological attributes

• (Quantitative) comfort with rules and guidelines for conducting research; low tolerance for ambiguity; time for study of short duration

• (Qualitative) comfort with lack of specific rules and procedures for conducting research; high tolerance for ambiguity; time for lengthy study

Nature of the problem

• (Quantitative) previously studied by other researchers so that body of literature exists; known variables; existing theories

• (Qualitative) exploratory research; variables unknown; context important; may lack theory base for study

Audience for the study

• (Quantitative) individuals accustomed to /supportive of quantitative studies

• (Qualitative) individuals accustomed to /supportive of qualitative studies

Methods associated with paradigms

• It is useful to consider the method of data collection and analysis to be associated with the paradigm of choice.

• Identify a tentative guiding method for use within the qualitative or quantitative paradigm.

Quantitative methods

• Experiments include – true experiments with random assignment of

subjects to treatment conditions and – quasi experiments that use nonrandomized

designs– quasi experiments include single-subject

designs

Quantitative methods

• Surveys include – cross-sectional and longitudinal studies – using questionnaires or structured interviews

for data collection – with intent of generalizing from a sample to a

population

Qualitative methods (approaches)

• Ethnographies– researcher studies an intact cultural group in a

natural setting during a prolonged period of time by collecting primarily observational data

– process is flexible and typically evolves contextually in response to the lived realities encountered in field setting

Qualitative methods (approaches)

• Critical ethnography– researcher chooses between conceptual

alternatives and value-laden judgments to challenge research, policy, and other forms of human activity

– attempt to aid emancipatory goals, negate repressive influences, raise consciousness, and invoke call to action leading to social change

Qualitative methods (approaches)

• Grounded theory– attempts to derive a theory by using multiple

stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information

– primary characteristics include:• constant comparison of data with emerging

categories

• theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize similarities and differences of information

Qualitative methods (approaches)

• Case studies– explores a single entity or phenomenon– bounded by time and activity (a program, event,

process, institution or social group)– collects detailed information– using variety of data collection procedures– during sustained period of time

Qualitative methods (approaches)

• Phenomenological studies– human experiences are examined through

detailed descriptions of people being studied– understanding the “lived experiences”– involves studying a small number of subjects

through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop patterns and relationships of meaning

– “brackets” own experiences to understand

Format for composing sections

• Select a format for the overall design of the study

• Format would depend greatly upon the paradigm chosen

• Methodology is the format for the entire study

Quantitative format

• Standards easily identified in journal articles and research studies

• Sections– Introduction– Review of the Literature– Methods– Appendices: Instruments

Quantitative format

• Introduction (expands to)– Context (Statement of the Problem)– Purpose of the Study– Research Questions | Objectives | Hypotheses– Theoretical Perspective– Definition of Terms– Delimitations and Limitations of the Study– Significance of the Study

Quantitative format

• Methods (expands to)– Research Design– Sample, Population, or Subjects– Instrumentation and Materials– Variables in the Study– Data Analysis

Quantitative format

• Less standardized but should be consistent with the qualitative paradigm assumptions

• The design should convey strong rationale for choice of a qualitative design

• Two possible models for format

Qualitative format #1

• Introduction

• Procedure

• Appendices

Qualitative format #1

• Introduction (expands to)– Statement of the Problem– Purpose of the Study– The Grand Tour Question and Subquestions– Definitions– Delimitations and Limitations– Significance of the Study

Qualitative format #1

• Procedure (expands to)– Assumptions and Rationale for the Design– The Type of Design Used– The Role of the Researcher– Data Collection Procedures– Data Analysis Procedures– Methods of Verification– Outcome, its Relation to Theory and Literature

Qualitative format #2

• Introduction & General Questions or Topic

• Significance of the Research

• Site and Sample Selections

• Role of Researcher in Management, Including Entry, Reciprocity and Ethics

• Research Strategies

Qualitative format #2

• Data Collection Techniques

• Managing and Recording Data

• Data Analysis Strategies

• Management Plan, Timeline, Feasibility

• Appendices