1

Four Decades of Nuclear Tracks Research in India

R.H.Iyer 1 and K.K.Dwivedi

2

1 Patron, Nuclear Track Society of India (NTSI)

Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400 085, India 2 President, International Nuclear Track Society (INTS)

Vice Chancellor, Arunachal University, Rono Hills, Itanagar-791 111, India

Abstract

The science of Solid State Nuclear Track Detectors (SSNTDs) -“Trackology”- developed

by R.L.Fleischer, P.B.Price and R.M.Walker in the early 60‟s is an interesting and potentially

useful concept with some thing to offer to almost all branches of science and technology. In fact

nuclear tracks find applications wherever solid state damage occurs. Apart from the direct

applications of far reaching consequences in nuclear physics, other areas as diverse as bio-

medical sciences, cosmic rays and space physics, environmental research, geological sciences,

material science, micro analysis, mine safety, nuclear technology, uranium prospecting etc have

been greatly influenced by SSNTDs.

In this presentation, we attempt to provide an overview of the growth of nuclear tracks

research in India over the last four decades and the contributions of Nuclear Track Society of

India (NTSI) and the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in nurturing nuclear track research in

the country. Finally a summary of the significant contributions made by Indian scientists is also

presented in this paper along with the overall impact it has made at the national and international

level in many areas of basic and applied sciences such as cosmic rays and space physics, fusion-

fission and particle evaporation, heavy ion ranges and energy-loss measurements , country-wide

indoor radon-thoron survey, geochronology, environmental sciences, track-etch membranes and

ion tracks technology, material science, physics and chemistry of fission etc.

KEY WORDS : Nuclear Tracks, cosmic rays, fission process, fullerenes , geochronology, heavy

ion ranges, indoor radon-thoron survey, material science, trace analysis, track registration from

solution media ,track-etch membranes

1. Introduction

I feel greatly honoured to be here this morning participating in this 21st International

conference on Nuclear Tracks in Solids ICNTS-21 being jointly organised by the Nuclear science

Centre, New Delhi and Arunachal University, Itanagar under the aegis of the International

Nuclear Track Society (INTS) and the Nuclear Track Society of India (INTS). I thank the

organisers of the conference for inviting me to give this opening review talk on “Four decades of

Nuclear Tracks Research in India” which I have prepared jointly with Dr KK Dwivedi, President

INTS and Chairman, National Organising Committee, ICNTS-21. This being the first time the

International conference in this series is being organised in India, we welcome this opportunity to

provide an overview of the growth of nuclear tracks research in India over the last four decades

and to highlight some of the significant contributions made by Indian scientists along with the

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overall impact it has made at the national and international level in some areas of basic and

applied sciences. It also provides us with an opportunity to briefly identify the contributions of

Nuclear Track Society of India (NTSI) and the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in nurturing

nuclear track research in the country. Thus, the presentation is broadly classified under the

following topics:

Some important milestones in the growth of nuclear track research in India over the

last four decades

Contributions of the Nuclear Track Society of India (NTSI)

Contributions on the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)

A brief listing of the significant contributions made by Indian scientists with a few

illustrative examples

A quick scan of current research and future outlook

2. Beginning of SSNTD research in India

The visit of Professor P.B.Price to the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR),

Mumbai in 1965 marked the beginning of SSNTD research activity on cosmic ray prehistory

using meteorite samples at TIFR, lead by Professors D. Lal and "NTSI founder president" S.

Biswas. (Lal, 1981) The late Professor K.K.Nagpaul initiated SSNTD work at Kurukshetra

University in 1969 and pioneered research in the areas of fission track dating and micro analysis

(Nagpaul 1981). Experimental work using SSNTDs were initiated independently by one of the

authors of this article (R.H.Iyer) at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1968 initially

with the detection of fission fragments from the thermal neutron fission of 235

U in Lexan

polycarbonate track detector (Iyer 1969, 1971) and expanded steadily over the years to cover

many other aspects of the fission process (Chaudhuri 1979, Iyer 1981) and applications, viz.

trace analysis of actinide elements, boron etc. in different matrices, radon, thoron and neutron

monitoring, uranium prospecting, (Iyer 1976) nuclear track registration from solution media and

fission and alpha radiography for material characterisation. Several other Indian Universities and

Research Institutes as listed below initiated experimental work using SSNTDs around the same

time. or a little later and are emerging centres of excellence in “trackology”. Perhaps amongst the

most important factors, which attracted many of these Indian Universities and research institutes

to this field of research, was the versatile and inexpensive nature of the technique (Price and

Fleischer 1971, Fleischer et.al 1972, 1975, Alhen and Price 1981, Durrani and Bull 1987). At

present there are more than 20 active research groups and specialised centres in India engaged in

research and development work involving SSNTDs , some of which are listed here.

Considering the involvement of a large number of Indian scientists in the use and

application of the nuclear track technique, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre played a lead role

to bring together different groups working in this field and organised the first Seminar-cum-

workshop on SSNTD during March 12-13, 1979 (Iyer 1979). About 15 institutions participated

in this meeting. This modest beginning paved the way for holding regular National Symposia on

SSNTDs once every two years and hosted by different institutions. An important fall out of these

close interactions among the scientists from different universities and R&D institutions was the

establishment of the Nuclear Track Society of India (NTSI) at the vth National Symposium held

at the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Calcutta, in 1987.Since then, these National Symposia

are being organised under the aegis of NTSI. These milestones heralding the birth and growth of

SSNTD research in India are summarised below:

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Table 1 (a): Growth of Nuclear Tracks Research in India: Some Milestones

Year Event

1965 Visit of Professor Bufford Price to TIFR, Mumbai

Beginning of SSNTD research in India

(cosmic rays & meteorites samples)

1968-69

Kurukshetra University

(Fission track dating, micro analysis)

1968

‡

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai

(fission , trace analysis, radon-thoron monitoring etc.)

1970 onwards Indian Universities and Research Institutes

begin R&D activities in SSNTDs:

# Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

# Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar

# North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong

# Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

# Gauhati University, Gauhati

# Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

# Punjab University, Chandigarh

# Calicut University, Calicut

# Mangalore University, Mangalore

# University of Mysore,Mysore

# Punjabi University, Patiala

# Osmania University, Hyderabad

# Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

# Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad

# Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Calcutta

# Bose institute, Calcutta

# Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun

# Defence Research Laboratory, Jodhpur

# Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi

1992 # H.N.B Garhwal University, Tehri Garhwal

1999 # Arunachal University, Itanagar

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Table 1(b): Growth of Nuclear Tracks Research In India: Some Milestones

Year

Event

March 12-13, 1979

First National seminar-cum-workshop on SSNTDs at

BARC, Mumbai, (R.H. Iyer, Convenor)

March 1987 Formation of Nuclear Track society of India (NTSI) at

SINP, Calcutta, (Prof. S. Biswas, Elected President)

April 1989 Inaugural issue of “Track News” released

March 1995 Dr. R.H. Iyer elected President, NTSI

June 20, 1995 New Emblem of NTSI Approved by Executive Council

of NTSI at BARC

September 1, 1995 Inaugural Issue of “NTSI Newsletter” released in BARC

November 25-26, 1995 NTSI organises the „„First National Worksop on

SSNTDs” at Dayanand Vedic College, Orai, UP.

April 1998 Prof. H.S. Virk, elected President, NTSI

Dr. R.H. Iyer , elected PATRON, NTSI

October 21-25,2002

21st

International Conference on Nuclear Tracks in Solids

(ICNTS-21) in New Delhi, India with Prof. KK Dwivedi

, president , INTS as Chairman and Dr. D.K. Avasthi as

convenor.

3. Contributions of the Nuclear Track society of India (NTSI)

As outlined above in Sec.1.2, the efforts to bring together Indian scientists working on

SSNTDs initiated by BARC by holding the first seminar –cum workshop on SSNTD during

March 1979. led to the formation of the nuclear track society of India in 1987.Today we have

about 250 members in NTSI including a few distinguished scientists from abroad. As a

professional society, three major objectives of NTSI are:

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(a) Organise “ National symposia on SSNTDs” once in every two years to bring together

trackologists working in India and abroad and to provide a forum for exchange of views and

opinions and to discuss current trends and new developments.

(b) Bring out its own house magazine the “NTSI Newsletter” on a bi-annual basis. This

serves as a medium of communication and information dissemination on current developments

through bibliography and current title services in SSNTDs; though columns like “FOCUS”.

Reports & news items; brief review articles etc.

(c) Organise “National workshops on SSNTDs” and introduce this technique as a regular

topic in the university curriculum at the MSc level. In an effort to popularise this simple, versatile

and inexpensive technique among the academic community viz, students, teachers and research

scholars in Indian Universities and colleges engaged in studies, teaching and research in physics,

chemistry, geology, life sciences etc. By exposing a large number of the brightest minds in the

academic institutions to the unique features of this technique, its low cost, unmatched simplicity

and its wide ranging applications in almost all branches of science and technology it is possible

that some of them would use their ingenuity and innovative skills to find altogether new and

novel applications or use them to pursue fundamental research. The optimum duration of the

workshop would be one week and the optimum number of participants in the workshop about 30.

NTSI would provide resource persons and printed course materials –for theory and experiments

(Iyer 1972, 1995). The host institution on its part interacts with the neighbouring educational

institutions and invites the teachers/ post graduate research scholars for the workshop and

provide all the facilities for conducting the workshop.

NTSI has made very good progress in all these areas and conducted several successful

workshops and national symposia and is making a visible impact of its efforts among large

sections of the scientific community in the country. The holding of the 21 st International

conference on solids (ICNTS-21) during October 21-25, 2002 in New Delhi, India represents a

milestone of progress in the history of NTSI. A list of the National Symposia on SSNTDs

organised by NTSI are given below:

Table-1 (c) : List of the National Symposia on SSNTDs organised by NTSI

Sr.No. Month/ Year Host Institution Convenor

1 March 1979 BARC, Mumbai RH Iyer

2 February 1981 Physical Research

Laboratory, Ahmedabad JN Goswami

3 October 1983 Guru Nanak Dev

University, Amritsar HS Virk

4 February, 1985 Wadia Institute of Himalayan

Geology, Dehradun KK Sharma

5* March, 1987 Saha Institute of Nuclear

Physics, Calcutta BB Baliga

6 1989 Gauhati university, Gauhati TD Goswami

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7 1991 Defence Research Laboratory

Jodhpur S Kumar

8 October, 1993 Aligarh Muslim University

Aligarh DS Srivastava

9 March 1995 BARC, Mumbai RH Iyer

10 October, 1996 Kurukshetra University

Kurukshetra Shyam Kumar

11 October, 1998 Guru Nanak Dev

University, Amritsar HS Virk

12 October, 2001 D.A.V. College, Jalandhar Subhash Kumar

* NTSI was founded in 1987; National symposia on SSNTDs after 1987 are being held under

the aegis of NTSI

4. DAE support for SSNTD Research : A brief outline

Many of the applications involving the use of SSNTDs such as accelerator-produced

Track-etch membranes, bio-medical sciences, environmental sciences, indoor radon-thoron

survey, material sciences, nuclear physics, reactor physics, uranium exploration, trace analysis etc

to cite a few are of direct interest to the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and therefore many

R&D projects are supported by DAE through its funding agency –Board of Research in Nuclear

Science (BRNS). DAE also supports the holding of National SSNTD Symposia and workshops.

DAE facilities such as the nuclear reactors APSARA, CIRUS and DHRUVA at BARC, the

variable energy cyclotron at Calcutta, and the 14 MV Pelletron heavy ion accelerator facilities at

TIFR and one at Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi are extensively used by Indian scientists for

basic and applied research using SSNTDs.

5. Major areas of SSNTD R&D activities in India

There are several active research groups in the academic institutions listed in Table 1(a) and

specialised centres in India like BARC and TIFR which have made significant contributions in

the area of nuclear track research .Many Indian universities e.g. NEHU, Arunachal University,

GNDU, Kurukshetra University among these , also have collaborative programs with R&D

institutes abroad. We have received inputs for this review from many of our colleagues: however,

since many of them are presenting their work in this conference, we have restricted the citations

to some selective areas which are not otherwise covered here. Keeping this in view a brief outline

of the major areas of SSNTD research in India and its impact at the national and international

level is given below:

5.1 Cosmic rays and space science

Like many branches of science, cosmic rays provide us with an unique sample of matter

composed of atomic nuclei of various elements such as hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen,

oxygen, etc up to iron and beyond up to uranium in very small intensities from interstellar space

and a new window to the universe-to explore high energy processes in the galaxy and beyond.

With their vast experience using photographic nuclear emulsions for studies of cosmic rays,

elementary particles and solar particles Scientists at TIFR led by Biswas started using SSNTDs

for studies of solar galactic and anomalous cosmic ray particles (Biswas 1983). In a collaborative

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work involving a team of scientists and engineers from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research,

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre , Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) ,Ahmedabad , Indian

Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Bangalore and National Aeronatics and Space

Administration (NASA) USA , two major experiments were carried out using the Skylab space

craft and the Space shuttle spacelab-3 .In the Skylab experiment cosmic ray tracks recorded in a

Lexan Stack flown for 74 days in 1973-74 were analysed (Biswas 1975). A new and sophisticated

experiment “Anuradha” was designed and fabricated containing a stack of 150 circular sheets of

CR-39 of 250 µ m thick and 40 cm diameter and 1200 cm2 area each was flown in Spacelab-3

in the Space Shuttle Challenger during a seven day mission on April 29 to May 6, 1985. These

experiments are among the most successful Indian cosmic ray experiments ever done.

(Durgaprasad et al. 1990, Singh et al 1991, Biswas 1995). They led to:

(i) observation of anomalous cosmic ray components in near earth orbit

(ii) provided the first and direct/unambiguous results on the ionisation states of the

anomalous cosmic ray components

The team received the “group achievement award “from NASA for exemplary performance and

professional skill in conceiving, advocating, developing and testing a spacelab-3 mission

scientific investigation.

5.2 Fission track geochronology

The credit of initiating work on fission track dating and geochronology in India goes to

late Professor KK Nagpaul (Nagpaul 1981).

Ever since the nuclear tracks in minerals were used to calculate the ages and the observed

discordance in ages of the co-existing minerals in a slow cooling platonic bodies were attributed

to differences in temperatures of their track retention, a new concept of blocking temperature of

mineral in geochronology started developing. This has lead to the general acceptance of mineral

ages as chrono-thermometers and a tool to estimate cooling and uplift rate of various plutons in

particular and the surrounding region in general. Indian scientists also contributed substantially in

the development of this concept and have provided ample data on fission track ages of co-

existing minerals, estimation of cooling and uplift rates and determination of cooling –uplift

paths for various orogenic belts in India. F-T ages of co-genetic/co-existing minerals e.g., garnet,

apatite and muscovite from large regions of Himalaya and peninsular India coupled with the

closing temperature of the minerals show that some of the regions have witnessed the highest

cooling and uplift rates.( Sharma et.al 1975, 1981,Nandlal et al, 1976, Virk 1977, Saini 1978,

Srivastava 1979)

5.3 Coordinated research project on country - wide survey of radon and thoron levels in Indian

dwellings

The long term, consequences of continuous exposure to higher than average levels of

radiations due to natural and man-made radiation sources to human population is of global

concern. There are a few pockets in India, like the monazite belt of Kerala coast in south India,

some locations in the eastern coast of Orissa, the uranium mines in Jaduguda, Bihar etc where

natural background radiation levels are high. Consequently, the indoor levels of Radon (222

Rn )

and Thoron (220

Rn ) and their short-lived daughter products , which account for almost 50 % of

the total radiation dose to human population from all types of radiation sources , are expected

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to be higher than average in these locations. As early as 1976, BARC carried out a preliminary

survey to monitor the air-born alpha activity levels due to Radon, Thoron and their daughter

products in the residential and industrial areas of the monazite belt of Kerala using cellulose

nitrate strip dosimeters (Iyer 1976). Apart from establishing the feasibility of using these

detectors the results showed areas where the alpha activity levels are high. To assess the situation

in the country measurements were initiated by the Environmental Assessment Division of

BARC since 1980 using SSNTDs in several parts of the country (Ramachandran 1996).

A country – wide survey on radon and thoron levels in Indian dwellings has been carried

under a coordinated research project sponsored by the Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences of

the department of atomic energy. Ten universities and few research institutions from different

parts of the country participated in this national project spread over the years 1997-2001

. The survey has been carried out using Solid State Nuclear Track Detector (SSNTD) based

passive detectors. A plastic twin chamber radon – thoron dosimeter has been developed and

standardizes in BARC. This radon-thoron discriminating dosimeter uses three SSNTD films. The

gas concentrations present in the vicinity of the dosimeter are directly measured through the

exposures in the cup with membrane and filter paper mode. Bare track density rates are

correlated to the gas and the progeny concentrations by incorporating ventilation dependent

spatial profiles for thoron gas. A methodology has been proposed to estimate the gas and progeny

concentrations and total inhalation rates due to the mixed field of radon and thoron and their

progenies.

Four nodal centres have also been set up at different parts of the country for calibration

studies and standardization of the dosimeters. Inter calibration of the dosimeters have also been

carried out. Sensitivity factors for the radon and thoron gas concentrations in the cup mode

exposure as well as progeny concentration in terms of species concentrations were also arrived

at. In all about 3000 houses of different types of construction spread over 28 locations around the

country have been surveyed under this nation - wide project.

The results of the survey have shown that the indoor radon levels varied from 6 to 150 Bq

m-3

; while that of thoron gas varied from 6 to 134 Bq m-3

. The estimated inhalation dose varied

from 0.3 to 4.44 mSv/y with a mean of 2.11 mSv/y. A radon – thoron atlas map has been prepared

similar to the external gamma radiation distribution map of the country prepared earlier

(Ramachandran et.al 2002).

5.4 Other areas of basic and applied research using SSNTDs in India: a brief listing of some

significant contributions

As mentioned in the introduction, the versatile and inexpensive nature of SSNTDs has

been exploited by Indian scientists (see Table-1a) and has embarked on very useful basic and

applied research programs. Apart from Radon studies ,which is being done by most of the

groups, some of the other R&D programs include for example :: geochronology, earthquake

prediction, nuclear geophysics ( Virk 1995,1998,2001 Ramola 1990) , stopping power and

ranges of heavy ions in polymeric materials , nuclear track filters , nuclear reactions. (Shyam

kumar 1995, Chakravarty 2001). These research efforts have resulted in a large number of

publications and PhD theses. Based on the inputs received from our colleagues (which are only

partial as all the groups did not respond to our request) a rough estimate of the number of

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publications during the last four decades is about 500 and the number of PhD theses about 71

with GNDU contributing the largest number of 18.

It is not our intention here to list/review/highlight the contributions of each research

group in this paper. Instead, we conclude this discussion by giving a few illustrative examples of

work done in our laboratories at BARC, NEHU and Arunachal University to highlight the impact

of the work in terms of its practical utility and / or in terms of furthering fundamental knowledge

(a) Channelling and Ridging.

Experimental work on heavy ion channelling in crystalline solids has resulted in

realization of a new range surface 'Angular Dependence of Heavy Ion Range' (ADHIR) which is

quite analogous to the familiar Fermi surface of constant energy. This theory is being further

extended to a new kind of 'governed' particle motion - RIDGING - which is caused by, and

exploits the strong anisotropy of basic crystal lattice and is expected to be valid for stable

fundamental particles like leptons, mesons and baryons (Chadderton et. al 1990, Ghosh et. al

1997).

(b) Fusion –fission

A simple and unique method to study fusion-fission and particle evaporation in complete

4 -geometry has been developed .and measured a large number of fusion-fission events of swift

heavy ions and analysed them kinematically using specially developed computer code HIFISS.

Our experimental results have unambiguously proved that heavy projectiles form compound

nuclei with those constituting polymer matrixes. 'The first visual detection of one and two

evaporated particles from the highly excited compound nuclei before fission' is one of the

important findings of our research. (Raju et. al 1993, Dwivedi et. al 1993)

(c) Studies on fullerenes

In a collaborative program of research between NEHU and Hahn Meitner Institute,

Germany, one of our significant contributions in the field of material science is recognised by the

work on heavy ion induced creation of Buckminster fullerene (C60) and other onion-shell

fullerene (C120+) in graphite and diffusion studies and the release of energy upon destruction of

Fullerenes (Chadderton et. al 1993, Fink et. al 1997, 1998).

(d) Range energy relations

Experimental technique has been developed for measuring heavy ion ranges and energy-

loss in elemental and complex media. In the last 15 years, we have generated a large volume of

experimental range-energy data for several heavy ions in different solids in order to verify the

validity of theoretical prescriptions. . A number of useful and user-friendly computer codes viz.

DEDXT, DEDXH, RANGE, RF, FFR, TRALIN, TRAPOL, TRACAL, TRANSCORD and

HIFISS etc. have been developed by us for various applications in nuclear research. (Dwivedi

1979, 1988, 1991, Saxena 1989)

(e) Nuclear tack registration from solution media and its applications in nuclear science

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Nuclear track registration on detectors immersed in solutions known as “the wet method”

developed in BARC (as distinct from the conventional “dry method” in which thin deposits of

samples are in direct contact with the detector in 2π geometry) has opened up an innovative and

new area of studies involving SSNTDs and has found many applications in nuclear science and

technology (Iyer, 1972, 1974, 1981, 1997, Chaudhuri 1979, Uma, 1980)

The main constraints in extensive application of SSNTDs are the time and efforts

involved in manual counting of the tracks under an optical microscope. Although some attractive

instrumental methods are now available for track counting they are not simple enough for routine

and general applications manual counting quantitative and accurate determinations are

dependent on manual counting .In spite of its lower sensitivity the solution technique has greatly

simplified the use of SSNTDs for analytical applications and substantially increased the accuracy

of the measurements, stemming from the uniform registration and distribution of tracks on the

detector. It has been extensively used for neutron flux monitoring, microanalysis of Boron,

Lithium, actinides etc in various matrices at ultra trace levels as well as for measurement of

absolute fission yields in the neutron-induced fission o actinides.(Iyer 1997).

(f ) Physics and chemistry of fission

Research and development activities on nuclear fission is one of the important areas in

which the leadership of BARC has been recognised both at the national and international level.

It is an accepted fact that precision measurements in scientific research generally come through

the use of expensive instruments. But the SSNTD technique has made precision measurements

of charged particles and studies on nuclear fission quite inexpensive. By taking advantage of the

extremely sensitive and highly discriminating nature of SSNTDs BARC scientists have made

some significant contributions in the areas of:

(i) fission excitation functions of low Z (Z ≤ 80) elements (Iyer 1991,1993, Pandey 1995)

(ii) experimental determination of absolute fission yields in the thermal and fast neutron

fission of a number of actinides 232

Th – 244

Cm (Marathe 1978, Ramaswami 1979, Naik

1996, Iyer 2000)

(iii) Fission cross section and fragment angular distributions (Chaudhuri 1979, Iyer 1981)

(iv) Detection and identification of actinide isotopes at ultra trace levels in the environment

(Iyer 1996)

A brief discussion of these topics follow:

Fission studies on low Z (Z ≤ 80 ) elements induced by medium energy (~ 100 MeV)

charged particles are extremely low cross section processes (nano barns to micro barns 10-33

cm2

to 10-30

cm2) provide excellent opportunities determination of several important nuclear

parameters such as fission barriers (Ef ),level density parameters , for neutron emission (an) and

fission (af), influence of shell effects etc by analysing the fission excitation functions .and for

comparing these experimental parameters with predictions of theoretical models. Reliable and

accurate measurements of fission barriers particularly in the lighter elements below Lead (Z=82)

which are equivalent to measurement of nuclear masses at a distorted “saddle point

configuration” not only help in the understanding of the systematics of fission process but also

would enhance our understanding of the systematics of nuclear masses in general.

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Using a specially designed target chamber in which fission fragments recoiling in the

backward direction are detected in Lexan foils and using He-ions from the variable energy

cyclotron at Calcutta, fission excitation in the energy range 30-70 MeV were measured for the

following fissioning systems:

159

Tb65 + 4He2

163Ho67

165

Ho67 + 4He2

189Tm69

167.3Er68 +

4He2

172.3Yb70

173.1

Yb70 + 4He2

177.1Hf72

The major conclusions of this work can be summarised as :

these measurements extend the range of low Z elements in the deformed region for which

excitation functions were obtained.

163Ho65 represents the lightest compound nucleus for which fission barrier has been

determined experimentally.

experimental barriers are close to shell-corrected Liquid drop barriers for nuclei in the

deformed region; in other words ground stare deformation has very little influence on

lowering fission barriers

af /an shows a definite decreasing trend and approaches unity as we move away from

closed shell region to deformed region which means that the ground state and the saddle

point have similar level structures in the deformed region

nuclei with A <200 will undergo only symmetric fission; however, nuclei with a > 200

will show both symmetric and asymmetric modes at varying degrees.

Absolute fission yield measurements in the neutron fission of actinides

Development of a simple and elegant methodology known as “Track-etch-cum Gamma

spectrometry” for the measurement of absolute fission yields in the thermal and fast neutron

induced fission of a large number of actinide isotopes 232

Th – 244

Cm involving the use of

SSNTDs is another significant contribution from BARC that has made an impact at the national

and international level. Determination of absolute fission yields of actinide elements is

important for evolving proper reactor design, fuel handling, waste management etc and also

needed for a proper understanding of the fission process itself. The yields of short-lived fission

products are important for decay heat calculations. Independent and fractional yield data required

for this purpose are mostly derived from semi-empirical calculations. The details of the

methodology and the advantages of this method over other methods of absolute yield

measurements such as isotope dilution mass spectrometry are available in a number of

publications (Marathe 1978, Ramaswami 1979, Naik 1996, Iyer 2000). The technique is very

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simple, applicable to volatile (Kr, Xe, Br, I) and short-lived fission products and eliminates the

need for measuring the neutron flux , cross section and the exact number of target atoms thereby

eliminating the errors associated with those measurements. It is also applicable to highly active

and sparingly available actinide isotopes e.g. 238

Pu, 240

Pu , 243

Am,244

Cm and requires only a

few micrograms of the actinide isotopes for exhaustive and comprehensive measurements( Iyer

2000)

Measurement of / f ratio for detection, measurement and identification of ultra trace levels

of actinides :

A noteworthy contribution from the BARC SSNTD group with its vast experience in

fission and related studies is the demonstration of the practical utility of SSNTDs for detection,

measurement and identification of actinide isotopes present in airborne particulates ultra trace

levels dispersed in the environment from nuclear fuel cycle facilities.(Iyer 1996) Individual

particulate analysis is the most important step to uniquely identify the actinide isotope which

may be present at picogram to femtogram level. This is because all known conventional methods

of bulk measurements involve dissolution or acid leaching of the sample followed by chemical

analysis and identification of isotopes by gamma spectrometry, alpha spectrometry or mass

spectrometry. During dissolution all information about particulate size and their distribution in

the host matrix is lost and isotopes present in all particulates in the sample get mixed leading to

an average value of the isotopic composition. Apart from the general interest attached

environmental survey for radioactive contamination of the atmosphere, detection, measurement

and identification of minute traces of actinide isotopes in the atmosphere has far reaching

implications in that it allows one to get “nuclear signatures” about the source causing the

contamination. The method developed and tested by us is based on the fact that all known

actinide elements are uniquely identifiable by their alpha decay constant , , and their thermal

neutron fission cross section, f. As an example, the / f values for pure 233

U, 235

U,

natural U and 239

Pu are : 2.58x108, 5.34x10

4, 2.57x10

6 and 1.45x10

9 cm

-2. s

-1 respectively.

These values differ from each other by orders of magnitude. Thus by measuring the / f ratio

of a particulate containing few million atoms (10– 15

g ) one can identify the actinide isotope. A

photograph showing four pairs of perfectly matched alpha and fission track clusters from

actinide –bearing particulates is shown in Figure-1.( Iyer – unpublished data).

6. Concluding remarks

We conclude this presentation with a quick scan of current research and future outlook in

an important and emerging area of application of SSNTDs ( Ilic et al. 2002) being pursued at

BARC and a few other institutions in India , viz accelerator produced track-etch membranes

(TEMs) and their applications in environmental (Iyer 1998, 1999, 2002, Ramanujam et al. 2001,

Pandey et al 2001) and medical sciences (Rajan et. al 2002, 2003, Gopalani 2002, Vijayalakshmi

Rao 2002). Track-etch membranes offer distinct advantages over conventional membranes due to

their precisely determined structure. The well defined pore characteristics make them eminently

suitable for a wide variety of applications such as ultra filtration (< 0.1µm) and micro filtration

(0.1 – 1.5 µm) membranes for complete removal of viruses, bacteria, dust and colloidal particles

from fluid media. This is apparent from the relative sizes of ions and molecules and the

optimum ranges of pores sizes for different applications as illustrated below.

13

Relative sizes of some ions and molecules

H2O 2 Å

Na+ 3.7 Å

Sucrose 10 Å

Haemoglobin 70 Å

Influenza virus 1000 Å

Staphylococcus Bacteria 10,000 Å ( 1 m )

Starch 10 m

Optimum ranges of pore sizes for different applicationsOptimum ranges of pore sizes for different applications

Reverse osmosis ultra filtration micro filtration Reverse osmosis ultra filtration micro filtration conventional filtrationconventional filtration

----------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------

11ÅÅ 10 10 ÅÅ 100 100 ÅÅ 1000 1000 ÅÅ 1 1 μμ 10 10 μμ 100 100 μμ

Sensing the steadily growing applications of these membranes in many areas of research

and industrial applications, we have for the first time in the country standardised the

methodology for the preparation of track-etch membranes using heavy ions from the BARC-

TIFR Pelletron accelerator. ( Iyer 1998). These membranes have been used successfully in

laboratory scale experiments as supported liquid membranes (SLMs) for the transport /

separation / recovery of environmentally toxic and/or commercially valuable metal ions e.g. U,

Am, Y etc and As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn etc from radioactive as well as non-radioactive

14

aqueous waste solutions respectively (Iyer 1999, 2001) .“Affluent society” may be nicknamed as

“Effluent society” since industrial nations with various industrial processes such as mining,

metal plating, metal finishing, rayon industry, chrome tanning etc to cite a few, discharge many

chemicals and heavy metals into the plant effluent streams.

An illustrative list of industries/chemical operations releasing some of the toxic elements

such as Zn, Cd, Hg, Cr, As, Ni, Pb etc is given below:

As Insecticides

Pharmaceutical Industry

Sulfide minerals (natural source)

Cd Electroplating Industry

Cr Leather industry

Carborandum Industry

Chromium plating

Ni Plating Industry

Catalysis

Hg Chloralkal plants

Electrolysis for production of Na metal

Pb Batteries

Paint industry

Zn Viscose Rayon industry

Galvanizing, Zinc plating

Pesticides „Ziram‟ Zn-dimethyldithio-carbonate agricultural run- offs

There is growing need to examine and/or develop practical technologies that not only can

remediate waste streams but also recover valuable components from waste solutions –a topic of vital

global concern dealing with the preservation of a clean environment. Liquid membrane-based

separations which combine solvent extraction and stripping in a single step, has great potential for

extraction of low metal values from different matrices .Supported liquid membranes (SLMs) containing

selective carriers can be efficiently used not only for separation of aqueous solute species but also for

achieving high concentration factors. It is clearly demonstrated that indigenously prepared 10 m thick

TEMs with a porosity in the range of 2-5% give comparable transport rates for metal ions - matching

with commercial membranes of much higher thickness (160 m) and porosity in the range of 60-85%.

The smaller thickness of TEMs more than compensates for their lower porosity. This is illustrated in

Figure-2. A significant and visible result emerging from this R&D scheme which abundantly proves

the above features of SLM process is the development of a simple SLM-based generator system for the

regular supply of pure, carrier-free 90

Y, a pure beta emitter useful in beta-ray therapeutic applications,

from complex, hazardous and highly radioactive waste solutions (Ramanujam et al. 2001) This should

provide a fillip to develop similar separation/recovery programs in waste management.

7. Future outlook

In the preceding paragraphs, we have had a glimpse of the many facets of “ four decades of

nuclear tracks research in India” in which Indian scientists have made notable contributions in

many areas of basic and applied sciences such as cosmic rays and space physics,

geochronology, nation-wide radon-thoron mapping, physics and chemistry of nuclear fission

15

process, fusion-fission, , creation of fullerenes, track-etch membranes etc. using SSNTDs . A

base has been created to promote awareness in the country about the vast applications of

SSNTDs in many areas of science and technology as discussed in this review.

Track-etch membranes (TEMs) and ion track technology are emerging areas which promises

many new applications. An important beginning has been made in the country to set up a

National facility for production, quality surveillance and applications of heavy ion accelerator –

produced track –etch membranes .and sensitize other R&D units in the country to initiate

fresh R&D to explore the possibility of using TEMs on a large scale and for new applications

such as those in medical sciences. Some significant and creative developments are emerging in

recent years on novel and large scale use of TEMs such as :

7.1 Hospital treatment of burns and wounds

One of the most beneficial application of TEMs is their possible use in treatment of burns and

wounds. The most likely reason for loss of life resulting from high percent body burn injuries

is due to bacterial infection of the affected area which can be prevented by keeping the patient

in a bacteria-free ICU ward. However, in many burn wards in hospitals this facility is very

limited According to recent newspaper report (Times of India, New Bombay Plus, Sept. 5,

2001) India loses about 2.4 lakh persons and about 150 million man days due to burn injuries

and the cost of treatment of burns is estimated to be about Rs 400 million.

.

In this regard the setting up of Asia’s first and the world’s second largest burns institute in

Airoli, New Bombay by the Indian Burns Research Society is an important development.

This 140 bedded unit with intensive care units and other modern R& D laboratory, diagnostic

facilities etc. is an important medical facility in the country.

In wounds and burns treatment, mono and multilayer dressings are used ,made from textile

materials as well as from formy and spongy materials. Dressings should closely adhere to the

surface of the woun , do not irritate the skin and should be sterile and non allergic. They should

also limit evaporation of water from the wound surface,restrain bleeding, be an efficient

barrier against bacteria and micro organism , and should be easy in putting and removing.

Most of these special requirements can be met by using large area thin and transparent TEMs

with well defined and uniform pores .Dressings with Track-etch membranes with pore

diameters below 0.5 m have been used and clinical investigations were performed

concerning their serviceableness for burns and wounds in the Specialistic Centre for Burns

Therapy in nowice Slasskie, Poland ( Malinovvsky et al,1991)

Considering the enormity of the loss of life and man days caused by burns in India and

considering , these positive societal benefits accruing from the possible large scale use of thin

transparent TEMs of well defined and uniform pores , we have a strong case for indigenous

manufacture of accelerator-based TEMs.

7.2 Controlled release technology

Controlled-release technology dealing with the rate at which substances, usually

biologically active substances are released to their environment is another emerging area of

application of micro filtration membranes. Controlled release technology allows us to stretch

out the time e.g .once-a day or once-a week or even once-a year over which the concentration of

a substance say a drug remains above an effective threshold. Simple devices for the

transdermal delivery of drugs using TEMs are being developed in Defence Laboratory,

16

Jodhpur and at the Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi ( Gopalani et al.2002, Vijayalakshmi

Rao et al 2002)

7.3 Development of antibody chips for multianalyte immuno assays (MAIA)

A concept that could revolutionise laboratory diagnosis is multi-analyte immuno assays

(MAIA). Several institutions in collaboration with large multinational laboratories are working

to develop appropriate technology and capitalise on it. MAIA will offer the advantage of

estimating many analytes in one assay as compared to present assays where each assay can

estimate only one analyte .By simultaneously carrying out all relevant test for a given disease or

associated diseases, MAIA can save valuable time for patient management.

At the core of MAIA is the “antibody chip”: a small inert matrix on which a number of

antibodies, each specific to different analyte, is immobilised at spatially determined sites.

Choosing a suitable matrix, applying the correct chemistry to bind the antibodies at a high

density in specific locations is the key to developing “antibody chips”. In a collaborative

programme with the Bio-medical group of BARC, we have standardised a technique using

TEMs to spot anti bodies and demonstrated the validity of our process (Rajan 2002, 2003).

These are some of the future possibilities of research involving SSNTDs which will

lead to many other scientific and technological applications of immense economic value and

potential benefits to society.

To sum up, it is said that basic research is an adventure into uncharted and unknown

territory with no specific commercial objectives and with no guarantee of what may be found.

There is of course the exciting possibility of finding something really new and potentially

useful. The study of damage trails of fast moving particles through solid matter provides an

edifying illustration of the correctness of this observation. It also provides an excellent example

of how simple discoveries arising out of basic research lead to demonstrable practical results.

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20

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21

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Figure captions:

Figure-1. Photomicrographs of four perfectly matched alpha and fission clusters from actinide-

bearing particulates

Figure-2. Percentage transport of Pb as a function of time across supported liquid membranes

(SLMs) with track-etch membrane (TEM) prepared using high energy 107

Ag beams

and commercial poly tetra fluoro ethylene membrane (PTFE) as supports and Di-2

ethyl hexyl phosphoric acid ( D2EHPA) as the carrier., showing identical transport

behavior.

22

SOLID STATE NUCLEAR TRACK DETECTORS

(SSNTDs-A Versatile tool for Research in Basic and Applied

Sciences*

R. H. Iyer

Former Head, Radiochemistry Division,

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

Ex-President and Patron,

Nuclear Track Society of India (NTSI)

E-Mail: rhiyer1@yahoo.com

-------------------------------------------------------------------

------------*Keynote address, presented at the 16th national

symposium

on SSNTDs, at Amritsar, November 9-11, 2009.

Historical PerspectiveHistorical PerspectiveDiscovery of Nuclear fission by Otto Discovery of Nuclear fission by Otto HannHann and Fritz and Fritz StrassmannStrassmann

in 1939in 1939

Observation of shallow pits of fission fragments in Observation of shallow pits of fission fragments in LiFLiF crystals crystals

by by D.A.YoungD.A.Young in 1958in 1958

Discovery of linear trails of damage Discovery of linear trails of damage ““trackstracks”” in mica exposed to in mica exposed to

fission fragments seen under Transmission Electron Microscope fission fragments seen under Transmission Electron Microscope

by by E.C.H.SilkE.C.H.Silk and and R.S.BarnesR.S.Barnes in 1959in 1959

Discovery of chemical Discovery of chemical etchantsetchants to enlarge the to enlarge the ““trackstracks”” to optical to optical

size leading to size leading to useful applications,useful applications, by by P.B.PriceP.B.Price, R.L Fleischer and , R.L Fleischer and

R.M.WalkerR.M.Walker during 1962during 1962--6363

23

Commemorating the golden jubilee of the Commemorating the golden jubilee of the

discovery of discovery of ssntdssntd ----------------------

Several pioneers, among them, late Profs. K.K.Nagpaul, A.P.Sharma, B.B,Baliga and Profs.

S.Biswas, D.Lal, H.S.Virk and others have contributed to the development of this program India

through their research and mentoring their younger colleagues and built R&D groups of National

and International recognition.

24

Photograph taken at the First Seminar-cum-workshop organized in BARC (March 1979)

Pioneers Pioneers photgraphsphotgraphs--expresgratitudeexpresgratitude

25

Growth of Nuclear Tracks in India: Some milestones

ArunachalArunachal University, University, ItanagarItanagar19991999

H.N.B H.N.B GarhwalGarhwal University, University, TehriTehri GarhwalGarhwal19921992

Indian Universities and Research Institutes begin R&D activitieIndian Universities and Research Institutes begin R&D activities in s in

SSNTDsSSNTDs: :

Indian Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, KanpurKanpur, Guru Nanak Dev University, , Guru Nanak Dev University,

AmritsarAmritsar NorthNorth--Eastern Hill University, Eastern Hill University, ShillongShillong AligarhAligarh Muslim Muslim

University, University, AligarhAligarh GauhatiGauhati University, University, GauhatiGauhati BanarasBanaras Hindu Hindu

University, University, VaranasiVaranasi Punjab University, Punjab University, ChandigarhChandigarh CalicutCalicut University, University,

CalicutCalicut Mangalore University, Mangalore University of Mangalore University, Mangalore University of Mysore,MysoreMysore,Mysore

Punjabi University, Punjabi University, PatialaPatiala OsmaniaOsmania University, Hyderabad Indian University, Hyderabad Indian

Institute of Technology, Institute of Technology, KharagpurKharagpur Physical Research Laboratory, Physical Research Laboratory,

AhmedabadAhmedabad SahaSaha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Calcutta Bose institute, Institute of Nuclear Physics, Calcutta Bose institute,

Calcutta Calcutta WadiaWadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Institute of Himalayan Geology, DehradunDehradun Defence Defence

Research Laboratory, Jodhpur Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi.Research Laboratory, Jodhpur Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi.

1970 onwards1970 onwards

BhabhaBhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, fission, trace analysis, Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, fission, trace analysis,

radonradon--thoronthoron monitoring etc.monitoring etc.

19681968

KurukshetraKurukshetra University (fission track dating, micro analysis)University (fission track dating, micro analysis)19681968--6969

Visit of Professor Buford P. Price to TIFR, Mumbai Visit of Professor Buford P. Price to TIFR, Mumbai

beginning of SSNTD research in India (cosmic rays & meteorites beginning of SSNTD research in India (cosmic rays & meteorites

samples)samples)

1965 1965

EventEventYearYear

Table 1: Growth of nuclear tracks research in India: Some milestones

21 21 stst International Conference on Nuclear Tracks in Solids in New International Conference on Nuclear Tracks in Solids in New

Delhi, India with KK Delhi, India with KK DwivediDwivedi, president, INTS as Chairman and , president, INTS as Chairman and

D.K. D.K. AvasthiAvasthi as convenoras convenor

October 21October 21--25, 200225, 2002

H.S. H.S. VirkVirk, elected President, NTSI R.H. , elected President, NTSI R.H. IyerIyer, elected Patron, NTSI, elected Patron, NTSIApril 1998April 1998

NTSI organises the NTSI organises the „„„„First National Worksop on First National Worksop on SSNTDsSSNTDs”” at at

DayanandDayanand Vedic College, Vedic College, OraiOrai, UP, UP

November 25November 25--26, 1995. 26, 1995.

Inaugural Issue of Inaugural Issue of ““NTSI NewsletterNTSI Newsletter”” released in BARCreleased in BARCSeptember 1, 1995September 1, 1995

New Emblem of NTSI New Emblem of NTSI Approved by Executive Council of NTSI Approved by Executive Council of NTSI

at BARCat BARC

June 20, 1995June 20, 1995

R.H. R.H. IyerIyer elected President,elected President, NTSINTSIMarch 1995March 1995

Inaugural issue of Inaugural issue of ““Track NewsTrack News”” releasedreleasedApril 1989April 1989

Formation of Nuclear Track society of India (NTSI) at SINP, Formation of Nuclear Track society of India (NTSI) at SINP,

Calcutta( S. Calcutta( S. BiswasBiswas, Elected President ), Elected President )

March 1987March 1987

First National SeminarFirst National Seminar--cumcum--workshop on workshop on SSNTDsSSNTDs at BARC, at BARC,

Mumbai (R.H. Mumbai (R.H. IyerIyer, Convenor), Convenor)

March 12March 12--13, 197913, 1979

EventEventYearYear

Table 1: Growth of nuclear tracks research in India: Some milestones

26

Contributions of Nuclear track Society of India (NTSI)Contributions of Nuclear track Society of India (NTSI)

Founded in 1987 at SINP CalcuttaFounded in 1987 at SINP Calcutta

Present membership : more than 300 life members including 3 Present membership : more than 300 life members including 3

distinguished foreign scientists distinguished foreign scientists

Bring out inBring out in--house magazine house magazine ““NTSI NTSI NewsletterNewsletter””onon a bia bi--annual basis.annual basis.

* * OrganiseOrganise National Symposia on SSNTDS once in every two yearsNational Symposia on SSNTDS once in every two years

* * OrganiseOrganise National Work shopsNational Work shops

Table 2: List of the National Symposia on Table 2: List of the National Symposia on SSNTDsSSNTDs organised by NTSI*organised by NTSI*

Dr. R.C. Dr. R.C. RamolaRamola

Dr.SurinderDr.Surinder SinghSingh

HNB HNB GarhwalGarhwal University, University, TehriTehri

GND GND University,AmritsarUniversity,Amritsar

June 21June 21--23, 200723, 2007

November, 2009November, 2009

15 15

1616

Dr. Dr. A.NaqviA.NaqviAMU, AMU, AligarhAligarhNovember, 2005November, 20051414

Dr. P.Y. Reddy.Dr. P.Y. Reddy.OsmaniaOsmania University, HyderabadUniversity, HyderabadOctober , 2003October , 200313 13

SubhashSubhash KumarKumarD.A.V. College, D.A.V. College, JalandharJalandharOctober, 2001October, 20011212

HS HS VirkVirkGuru Nanak Dev University, Guru Nanak Dev University, AmritsarAmritsarOctober, 1998October, 19981111

ShyamShyam KumarKumarKurukshetraKurukshetra University, University, KurukshetraKurukshetraOctober, 1996October, 19961010

RH RH IyerIyerBARC, MumbaiBARC, MumbaiMarch 1995March 199599

DS DS SrivastavaSrivastavaAligarhAligarh Muslim University, Muslim University, AligarhAligarhOctober, 1993October, 199388

S KumarS KumarDefence Research Laboratory, JodhpurDefence Research Laboratory, Jodhpur1991199177

TD TD GoswamiGoswamiGauhatiGauhati University, University, GauhatiGauhati1989198966

BB BB BaligaBaligaSahaSaha Institute of Nuclear Physics, CalcuttaInstitute of Nuclear Physics, CalcuttaMarch, 1987March, 198755

KK SharmaKK SharmaWadiaWadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Institute of Himalayan Geology,

DehradunDehradunFebruary, 1985February, 198544

HS HS VirkVirkGuru Nanak Dev University, Guru Nanak Dev University, AmritsarAmritsarOctober 1983October 198333

JN JN GoswamiGoswamiPhysical Research Laboratory, Physical Research Laboratory, AhmedabadAhmedabadFebruary 1981February 198122

RH RH IyerIyerBARC, MumbaiBARC, MumbaiMarch 1979March 197911

ConvenorConvenorHost institutionHost institutionMonth / yearMonth / yearSr.NoSr.No..

22

11

was founded in 1987; National

* NTSI Symposia on SSNTDs after 1987 are being held under the aegis of NTSI

27

New Emblem of NTSI approved by Executive council of NTSI in BARC on June 20,1995

and the inaugural issue of NTSI Newsletter released in BARC on September 1.1995

Table 3:Table 3: List of the National Workshops on List of the National Workshops on SSNTDsSSNTDs organised by NTSI*organised by NTSI*

Dr. R.B.S. Dr. R.B.S. RawatRawatSwami Swami SukhdevanandSukhdevanand (PG) College, (PG) College,

ShahjahanpurShahjahanpur

2007200755

Dr. Dr. BahlBahlDAV College, DAV College, JalandharJalandhar1999199944

R.C.RamolaR.C.RamolaHNB HNB GarhwalGarhwal University,TehriUniversity,TehriMarch 27March 27--30, 199730, 19973.3.

MaharshiMaharshi, , DayananDayanan University,RohtakUniversity,RohtakOctober 8October 8--11, 199611, 19962. 2.

Dr.S.C.KhuranaDr.S.C.KhuranaDayanandDayanand Vedic College, Vedic College, OraiOrai, UP., UP.November 25November 25--26, 199526, 19951 1

ConvenorConvenorHost institutionHost institutionMonth / yearMonth / yearSr.NoSr.No..

On the average the participation of research scholars ,

students and teachers was about 40 per workshop.

28

For organising the National workshop s on SSNTD, NTSI would provide resource persons and

printed course materials –for theory and experiments (Iyer 1995).

DAE Support for SSNTD WorkDAE Support for SSNTD Work

Reactors Reactors Microanalysis Microanalysis

Fission track dating & geochronologyFission track dating & geochronology

Environmental sciencesEnvironmental sciences

VECC Fission studiesVECC Fission studies

Ranges in Ranges in SSNTDsSSNTDs

Heavy ion accelerators TrackHeavy ion accelerators Track--etch membranesetch membranes

Material scienceMaterial science

Fission studiesFission studies

National SymposiaNational Symposia

BRNS National workshopsBRNS National workshops

National Radon /National Radon /ThoronThoron surveysurvey

Research ProjectsResearch Projects