foundations of sla

8/12/2019 Foundations of SLA

1/88

Foundations of SLA


2/88

The nature oflanguage learning


3/88

L1 acquisition

L1 acquisition starts since birth without anyconscious effortBy the age of 6 months an infant has produced all

of the vowel sounds and most of the consonantsounds of any language in the world.Sowhat happens after? Why we arent able toreproduce some sounds as adults?


4/88

L1 acquisition

Children start to discriminate among those soundsthat make a difference in the meaning of words intheir first language and learn to disregard those thatdont. Flapped /r/ vs. trilled /rr/ and /b/ vs. /v/


5/88

L1 acquisition

On average children have mastered most of thedistinctive sounds of their first language beforethey are 3 years old

Awareness of basic discourse patterns (likeconversational turn-taking) appear at an evenearlier age.Children control most of the basic L1 grammaticalpatterns before they are 5 or 6 (although complexgrammatical patterns continue to develop throughthe school years.


6/88

Acquiring more than one L1

The same natural and generally effortless learningprocess takes place when there is significantexposure to more than one language in early

childhood.If young children hear and respond to 2 or morelanguages in their environment, the result will besimultaneous multilingualismSimultaneous multilingualism can be defined asmultiple L1s acquired by about 3 years of age.


7/88

The focus of SLA

However, SLA studies dont include simultaneousmultilingualismSLA studies focus on sequential multilingualism

(L2s acquired after L1)


8/88

Theories behind L1 acquisition

Read the next theories developed in the last 50years and discuss if your agree with them or not:

Desire to please theory : L1 acquisition is in large partthe result of childrens natural desire to please theirloving parents, who wait impatiently for them to utter arecognizable word.Need to communicate to satisfy needs : Language

acquisition is purposive, children develop languagebecause of their urge to communicate their wants andneeds to the people who take care of themImitation : Children learn language by imitation (the

stimulus-response theory).


9/88


Here are the current findings regarding those theories:Desire to please theory : Studies showed that thechildren of indifferent parents successfully acquirelanguage about the same rate.

Need to communicate to satisfy needs : Not provenand adequate explanation since within childrens limitedsphere of activity, communicative needs seem to belargely satisfied by gesture and such non-speech sounds

(cries, grunts, whines, etc.)Imitation : Much of childrens initial language learningcan be attributed to imitation, but many of theirutterances are original and cant be explained asimitations at all, since they hadnt heard them before.


10/88


If it is not the desire to please, need to communicateor imitation the reason we learn a L1, then how dowe learn a L1?

The role of natural abilityThe role of social experience


11/88

The role of natural ability in L1acquisition

Humans are born with a natural ability or innatecapacity to learn language. Such a predispositionmust be assumed in order to explain several facts:

Children begin to learn their L1 at the same age,and in much the same way, whether it is English,Bengali, Korean, Swahili or any other language.Children master the basic phonological andgrammatical operations in their L1 by 5 or 6regardless of what the language is.


12/88


13/88


In viewing the natural ability to acquire language interms of innate capacity, we are saying that part oflanguage structure is genetically given to everyhuman child.

All languages are incredibly complex systemswhich no children could possibly master in theirearly years to the degree they succeed in doing soif they had to learn them. Children show the ability to recognizegrammatically correct sentences or ungrammaticalsentences without having being taught so(Cookies me give)


14/88


A hypothesis which many linguists andpsychologists support is that many of theseabstract principles are common to all languages.

According to this view, those principles that areuniversal are programmed into all humanchildren, and that explains why they acquire a L1without conscious effort and why they are able tospeak structurally correct from an early age.


15/88


Saying there is a critical period for L1 acquisitionmeans that normal development of languagedoesnt occur if the process of learning doesntbegin in childhood.Even when acquisition begins at an early age,there is evidence that progress in languagedevelopment usually begins to slow sharply atpuberty.It is no surprise then, that even adults with theirmature intellects seldom attain native fluency in anew language.


16/88


If adults rarely reach a native fluency in a L2, thenwhy children with their limited memories, restrictedreasoning and low analytical abilites, acquire

perfect fluency in any language they are adequatlyexposed?Wellthe ability to acquire a language doesntdepend on intellectual powers alone. One proof:children with superior intelligence dont necessarilybegin to speak earlier or better than children ofordinary intelligence.


17/88

The role of social experience inL1 learning

Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innateability.Even if the universal properties of language are

preprogrammed in children, they must learn all ofthose characteristics that distinguish their L1 fromother languages.The way to learn this is by using the language withthem and around them


18/88


Intentional L1 teaching to young children is notnecessary and has little effect.Strategies used consciously or unconsciously by

parents such as the following, dont have impacton the acquisition rate:o Correctingo

Grammar/vocabulary simplificationo Expansion


19/88


Linguists think that the amount and quality ofinput can determine the rate of L1 acquisition.

As long as children have adequate L1 input and

interaction from people around them, the rate,sequence of their phonological and grammaticaldevelopment will improve until they reach completematurity.


20/88

L1 versus L2 learning


21/88

We are designed to walk. That we are taught towalk is impossible. And pretty much the same istrue of language. Nobody is taught language. Infact you cant prevent a child from learning itChomsky , 1994


22/88

Stages of L1 acquisition

Stage Typical age Description1.Cooing 2-4 months Vowel-like sounds2. Babbling 6-8 months Repetitive patterns3. Holophrastic stage 9-18 mon. Single open-class words4. Two word stage 18-24 mon. Simple sentences

5. Telegraphic stage 24-30 mon.Sentences lacking ingrammar and functionwords

7. Later multi-wordstage 30+

grammar emerges,longer and complexsentences


23/88

Cooing (2-4 months)

Few weeks: cooing and gurgling, playing with sounds.Their abilities are constrained by physiologicallimitations

They seem to be discovering phonemes at this point.Producing sequences of vowel-like sounds4 months- sounds similar to velar consonants [k] & [g]

5 months: distinguish between [a] and [i] and thesyllables [ba] and [ga], so their perception skills aregood


24/88

Babbling (6-8 months)

Different vowels and consonants ba-ba-ba and ga-ga-ga9-10 months: intonation patterns and combination of ba-ba-ba-da-da

Nasal sounds also appear ma-ma-ma10-11 months: use of vocalization to express emotionsLate stage: complex syllable combination (ma-da-ga-ba)Even deaf children babbleThe most common cross-linguistic sounds and patternsbabbled the most, but later on they babble less commonsounds


25/88

Holophrastic stage (9-18 months)

Single terms are uttered for everyday objects:milk, cookie, cat Relate 1 word to many similar things.

Produce open-class wordsDiffer from adult language

[da] dog[sa] sock[aj] light[daw] down

Convey a more complex message


26/88


27/88

Telegraphic stage (24-30months)

By 2 years & a half, they produce multiple-wordspeech.Developing sentence building capacity.

E.g. this shoe all wet, cat drink milk, daddy gobye- bye Syntax errors

Vocabulary continues to growBetter pronunciation


28/88

Later multi-word stage (30+months)

Grammatical structures emergeChildren language blooms into fluent grammaticalconversation.

Still few grammar mistakesStart fine-tuning their productions.


29/88

L2 learning or acquisition?

Krashens theory of language acquisition vs.language learning:

Acquisition It is natural It is informal It is subconscious

Not aware of grammar It is communicative

Learning It happens in an artificialsetting It is formal

It is rule conscious Awareness of grammarand vocabulary


30/88

Activities associated with learning havetraditionally been used in language schools andhave good results in knowledge about language,

but not in fluency. Yule

Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in thetarget language natural communication- in whichspeakers are concerned not with the form of theirutterances but with the messages they areconveying and understanding Stephen Krashen


31/88

Distinguishing betweenproficiency and fluency

Work in pairs. Analyze both terms and discuss theirmeaning. Are they synonyms? How are theyrelated? Come to a conclusion and share it withthe class.


32/88

Distinguishing betweenproficiency and fluency

Language proficiency is the ability of anindividual to speak or perform in an acquiredlanguage.

Fluency refers to an ability to converse fluidly andeasily.

Proficiency = Fluency + accuracy


33/88

2 types of proficiency

BICS describes the development of socialconversational fluency (Basic InterpersonalCommunicative Skills) in the second language,

CALP describes the use of language indecontextualized academic situations (Cognitive

Academic Language Proficiency ).


34/88

L2 acquisition stages

Pre-production (2 weeks-4 months): the silent stage.The student has some basic understanding of conceptsbut does not produce many, if any words.Early production (4-12 months): Student produces a

few words, vocabulary is limited, but can use one andtwo word responses.Speech Emergence (1-2 years): Student begins toproduce short sentences and responses and shouldbegin to read. Vocabulary is expanding.

Intermediate Fluency (3-5 years): Student can producelonger more complex sentences, making fewer errors.Advanced Fluency (5-7 years): Student has control oflanguage and makes few errors, comprehendingacademic language. Vocabulary is extensive.


35/88

L1 vs. L2 language development

According to Muriel Saville-Troike there are 3phases in language development:

1) Initial state2) Intermediate states

Basic processesNecessary conditions

Facilitating conditions1) Final state

Lets see each one.


36/88

Initial state

The initial state in childrens minds for L1 almostsurely is an innate capacity to learn a language.However, with older learners there are three

different views:a) Genetic predisposition remains.b) Some aspects remain.

c) No innate capacity for language acquisitionremains after childhood.Which is correct?


37/88

Initial state

That question is not going to be resolved in a nearfuture.There is complete agreement, however, that since

L2 follows L1 acquisition, a major component ofthe initial state for L2 learning must be priorknowledge of L1.This prior knowledge of L1 is responsible for thetransfer from L1 to L2 during second languagedevelopment (part of the second state)


38/88


39/88

Intermediate stages: processes

Development is a spontaneous and unconsciousprocess in L1 grammar, where its closelycorrelated with cognitive maduration.

In contrast, the development of learner language(interlanguage) for L2 learners occurs at a agewhen cognitive maturity cannot be considered asignificant factor.


40/88


As we saw before, cross-linguistic influence, ortransfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one ofthe processes that is involved in interlanguagedevelopment.

Two major types of transfer which occur are:a) Positive transfer: When an L1 structure or rule is

used in an L2 utterance and that use isappropriate or correct in the L2. (exterior)

b) Negative transfer (or interference): when an L1structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance andthat use is inappropriate and considered anerror. (attend and assist)


41/88


Cross-linguistic influence occurs in all levels ofinterlanguage: vocabulary, pronunciation,grammar, and all other aspects of structure anduse.Positive transfer facilitates L2 learning becausethat particular rule doesnt have to be learned


42/88


Older children and adults have access to worldknowledge that has come with experience, and thisis also available for L2 use during the intermediatestates.The concepts associated with advanced worldknowledge are often too complex for adequateexpression with limited L2 ability, but they may be

at least partially conveyed in context, and they arelikely to stimulate L2 vocabulary learning.


43/88


Even advanced international students in fields likeengineering and computer science find it easier tolearn English terms for concepts they have alreadyacquired.Other examples are driving tests, or job-relatedEnglish.Transfer of knowledge and skills to an L2 setting is

clearly made easier when L1 support is availableas part of L2 learning


44/88

Intermediate stages: Necessaryconditions

Language input to the learner is absolutelynecessary for either L1 or L2 learning to takeplace.

Children additionally require interaction with otherpeople for L1 learning to occur.In contrast, while social interaction facilitates SLA,it is not a necessary condition: it is possible forsome individuals to reach a fairly high level orproficiency in L2 even if they have input only fromradio, television or written text.


45/88

Intermediate stages: Facilitatingconditions

Children L1 learning occurs without instruction andL1 development is not greatly influenced bycorrection or motivation to speak.

In L2 learning, both rate and ultimate level ofdevelopment can be facilitated or inhibited by:

a) Feedback, including correctionb) Aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic

abilityc) Motivation, or need and desire to learnd) Instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings


46/88


Older children and adults have access to worldknowledge that has come with experience, and thisis also available for L2 use during the intermediatestates.The concepts associated with advanced worldknowledge are often too complex for adequateexpression with limited L2 ability, but they may be

at least partially conveyed in context, and they arelikely to stimulate L2 vocabulary learning.


47/88

Final state

The final state is the outcome of L1 or L2 learning.

The final state of L1 development is native

linguistic competence

The final state of L2 development can never be

totally native linguistic competence, and the levelof proficiency which learners reach is highlyvariable.


48/88

Final state

Some learners reach near -native or native -likecompetence in L2 along with native competence inL1 but at some point they stop making progress in

learning the L2 even with input, resulting in a finalstate which still includes instances of L1interference or creative structures different fromany that would be produced by a native speaker of

the L2 (a frozen state of progress known asfossilization in SLA)


49/88

L1 vs. L2 development table

L1 L2

Initial State Innate capacity

Innate capacity ?L1 knowledgeWorld knowledgeInteraction skills

Intermediate states

Basic processes Maturation Transfer

Necessary conditions InputReciprocal interaction Input

Facilitating conditions

Feedback AptitudeMotivationInstruction

Final state Native competence Near-native comp.


50/88

Fundamental differences


51/88

L1 vs. L2 acquisition


52/88

The logical problem oflanguage learning


53/88

The notion of innate capacity of children to learna language (from Chomskys Universal GrammarTheory), has been supported by arguments such

as:1) Childrens knowledge of language goes beyond

what could be learned from the input they receive2) Constraints and principles of a language cannot

be learned3) Universal patterns of development cannot be

explained by language-specific input.

Childrens knowledge of language goes


54/88

Children s knowledge of language goesbeyond what could be learned from the

input they receive

Children often hear incomplete or ungrammaticalutterances along with grammatical input, and yetthey are able to filter the language they hear.

Adults provide simplified inputChildren hear only a finite number of possiblegrammatical sentences, whereas they are able toproduce a bigger number of sentences they havenever heard before



55/88


input they receive

Childrens linguistic competence includes knowledgeof which sentences are not possible, even when inputdoesnt provide them this info

Children often say things that adults do not: childrenstendency to use regular patterns to form plurals orpast tenses that would have regular formation (goed,mans, mouses, sheeps), even though adults neversay those words.



56/88


input they receive

Children dont learn simply by imitation, because theydont imitate adult language when asked to do so

Finally, patterns of childrens language developmentare not directly determined by the input they receive.The age at which children begin to produce particularlanguage elements does not correspond to theirfrequency in input.


57/88

U i l f d l


58/88

Universal patterns of development cannotbe explained by language-specific input.

There are similar patterns in child acquisition ofany language of the world


59/88

Frameworks for SLA


60/88

Remember: 3 different approaches to the study ofSLA are:

Linguistic

PsychologicalSocial

At the same time, there have been importanttheoretical frameworks that have influenced the SLAapproaches through time.

A h d F k f


61/88

Approaches and Frameworks forstudy of SLA

TImeline LinguisticApproach

PsychologicalApproach

SocialApproach

- 1950s Structuralism Behaviorism SocioculturalTheory

1960s Transformational-GenerativeGrammar

NeurolinguisticsInformationProcessing

Ethnography ofCommunicationVariation Theory

1970s Functionalism Humanistic

Models

Acculturation

Theory1980s Principles and

Parameters modelConnectionism Accomodation

Theory

1990s Minimalistprogram

Processability SocialPsychology


62/88


63/88

Linguistic framework

There have been two foci for the study of SLA froma linguistic perspective since 1960: internal andexternal .

The internal focus has been based primarily onthe work of Noam Chomsky. It sets the goal ofstudy speakers internalized knowledge oflanguage ( linguistic competence )

The external focus for the study of SLA hasemphasized language use, including the functionsof language which are realized in learnersproduction at different stages of development.

Li g i ti f k I t l


64/88

Linguistic framework: Internalfocus

The first linguistic framework with an internal focus isTransformational-Generative Grammar Theappearance of this work revolutionized linguistic theoryand had a profound effect on the study of both L1 & L2

Chomsky argued that the behaviorist theory of languageacquisition is wrong because it cannot explain thecreative aspects of our linguistic ability.

Also claimed the necessity of assuming that childrenbegin with an innate capacity which is biologicallyendowed.These views have dominated most linguisticperspectives on SLA to the present day.

Li g i ti f k E t l


65/88

Linguistic framework: Externalfocus

This framework was followed by the Principles andParameters Model and the Minimalist Program ,also formulated by Chomsky.

Specification of what constitutes innate capacity inlanguage acquisition has been revised to includemore abstract notions of general principles and

constraints that are common to all humanlanguages as part of Universal Grammar .

Li g i ti f k I t l


66/88

Linguistic framework: Internalfocus

The Minimalist Program adds distinctions betweenlexical and functional category development, as wellas more emphasis on the acquisition of featurespecification as a part of lexical knowledge.

Linguistic framework: External


67/88


The most important linguistic frameworkscontributing to an external focus on SLA arecategorized within Functionalism , which datesback to the early twentieth century and has its roots

in the Prague School of Eastern Europe.They differ from the Chomskyan frameworks inemphasizing the information content of utterances,and in considering language primarily as a system

of communication.Some of them emphasize similarities anddifferences among the worlds languages and relatethese to sequence and relative difficulty of learning;

Linguistic framework: External


68/88


Some emphasize acquisition as largely a process ofmapping relations between linguistic functions andforms, motivated by communicative need;

And some emphasize the means learners have ofstructuring information in L2 production and howthis relates to acquisition.

Approaches based on functional frameworks have

dominated European study of SLA and are widelyfollowed elsewhere in the world.


69/88

Psychological Framework

There have been three foci in the study of SLA froma psychological perspective:

Languages and the brainLearning processesLearner differences

Psychological Framework:


70/88

Psychological Framework:Languages and the brain

The location and representation of language in thebrain has been of interest to biologists andpsychologists since the nineteenth century, and theexpanding field of Neurolinguistics was one ofthe first to influence cognitive perspectives on SLAwhen systematic study began in the 1960s.Lenneberg (1967) generated great interest when

he argued that there is a critical period forlanguage acquisition which has a neurologicalbasis, and much age-related research on SLA isessentially grounded in this framework



71/88

Psychological Framework:Languages and the brain

Exploratory procedures associated with brainsurgery on multilingual patients, as well as thedevelopment of modern noninvasive imagingtechniques, are dramatically increasing knowledgein this area.



72/88

Psychological Framework:Learning processes

The focus on learning processes has been heavilyinfluenced by computer based InformationProcessing (IP) models of learning, which wereestablished in cognitive psychology by the 1960s.

Explanations of SLA phenomena based on thisframework involve assumptions that L2 is a highlycomplex skill, and that learning L2 is notessentially unlike learning other highly complexskills.



73/88


Processing itself (of language or any other domain)is believed to cause learning.

A number of approaches to SLA have been basedon IP

They have been especially productive inaddressing the question of how learners acquireknowledge of L2, and in providing explanations forsequencing in language development.



74/88


Processability is a more recently developedframework which extends IP concepts of learningand applies them to teaching second languages.



75/88


Connectionism is another cognitive framework forthe focus on learning processes, beginning in the1980s and becoming increasingly influential.

It differs from most other current frameworks forthe study of SLA in not considering languagelearning to involve either innate knowledge orabstraction of rules and principles, but rather toresult from increasing strength of associations(connections) between stimuli and responses.


76/88



77/88

Psychological Framework:Learners differences

The focus on learner differences in SLA has beenmost concerned with the question of why somelearners are more successful than others.

It arises in part from the humanistic frameworkwithin psychology, which has a long history in thatdiscipline, but has significantly influenced secondlanguage teaching and SLA research only sincethe 1970s



78/88

Psychological Framework:Learners differences

This framework calls for consideration of emotionalinvolvement in learning, such as affective factors ofattitude, motivation, and anxiety level.

This focus also considers biological differencesassociated with age and sex, as well as somedifferences associated with aspects of processing.


79/88

Social Framework

Some of the frameworks that are categorized herewithin a social perspective,

can also be considered linguistic, since they relateto language form and function;some can also be considered cognitive, since theyexplore learning processes or attitude andmotivation.We will review them in this section because (inaddition to linguistic and cognitive factors) they allemphasize the importance of social context forlanguage acquisition and use.


80/88

Social Framework

There are two foci for the study of SLA from thisperspective:

MicrosocialMacrosocial.


81/88

Social Framework: Microsocial

The concerns within the microsocial focus relate tolanguage acquisition and use in immediate socialcontexts of production, interpretation, andinteraction.The frameworks provided by Variation Theoryand Accommodation Theory include explorationof systematic differences in learner production

which depend on contexts of use, and theyconsider why the targets of SLA may be differenteven within groups who are ostensibly learning thesame language.


82/88

Social Framework: Microsocial

Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory also contributesto this focus, viewing interaction as the essentialgenesis of language.


83/88

Social Framework: Macrosocial

The concerns of the macrosocial focus relatelanguage acquisition and use to broader ecologicalcontexts, including cultural, political, andeducational settings.The Ethnography of Communication frameworkextends the notion of what is being acquired inSLA beyond linguistic and cultural factors toinclude social and cultural knowledge that isrequired for appropriate use, and leads us toconsider second language learners as members ofgroups or communities with sociopolitical as wellas linguistic bounds.


84/88

Social Framework: Macrosocial

The frameworks provided by AcculturationTheory and Social Psychology offer broaderunderstandings of how such factors as identity,status, and values affect the outcomes of SLA.


85/88


86/88

1. If you can use two or more languages, why is this


87/88

1. If you can use two or more languages, why is thisso? What has been your reason for learningsecond language(s)?

Categorize these reasons as primarily based onindividual preference and need or on social andpolitical circumstances.

2. Think about the facilitating conditions to languagelearning discussed in this chapter. Have you hadany of these experiences facilitate your own

learning? If so, which ones? Have there beenother factors as well that influenced your learning?

3. Based on your personal and educational experience,


88/88

do you expect to prefer or feel more comfortable withone of the perspectives on SLA (linguistic,

psychological, social)? Why or why not? If so, whatare some strategies you can use to keep an openmind to the perspectives you might not privilege?

4. It is a matter of debate what level of proficiency isneeded before one claims to have multilingualcompetence, or to know a second language. Nowthat you have read Chapter 2, have your ideaschanged about how proficient one must be to beconsidered to have an L2?

foundations of sla

Documents