AgniYogaSociety,Inc.,NewYorkwww.agniyoga.org©1971byAgniYogaSociety.Firstpublishedin1930byRoerichMuseumPressunderthepseudonymNatalieRokotoff.Secondedition1971.ReprintedNovember2016.Coverillustration:NicholasRoerich.Buddha,theConqueror.1925

FOREWORD

TheGreatGotamagavetotheworldacompleteTeachingoftheperfectconstructionoflife.Eachattempttomakeagodofthegreatrevolutionist,leadstoabsurdity.

Previous to Gotama there was, of course, a whole succession ofthosewhoborethecommonwelfare,buttheirteachingscrumbledto dust in the course of millenniums. Therefore the Teaching ofGotama should be accepted as the first teaching of the laws ofmatterandtheevolutionoftheworld.

Contemporary understanding of the community permits awondrousbridgefromGotamaBuddhauptothepresenttime.Wepronounce this formula neither for extolling nor for demeaning,butasanevidentandimmutablefact.

Thelawoffearlessness,thelawoftherenunciationofproperty,thelawoftheevaluationoflabor,thelawofthedignityofhumanpersonality, beyond castes and outer distinctions, the law of trueknowledge,thelawoflovebaseduponself-knowledge,makeofthecovenants of the Teachers a continuous rainbow of the joy ofhumanity.

Let us construct the foundations of Buddhism in its manifestedcovenants. The simple Teaching, equal in beauty to the Cosmos,will dispel every suggestion of idolatry, unworthy of the greatTeacherofmen.

KnowledgewastheleadingpathofallgreatTeachers.Knowledgewill permit a free and vital approach to the great Teaching, asvitallyrealasisgreatMatteritself.

We shall not introduce the latest complexities; we shall speakbrieflyaboutthosefoundationsthatcannotbedenied.

Joytoallpeoples!Joytoallthosewholabor!

FOUNDATIONSOFBUDDHISM

InthefoundationsofBuddhism,onecannotpauseoverthelatercomplications and ramifications. It is important to know that theidea of the purification of the Teaching is always alive in theBuddhist consciousness. Soon after the Teacher’s death thecelebrated councils took place in Rajagriha, and after in VaishaliandPatna,restoringtheTeachingtoitsoriginalsimplicity.

The principal existing schools of Buddhism are: the Mahayana(Tibet,Mongolia,theKalmucks,theBuriats,China,Japan,NorthernIndia) and the Hinayana (Indo-China, Burma, Siam, Ceylon, andIndia). But both of these schools remember equally well thequalitiesoftheTeacherhimself.

The qualities of Buddha are: Muni—the wise, from the clan ofShakya; Shakya Simha—Shakya, the Lion; Bhagavat—the BlessedOne; Sadhu—the Teacher; Jina—the Conqueror; the Ruler of theBenevolentLaw.

Of unusual beauty is the coming of the King in the image of amighty mendicant. “Go, ye mendicants, bring salvation andbenevolence to the peoples.” In this command of Buddha, in thistermmendicantsalliscontained.

Understanding the Teaching of Buddha, you realize whenceemanates the assertion of the Buddhists—“Buddha is a man.” Histeaching of Life is above all and every prejudice. The temple doesnot exist for him, but there is a place of assembly and a home ofknowledge—theTibetandu-khangandtsug-lag-khang.

Buddha disputed the conventional conception of God. Buddhadenied the existence of an eternal and immutable soul. Buddhagave the teaching for every day. Buddha struggled forcefullyagainst possessions. Buddha fought personally against thefanaticism of castes and the privileges of the classes. Buddhaaffirmed experienced, trustworthy knowledge and the value oflabor. Buddha bade the study of the life of the Universe in its fullreality.Buddhalaidthefoundationsofthecommunity,foreseeingthevictoryoftheWorldCommunity.

Hundreds of millions of worshippers of Buddha are scatteredthroughout the world and each of them affirms: “I take refuge inthe Buddha, I take refuge in the Teaching, I take refuge in theSangha.”

The Buddhist written traditions and our contemporary

researcheshaveestablishedaseriesofdetailsofthelifeofGotamaBuddha.Buddha’sdeathisascribedbysomeoftheinvestigatorstotheyear483B.C.AccordingtoSinghalesechronicles,Buddhalivedfrom621to543B.C.ButChinesechronicleshavefixedthebirthofBuddhaintheyear1024B.C.TheageoftheTeacherathisdeathisgivenasabouteightyyears.TheplaceofthebirthoftheTeacherisknown as Kapilavastu, situated in the Nepalese Terai. The royallineofShakyas,towhichGotamabelonged,isknown.

Undoubtedly all biographies of the great Teacher have beengreatlyelaboratedbyhiscontemporariesandfollowers,especiallyin the most recent writings, but in order to preserve the coloringandthecharacteroftheepoch,wemusttoacertainextentrefertothetraditionalexposition.

AccordingtothetraditionsofthesixthcenturyB.C.thedomain

of Kapilavastu existed in North India in the foothills of theHimalayas and was populated by numerous tribes of Shakyas,descendantsofIkshvakuofthesolarraceofKshatriyas.Theywereruled by the Elder of the clan who resided in the city ofKapilavastu,ofwhichnotracesarenowleft;duringBuddha’stimeit was already destroyed by a hostile neighboring king. At thatperiod, Shuddhodana, the last direct descendant of Ikshvaku,reignedatKapilavastu.OfthiskingandQueenMayawasbornthefuturegreatTeacher,whoreceivedthenameofSiddhartha,whichmeans—”Hewhofulfilledhispurpose.”

Visionsandpropheciesprecededhisbirthandtheeventitself,onthefull-moondayofMay,wasattendedwithallpropitioussignsinheaven and on earth. Thus the great Rishi Asita dwelling in theHimalayas,havinglearnedfromtheDevasthataBodhisattva,thefutureBuddha,hadbeenborntotheworldofmenintheLumbiniPark and that he would turn the Wheel of the Doctrine,immediately set out on a journey to pay homage to the futureTeacher of men. Reaching the palace of King Shuddhodana, heexpressed the desire to see the newborn Bodhisattva. The KingorderedthechildtobebroughttotheRishi,expectinghisblessing.

But the Rishi on seeing the child, first smiled and then wept. TheKinganxiouslyaskedthereasonofhissorrowandwhetherhesawanillomenforhisson.TothistheRishirepliedthathesawnothingharmful for the child. He rejoiced because the Bodhisattva wouldachieve full enlightenment and become a great Buddha; and hegrieved because his own life was short and he would not live tohearthegreatDoctrinepreached.

QueenMaya,aftergivingbirthtothegreatBodhisattva,departedlife, and her sister Prajapati took the child and reared it. InBuddhisthistorysheisknownasBuddha’sfirstfemalediscipleandthefoundressandheadofaSanghaforbhikshunis.

Onthefifthday,onehundredandeightBrahmins,versedinthe

Vedas,wereinvitedbyKingShuddhodanatohispalace.Theywereto give a name to the newborn Prince and read his destiny by thepositionoftheluminaries.Eightofthemostlearnedsaid:“Hewhohas such signs as the Prince will become either a UniversalMonarch,Cakravartin,or,ifheretiresfromtheworld,willbecomea Buddha and remove the veil of ignorance from the sight of theworld.”

Theeighth,theyoungest,added,“ThePrincewillleavetheworldafter seeing four signs: an old man, a sick man, a corpse and ananchorite.”

The King, desiring to retain his son and heir, took all measures

and precautions to assure this. He surrounded the Prince with allthe luxuries and pleasures which his royal power could afford.There are many facts indicating that the Prince Siddharthareceivedabrillianteducation,sinceknowledgeassuchwasingreatesteem in those days, and according to a remark in theBuddhacaritabyAshvaghosha,thecityofKapilavastureceiveditsname in honor of the great Kapila—the founder of Sankhyaphilosophy.

Echoes of this philosophy can be found in the Teaching of theBlessedOne.

For greater conviction, in the Canon the narrative about his

luxurious life at the court of Shuddhodana is put in the words of

Buddhahimself.“I was tenderly cared for, bhikshus, supremely so, infinitely so.

Atmyfather’spalace,lotuspoolswerebuiltforme,inoneplaceforbluelotusflowers,inoneplaceforwhitelotusflowers,andinoneplaceforredlotusflowers,blossomingformysake.And,bhikshus,I used only sandal oil from Benares. Of Benares fabric were mythreerobes.Dayandnightawhiteumbrellawasheldoverme,sothat I might not be troubled by cold, heat, dust, chaff, or dew. Idweltinthreepalaces,bhikshus;inone,duringthecold;inone,inthe summer; and in one, during the rainy season. While in thepalace of the rainy season, surrounded by musicians, singers, andfemaledancers,forfourmonthsIdidnotdescendfromthepalace.And,bhikshus,althoughinthedomainsofothersonlyadishofredrice and rice soup would be offered to the servants and slaves, inmyfather’shousenotonlyrice,butadishwithriceandmeatwasgiventotheservantsandslaves.” [1]

But this luxurious and happy life could not appease the greatspirit. And in the most ancient traditions we see that theawakening of consciousness to the sufferings and misery of menand to the problems of existence, occurred much earlier than isstatedinlaterwritings.

Thus the Anguttara-Nikaya, seemingly in Buddha’s own words,quotes, “Endowed with such wealth, reared in such delicacy, thethought came—‘Verily, the unenlightened worldling, subjecthimselftooldage,withoutescapefromoldage,isoppressedwhenheseesanothergrownold.I,too,amsubjecttooldageandcannotescapeit.IfI,whoamsubjecttoallthis,shouldseeanother,whoisgrownold,oppressed,tormentedandsickened,itwouldnotbewellwith me.’ [The same is repeated of sickness and death.] Thus as Ireflectedonit,allelationinyouthutterlydisappeared.”

FromhisearliestchildhoodtheBodhisattvaexhibitedanunusual

compassion and keen mind toward surrounding conditions.AccordingtotheMahavastu,theBodhisattvawastakentotheparkbytheKingandhisattendants.Inthisversionhewasoldenoughtowalkabout,andcametoaruralvillagewherehesawaserpentand a frog turned up by the plough. The frog was taken away forfoodandtheserpentthrownaway.ThisrousedtheBodhisattvato

great distress. He was filled with deep sorrow; he felt extremecompassion.Then,desiringcompletesolitudeforhisthoughts,hewent to a rose-apple tree in an isolated spot; there, seated on theground, covered with leaves, he fell into thought. His father, notseeinghim,becameanxious.Hewasfoundbyoneofthecourtiersunder the shade of the rose-apple tree, deeply engrossed inthought.

Anothertimehesawthelaborers,withhairunkempt,withbare

handsandfeet,theirbodiesgrimyandbathedwithsweat;andthework-oxen goaded with iron prods, their backs and rumpsstreaming blood, gasping, with fast-beating hearts, burdened bytheiryokes,bittenbyfliesandinsects,gashedbytheploughshare,withbleedingandfesteredwounds.Histenderheartwastouchedwithcompassion.

“Towhomdoyoubelong?”heaskedtheploughmen.“WearetheKing’sproperty,”theyanswered.“From today you are no longer slaves, you shall no longer be

servants.Gowhereveryoupleaseandliveinjoy.”Hefreedtheoxenalsoandsaidtothem,“Go!Fromtodayeatthe

sweetest grass and drink the purest water and may the breezesfrom the four hemispheres visit you.” Then seeing a shady jambutree,hesatatitsfootandgavehimselftoearnestmeditation.

Devadattaseeingagooseflyingoverheadshotit,anditfellinthe

gardenoftheBodhisattva,whotookitanddrawingoutthearrow,boundupitswound.Devadattasentamessengertoclaimthebird,buttheBodhisattvarefusedtorelinquishit,sayingthatitbelongednottohimwhohadattemptedtotakeitslife,buttohimwhohadsavedit.

When the Prince reached his sixteenth birthday, in conformity

with the customs of his country he had to choose a consort, afterproving himself victor of the Svayamvara contest of arms. ThechosenonewasthePrincessYashodharaofthesameShakyaclan.She became mother of Rahula, who later became his father’sdiscipleandattainedArhatship.

But personal happiness, great as it was, could not satisfy theardently striving spirit of the Bodhisattva. His heart continued torespond to each human sorrow and his mind, perceiving thetransitorinessofallthatexisted,knewnorest.Heroamedthroughthehallsofhispalacelikealionstungbysomepoisoneddartandin pain he groaned, “The world is full of darkness and ignorance;thereisnoonewhoknowshowtocuretheillsofexistence!”

This state of his spirit is symbolically described in the fourpreordainedencounters,afterwhichhelefthiskingdomseekingtodeliver the world of its misery. In an ancient biography in verse,following the third encounter, there is the remark that only theBodhi sattva and his charioteer saw the corpse carried across theroad. According to this Sutra the Prince was then completing histwenty-ninthyear.

OnedaythePrincetoldChandaka,hischarioteer,thathewantedto drive in the park. While there he saw an old man, and thecharioteerexplainedwhatoldagewasandhowallweresubjecttoit.Deeplyimpressed,thePrinceturnedbackandreturnedhome.

Ashorttimeafter,whileoutdriving,hemetasickmangaspingforbreath,hisbodydisfigured,convulsedandgroaningwithpain,andhischarioteertoldhimwhatdiseasewasandhowallmenweresubject to it. And again he turned back. All pleasures appearedfadedtohim,andthejoysoflifebecameloathsome.

Another time, he came upon a procession with lighted torchesbearing a litter with something wrapped in a linen sheet; thewomen accompanying it had dishevelled hair and were weepingpiteously—itwasacorpseandChandakatoldhimallmustcometothisstate.AndthePrinceexclaimed:“Oworldlymen!Howfatalisyour delusion! Inevitably your body will crumble to dust, yetcarelessly,unheedingly,youliveon.”Thecharioteer,observingthedeep impression these sights had made on the Prince, turned hishorsesanddrovebacktothecity.

ThenanotherincidenthappenedtothePrince,whichseemedtoindicatetohimthesolutionofhisquest.Whentheypassedbythepalaces of the nobility, a Shakya Princess saw the Prince from thebalcony of her palace and greeted him with a stanza wherein thewordNibutta(Nirvana)recurredineachline,whichmeans:

“Happythefatherthatbegotyou,“Happythemotherthatnursedyou,“Happythewifethatcallshusbandthislordsoglorious.“Shehasgonebeyondsorrow.”The Prince, hearing the word Nibutta, loosened from his neck a

precious pearl necklace and sent it to the princess as a reward fortheinstructionshehadgivenhim.Hethought:

“Happyaretheythathavefounddeliverance.LongingforpeaceofmindIshallseektheblissofNirvana.”

On the same night Yashodhara dreamt that the Prince wasabandoningherandsheawokeandtoldhimofherdream.“O,myLord,whereverthougoest,thereletmealsogo.”

Andhe,thinkingofgoingwheretherewasnosorrow(Nirvana),replied,“Sobeit,whereverIgo,theremayestthougoalso.”

After Buddha’s return, Yasodhara, together with his fostermotherPrajapati,becamehisfirstfemaledisciples.

It was night. The Prince could not find peace on his couch. He

arose and went forth into the garden. He sat down beneath thegreatjambutreeandgavehimselftothought,ponderingonlife,ondeath, and the evils of decay. He concentrated his mind, becamefreefromconfusion,andperfecttranquillitycameoverhim.Inthisstatehismentaleyeopenedandhebeheldaloftyfigureendowedwith majesty, calm and dignified. “Whence comest thou and whomayestthoube?”askedthePrince.Inreplythevisionsaid:“IamaShramana.Troubledatthethoughtofoldage,disease,anddeath,Ihaveleftmyhometoseekthepathofsalvation.Allthingshastento decay; only the truth abideth forever. Everything changes, andthere is no permanency; yet the words of the Buddhas areimmutable.”

Siddharthaasked:“Canpeacebegainedinthisworldofsorrow?Iam overcome with the emptiness of pleasure and have becomedisgusted with lust. All oppresses me, and existence itself seemsintolerable.”

TheShramanareplied:“Whereheatis,thereisalsoapossibilityof cold. Creatures subject to pain possess the faculty of pleasure.The origin of evil indicates that good can be developed. For these

thingsarecorrelatives.Thuswherethereismuchsuffering,therewillbemuchbliss,ifthoubutopenthineeyestobeholdit.Justasaman who has fallen into a heap of filth should seek the nearbypond covered with lotuses, just so seek thou the great deathlesslake of Nirvana to cleanse the defilement of sin. If the lake is notsought,itisnotthefaultofthelake,justso,whenthereisablessedroadleadingthemanboundbysintothesalvationofNirvana,itisnot the fault of the road, but of the man, if the road be not trod.Andwhenamanburdenedwithsicknessdoesnotavailhimselfofthehelpofaphysicianwhocanhealhim,itisnotthefaultofthephysician; so, when a man oppressed by the malady of wrong-doing does not seek the spiritual guide of enlightenment, it is notthefaultofthesin-destroyingguide.”

ThePrincelistenedtothewisewordsandsaid:“IknowthatmypurposewillbeaccomplishedbutmyfathertellsmethatIamstilltooyoung,thatmypulsebeatstoofulltoleadaShramana’slife.”

The venerable figure replied: “Thou shouldst know that forseekingtruthnotimecanbeinopportune.”

AthrillofjoypiercedSiddhartha’sheart.“Nowisthetimetoseekthe truth. Now is the time to sever all ties that would prevent mefromattainingperfectenlightenment.”

ThecelestialmessengerheardtheresolutionofSiddharthawithapproval: “Go forth, Siddhartha, and fulfill thy purpose. For thouart Bodhisattva, the Buddha-elect; thou are destined to enlightenthe world. Thou art the Tathagata, the Perfect One, for thou shallfulfill all righteousness and be Dharma-raja, the King of Truth.Thou art Bhagavat, the Blessed One, for thou art summoned tobecomethesaviourandredeemeroftheworld.

“DothoufulfilltheperfectionofTruth.Thoughthethunderboltdescenduponthyhead,neveryieldtotheallurementsthatbeguilemen from the path of truth. As the sun at all seasons pursues itsown course nor seeks another, just so if thou forsake not thestraightpathofrighteousness,thoushallbecomeaBuddha.

“Persevere in thy quest and thou shall find what thou seekest.Pursue thy aim unswervingly and thou shall conquer. Thebenediction of all deities, of all that seek light is upon thee, andheavenlywisdomguidesthysteps.ThoushallbetheBuddha,thoushallenlightentheworldandsavemankindfromperdition.”

Having thus spoken, the vision vanished, and Siddhartha’s soulwasfilledwithecstacy.Hesaidtohimself:“IhaveawakenedtotheTruthandIamresolvedtoaccomplishmypurpose.Iwillseveralltiesthatbindmetotheworld,andIwillgooutfrommyhometoseekthewayofsalvation.Verily,IshallbecomeaBuddha.”

The Prince returned to the palace for a last glance of farewelluponthosewhomhelovedabovealltreasuresofEarth.Hewenttothe abode of the mother of Rahula and opened the door ofYashodhara’s chamber. There burnt a lamp of scented oil. On thebed,strewnwithjasmine,sleptYashodhara,themotherofRahula,withherhandontheheadofherson.Standingwithhisfootatthethreshold, the Bodhisattva looked at them and his heart grieved.The pain of parting smote him. But nothing could shake hisresolutionandwithacourageoushearthesuppressedhisfeelingsand tore himself away. He mounted his steed Kanthaka, andfinding the castle gates wide open he passed out into the silentnightaccompaniedonlybyChandakahisfaithfulcharioteer.ThusSiddhartha, the Prince, renounced worldly pleasures, gave up hiskingdom,severedallties,andwentintohomelessness. [2], [3]

Up to now, four sites in India have drawn the pilgrimages of

devotees to the Teaching of the Blessed Buddha. His birthplace,Kapilavastu, was a city situated in the north of India, on thefoothills of the Himalayas, at the source of the river Gandak, andwas destroyed even during the life of Buddha. The place of hisenlightenment, Buddhagaya, where was Uruvela, the often-mentionedgrove,undertheshadeofwhichGotamaunitedallhisattainmentsinillumination.Theplaceofhisfirstsermon,Sarnath(near Benares), where, according to the legend, Buddha set inmotion the Wheel of the Law, still shows traces of ruins of mostancientcommunities.Theplaceofhisdeath—Kushinara(Nepal).

InthenotesoftheChinesetravelerFa-Hsien(A.D.392–414),whovisitedIndia,wefindadescriptionofthedomainofKapilavastuaswellasofotherreveredspots.

Despitethesefacts,despitetheancientcolumnsofKingAshoka,there are those who love to make of the Buddha a myth, and toseparatethishighTeachingfromlife.TheFrenchwriterSenart,ina special work, affirms that Buddha was a solar myth. But here,also, science has restored the human personality of the Teacher,Gotama Buddha. The urn with part of the ashes and bones ofBuddha, found in Piprawa (Nepalese Terai) bearing a date andinscription, as well as an historical urn with some relics of theTeacher, buried by King Kanishka and found near Peshawar, beardefinite testimony to the death of the first Teacher of the WorldCommunity,GotamaBuddha.

One should not think that the life of Gotama Buddha was spentinuniversalacknowledgmentandquiet.Onthecontrary,thereareindicationsofslanderandallkindsofobstacles,throughwhichtheTeacher, as a true fighter, only strengthened himself, thusaugmenting the significance of his achievement. Many incidentsspeakaboutthehostilitywhichheencounteredfromasceticsandBrahmins, who hated him. The former for his reproval of theirfanaticism, the latter for his refusal to admit their rights to socialprivilegesandtotheknowledgeoftruthbyrightofbirth.

To the first, he said: “If only through the renunciation of foodand human conditions one could attain perfection and liberationfrom the bonds which tie man to Earth, then a horse or a cow

wouldhavereacheditlongago.”Tothesecond:“Accordingtohisdeedsamanbecomesapariah;

accordingtohisdeedshebecomesaBrahmin.ThefirekindledbyaBrahmin, and the fire kindled by a Shudra have an equal flame,brightness, and light. To what has your isolation brought you? Inordertoprocurebreadyougotothegeneralmarket,andyouvaluethecoinsfromthepurseofaShudra.Yourisolationmaybetermedmerely plunder. And your sacred implements are merelyinstrumentsofdeception.

“ArenotthepossessionsoftherichBrahminadesecrationoftheDivine Law? You consider the south as light and the north asdarkness. A time will come when I shall come from the midnightand your light shall be extinguished. Even the birds fly north tobear their young. Even the gray geese know the value of earthlypossession.ButtheBrahmintriestofillhisgirdlewithgoldandtohoardhistreasuresunderthethresholdofhishouse.Brahmin,youleadacontemptiblelifeandyourendshallbepitiable.Youshallbethefirsttobevisitedwithdestruction.IfIgonorthward,thenshallIalsoreturnfromthere.”(TakenfromoraltraditionsofBuddhistsinIndia.)

There are established cases when, after his discourses, a greatmanyofthelistenersdesertedhimandtheBlessedOnesaid:“Theseed has separated from the husk; the remaining community,strong in conviction, is established. It is well that the conceitedoneshavedeparted.”

Let us remember the episode when his nearest disciple andrelative, Devadatta, conceived the thought of throwing a stone atthepassingTeacherandevensucceededininjuringhistoe.

Let us remember the cruel destiny which visited his clan andcountry through the vengeance of the neighboring king. ThelegendsrelatethatBuddha,beingfarfromthecitywithhisbeloveddisciple Ananda at the time of the attack on his country, felt asevere headache and lay down on the ground, covering himselfwith his robe, in order to hide from the only witness the sorrowwhichovercamehisstoicalheart.

Neither was he exempt from physical ailments. Severe pains inhisbackareoftenmentionedandevenhisdeathwastheresultofpoisonousfood.Allthesedetailsmakehisimageverilyhumanand

closetous.

ThewordBuddhaisnotaname,butindicatesthestateofamind

which has reached the highest point of development; literallytranslated, it means the “enlightened one,” or the one whopossessesperfectknowledgeandwisdom.

According to the Pali Suttas, Buddha never claimed theomniscience which was attributed to him by his disciples andfollowers:“Thosewhotoldthee,Vaccha,thattheTeacherGotamaknowsall,seesall,andassertshispossessionoflimitlesspowersofforesight and knowledge and says, ‘In motion or immobility, invigilance or sleep, always and in all, omniscience dwells in me,’those people do not say what I said, they accuse me despite alltruth.” [4]

The powers possessed by Buddha are not miraculous, because amiracleisaviolationofthelawsofnature.ThesupremepowerofBuddha coordinates completely with the eternal order of things.His superhuman abilities are miraculous, inasmuch as theactivitiesofamanmustappearmiraculoustothelowerbeings.Toself-sacrificing heroes, to fighters for true knowledge, it is asnaturaltomanifesttheirunusualachievementsasforabirdtoflyorforafishtoswim.

Buddha,accordingtoonetext,“isonlytheelderofmen,differingfrom them no more than as the hatched chick differs from laterchicks of the same hen.” Knowledge uplifted him to a differentorder of beings, because the principle of differentiation lies in thedepthofconsciousness.

The humanness of Gotama Buddha is especially underlined inthemostancientwritings,wherethefollowingexpressionismet,“GotamaBuddha,themostperfectofbipeds.”

The Pali Suttas contain many vivid definitions of the highqualities of Gotama, the Teacher, who indicated the path. Let usmention some of them: “He is the leader of the caravan, thefounder, the teacher, the incomparable trainer of men. Humanitywas rolling like a cartwheel on the way to its destruction, lostwithoutguideandprotector.Heindicatedtoittherightpath.Heisthe Lord of the Wheel of Benevolent Law. He is the Lion of theLaw.” [5]

“He is a wondrous physician; by compassionate means he cures

dangerouslysickpeople.” [6]“The venerable Gotama is a ploughman. His field is

immortality.” [7]“Heisthelightoftheworld.HeitiswholiftsonefromEarth.He

it is who unveils that which is concealed. He it is who carries thetorchin the darkness, in order thatthose who haveeyes maysee;thusGotamailluminedhisTeachingfromallsides.”

“He is the Liberator. He liberates, because he himself has beenliberated.”HismoralandspiritualperfectiontestifiestotheTruthof his Teaching, and the power of his influence upon those whosurroundedhimrestedontheexampleofhispersonallabor.

Ancient writings always emphasize the vital applicability of histeaching.Gotamadidnotavoidlife,buttookpartinthedailylifeoftheworkers.HetriedtodirectthemtowardtheTeaching,offeredthem participation in his communities, accepted their invitationsand did not fear to visit courtesans and rajas, the two centers ofsociallifeinthecitiesofIndia.Hetriednottooffendunnecessarilythe traditional customs; furthermore he sought the possibility ofgiving them his Teaching, finding support for it in an especiallyreveredtraditionnotconflictingwiththebasicprinciples.

TherewasnoabstractioninhisTeaching.Heneveropposedtheideal of mystic and transcendental life to existing reality. Hestressed the reality of all existing things and conditions for thecurrent moment. And as his activities and thoughts wereconcerned mostly with the circumstances of life, he drew thecontents of his speeches and parables out of daily life, using thesimplestimagesandcomparisons.

Starting from the concept of the parallel between nature andhuman life, Hindu thinkers believe that the manifestations ofnaturecanexplainmanythingstousinthemanifestationsoflife.Using this method, Buddha, fortunately for his Doctrine, retainedthe experience of this old tradition. “I shall show thee bycomparison, because many rational people understand bycomparison”—such was the usual formula of Buddha. And thissimple, vital approach lent to his Teaching vividness andconviction.

His influence upon people was proportionate to his faith inhimself, in his power, and in his mission. He always adapted

himself to the situation of each pupil and listener, giving to themthe most needed, in accordance with their understanding. He didnot burden the disciples and listeners, who were unprepared toabsorbthehighestknowledge,withintricateintellectualprocesses.Nor did he encourage those who sought abstract knowledge,without applying in life his highly ethical Teaching. Once, whenone such questioner, named Malunkya, asked the Blessed Oneabout the origin of all things, the Blessed One remained silent,because he considered the most important task lay in affirmationoftherealityofoursurroundings;thismeanttoseethingsastheyexist around us, and try first to perfect them, to prompt theirevolutionandnottowastetimeonintellectualspeculation.

Certainly his knowledge was not limited to his Doctrine, butcaution prompted by great wisdom made him hesitant to divulgeconceptionswhich,ifmisunderstood,mightbedisastrous.

Once the Blessed One was staying at Kausambi in the SimsapaGrove. And the Blessed One, taking a few simsapa leaves in hishand, said to his disciples, “What think you, my disciples, whichare more, these few leaves I hold in my hand, or the remainingleavesintheSimsapaGroveabove?

“The leaves that the Blessed One holds in his hand are few innumber;farmorearetheleavesintheSimsapaGroveabove.

“Justso,disciples,whatIhaveperceivedandnotcommunicatedto you is far more than what I have communicated to you. Andwhy,Odisciples,haveInotrevealedthistoyou?Becauseitwouldbe of no advantage to you, because it does not contribute to thehigher life, because it does not lead to disgust with the world, toannihilationofalllust,totheceasingofthetransitory,topeace,tohigherknowledge,toawakening,toNirvana.ThereforeIhavenotcommunicated it to you. And what have I communicated to you?That which is suffering, the source of suffering, the cessation ofsufferingandthepaththatleadstothecessationofsuffering.”

And so individual and practical was his Teaching in eachseparatecase,thatthetraditionofthreecirclesoftheTeachingwasestablished: for the chosen ones, for the members of the Sangha,andforall.

In founding his Sanghas, Buddha strove to create the bestconditionsforthosewhohadfirmlydeterminedtoworkuponthe

expansion of their consciousness for the attainment of higherknowledge. Then he sent them into life as teachers of life, asheraldsofaWorldCommunity.

Theconstantdisciplineofwords,thoughts,anddeedsdemandedofhisdisciples,withoutwhichtherecanbenosuccessonthewayto perfection, is almost unattainable for those in the midst of theusualconditionsoflife,whereathousandoutercircumstancesandpetty obligations constantly divert the striving one from his aim.But life among people united by the same aspiration, by commonthoughts and habits, was a great aid, because without loss ofenergyitprovidedpossibilitiestodevelopinthedesireddirection.

Buddha—who taught that in the whole Universe onlycorrelatives exist; who knew that nothing exists withoutcooperation; who understood that the selfish and conceited onecouldnotbuildthefuturebecause,bythecosmiclaw,hewouldbeoutside the current of life which carries all that exists towardperfection—patientlyplantedtheseeds,establishingthecellsonacommunitybasis,foreseeinginthedistantfuturetherealizationofthegreatWorldCommunity.

Two rules were necessary for admission into the community:complete renunciation of personal possession, and moral purity.The other rules were concerned with severe self-discipline andobligations to the community. Each one entering the communitypronounced the formula: “ ‘I take refuge in the Buddha, I takerefuge in the Teaching, I take refuge in the Sangha,’ as thedestroyersofmyfear.”ThefirstwithhisTeachings,thesecondbyitsimmutabletruth,andthethirdbyitsexampleofthegreatlawexpoundedbyBuddha.

The renunciation of property was austerely carried into life.Besides,therenunciationofpropertyhadtobeshownnotsomuchexternallyasacceptedinconsciousness.

OnceapupilaskedtheBlessedOne,“Howshouldoneunderstandthe fulfillment of the Covenant regarding the renunciation ofproperty? One disciple renounced all things but his Teachercontinued to reproach him for possession. Another remainedsurroundedbyobjectsbutdidnotmeritreproach.”

“The feeling of possession is measured not by objects but bythoughts.Onemayhaveobjectsandstillnotbeapossessor.”

Buddha always advised the possession of as few objects aspossibleinordernottodevotetoomuchtimetothem.

Theentirelifeofthecommunitywasstrictlydisciplined,forthefoundationofBuddha’sTeachingwasironself-discipline,inorderto bridle uncontrolled feelings and thoughts and to developindomitable will. Only when the disciple mastered his senses didtheTeacherslightlyraisetheveilandassignatask.Onlythereafterwasthepupilgraduallyadmittedtothedepthofknowledge.Outofsuch men, disciplined and trained by austere renunciation ofeverything personal and consequently virile and fearless, didGotamaBuddhadesiretocreateworkersforthecommonwelfare,creators of the people’s consciousness and forerunners of theWorldCommunity.

Valor was cemented into the foundation of all achievements inthe Teaching of Gotama. “There is no true compassion withoutvalor;noself-disciplinecanbeachievedwithoutvalor;patienceisvalor;onecannotfathomthedepthoftrueknowledgeandacquirethe wisdom of an Arhat without valor.” Gotama demanded fromhis disciples complete annihilation of any sense of fear.Fearlessnessofthought,fearlessnessofactionwereordained.Thevery appellation of Gotama Buddha, “Lion,” and his personalsummons to walk through all obstacles like a rhinoceros orelephant, shows what depths of fearlessness he ordained. Hence,the Teaching of Gotama may be called first of all the Teaching ofFearlessness.

“Warriorswecallourselves,Odisciples,becausewewagewar.

“We wage war for lofty virtue, for high endeavor, for sublimewisdom.

“Thereforewearecalledwarriors.” [1]

According to tradition, the attainment of illumination by

Gotamawasmarkedbytherevelationof“thechainsofcausation”(Twelve Nidanas). The problem which tormented him for manyyearswassolved.Meditatingfromcausetoeffect,Gotamarevealedthesourceofevil:

1. Existenceispain,becauseitcontainsoldage,deathandmyriadsofpains.

2. IsufferbecauseIamborn.3. IambornbecauseIbelongtotheworldofexistence.4. IexistbecauseInourishexistencewithinme.5. InurtureexistencebecauseIhavedesires.6. IhavedesiresbecauseIhavesensations.7. IhavesensationsbecauseIcomeintouchwiththeouter

world.8. Thistouchisproducedbytheactionofmysixsenses.9. MysensesaremanifestedbecausebeingapersonalityIoppose

myselftotheimpersonal.10. IamapersonalitybecauseIhaveaconsciousnessimbued

withtheconsciousnessofthispersonality.11. Thisconsciousnesswascreatedasaconsequenceofmy

formerexistences.12. TheseexistencesobscuredmyconsciousnessbecauseIhadno

knowledge.It is customary to enumerate this twelvefold formula in the

reverseorder:1. Avidya(obscuration,ignorance).2. Samskara(karma).3. Vijnana(consciousness).4. Nama-rupa(form—thesensuousandnonsensuous).5. Shad-ayatana(thesixtranscendentalbasesoffeelings,

sensations).6. Sparsha(thetouch).7. Vedana(feelings).8. Trishna(thirst,craving).9. Upadana(strivings,attachments).

10. Bhava(existence).

11. Jati(birth).12. Jara(oldage,death).

Thus,thesourceandtheprimarycauseofallhumansufferings

lieinobscurityandignorance.FromthisissueGotama’sdefinitionsand condemnations precisely of ignorance. He affirmed thatignoranceisthegreatestcrimebecauseitisthecauseofallhumansufferings,compellingustovaluethatwhichisunworthyofbeingvalued; to suffer where there should be no suffering; to take theillusion for the reality; to spend one’s life pursuing theinsignificant, neglecting what in reality is the most precious:knowledgeofthemysteryofhumanexistenceanddestiny.

The light which could dispel this darkness and give liberationfrom suffering was proclaimed by Gotama Buddha as theknowledgeoftheFourNobleTruths:

1. Thepainofembodiedexistence,causedbyconstantlyrecurringbirthsanddeaths.

2. Thecauseofthesesufferingsliesinignorance,inthethirstforself-gratificationthroughearthlypossessionswhichdragafterthemtheperpetualrepetitionofimperfectexistence.

3. Thecessationofsufferingsliesintheattainmentofastateofenlightenedall-inclusiveness,thuscreatingthepossibilityofconsciousinterceptionofthecircleofearthlyexistence.

4. Thepathtocessationofthesepainsconsistsingradualstrengtheningoftheelementsnecessarytobeperfectedfortheannihilationofthecausesofearthlyexistenceandforapproachingthegreattruth.

ThepathtothistruthwasdividedbyGotamaintoeightparts:

1. Rightunderstanding(thatwhichconcernsthelawofcauses).2. Rightthinking.3. Rightspeech.4. Rightaction.5. Rightliving.6. Rightlabor.7. Rightvigilanceandself-discipline.8. Rightconcentration.

Amanwhohasappliedthesepointstolifeisfreedfromthepainofearthlyexistencewhichistheconsequenceofignorance,desire,andlongings.Whenthisliberationisachieved,Nirvanaisattained.

WhatisNirvana?“Nirvanaisthecapacitytocontainallactions,it is the limit of all-inclusiveness. The tremor of illuminationattracts true knowledge. Quiescence is only an outer sign, notexpressing the essence of this state.” According to ourcontemporaryunderstandingwemaydefineNirvanaasastateofperfection of all the elements and energies in an individual,brought to the limit of intensity attainable in the present cosmiccycle.

Gotama Buddha also pointed out ten great obstacles, called

fetters:1. Theillusionofpersonality.2. Doubt.3. Superstition.4. Physicalpassions.5. Hatred.6. AttachmenttoEarth.7. Desireforenjoymentandrest.8. Pride.9. Self-contentment.

10. Ignorance.Toreachthehigherknowledgeitisnecessarytoshakeoffthese

fetters.In Buddhism are expounded to the minutest details the

subdivisions of the senses and the motives of the intellectualprocessasobstaclestoormeansofdevelopmentforthefacilitationof self-knowledge, through mental training and analyzing eachobject in detail. Following this method of self-knowledge manultimatelyreachestheknowledgeoftruereality,seestruthasitis.This is the method applied by each wise teacher for thedevelopmentofthedisciple’smind.

Preaching the Four Noble Truths and the noble path, Gotamacondemned, on one hand, the bodily mortification practised byascetics, and, on the other, licentiousness—indicating the path of

theeight stepsas the way ofthe harmonization ofthe sensesandthe attainment of the six perfections of an Arhat: compassion,morality,patience,valor,concentration,andwisdom.

Buddha insisted upon the realization by his disciples of theconceptoftwoextremes,sincetheperceptionofRealityisachievedonlythroughthejuxtapositionoftwoextremes.Ifthedisciplewasunable to master this, the Blessed One did not introduce him tofurther knowledge, for it would be not only useless but evenharmful. The realization of this concept was facilitated by theassimilation of the principle of relativity. Buddha affirmed therelativity of all that exists, pointing out the eternal changes innature and the impermanency of all things in the stream ofboundless existence eternally striving toward perfection. And theextent to which he adhered to this principle of relativity may beseenfromthefollowingparable:

“Suppose,” said the Buddha to his followers one day, “supposethatamansettingoutuponalongjourneyisconfrontedbyagreatbody of water, the nearer side of which is beset with many perilsand dangers, but the farther side, secure and free of danger; thatthere is no boat wherewith to cross the flood, nor any bridgeleading to the other shore. And suppose this man should say tohimself,‘Truly,thisisagreatandwidebodyofwater,butofmeanswherewith to get to the other shore there are none. Suppose Igather reeds and branches and leaves and from them make a raftformyself,andsupportedonmyraftandpaddlingwithhandsandfeetcrosstothesafetyoftheothershore!’Thensupposethismandoes as he has said and makes a raft, launches it upon the waterand,workinghandsandfeet,arrivessafelyontheothershore.

“And now, after crossing and upon reaching the opposite shore,supposethemanshouldsay,‘Verily,thisrafthasbeenserviceableto me, for by means of it, working hands and feet, I have safelycrossedtothisothershore.SupposeI liftupmyraftandputitonmyheadorshouldersandsoproceeduponmyway!’

“Whatthinkye,disciples?Bysodoing,wouldthemanbeactingrightlyregardinghisraft?

“What, then, should such a man do to act rightly regarding hisraft?

“Then, disciples, this man ought to say to himself, ‘Truly, this

rafthasbeenveryserviceabletome,forsupportedbythisraftandworkinghandsandfeet,Ihavecrossedsafelytothisfarthershore.But suppose I lay it on the bank and proceed with my journey!’Thus,thismanwouldbeactingrightlyinthematterofhisraft.

“Inthesamemanneralso,disciples,doIputmyTeachingbeforeyou in the analogy of a raft, designed as a means of escape, not aconstant possession. Understand clearly this analogy of a raft:Dharma is to be left behind when you cross to the shore ofNirvana.”

Hereweseewhatlittleimportanceistobeattachedtoanythinginthisworldofrelativity—Maya.Everything,eventheTeachingofa Perfectly Enlightened One, is of merely provisory, transitory,relative value. This parable also stresses the necessity of exertionthroughhumanhandsandfeet,theTeachingbeingeffectiveonlyifpersonaleffortsareappliedtoit.

Buddha’scommunitiesgavesheltertothemostvarieddemands

and therefore were gathered out of the most varied elements. IntheMilindaPanha,wefindthefollowing:“Whatcausesimpeloneto join the community?” Milinda once asked his Buddhist teacherNagasena. The sage answered that some become adherents of theSanghainordertoescapethetyrannyofaruler;othersjointosavethemselves from brigands or are overburdened with debts, butthere are also some who simply wish to have their existenceprovidedfor.

If some joined the community in search of social and materialprivileges, more numerous were the true social reformers,gathered under the broad shelter of possibilities, which theTeachingofBuddhaofferedinthemidstofthedarkfeudalrealityof his era. In the Sutta Nipata one finds severe condemnations ofthesocialstaminaandpublicmoralityofthatera.

Thecommunityadmittedallwithoutdistinctionofrace,caste,orsex, and the most varying quests and searchings of new waysfoundsatisfactioninit.

Buddha’s communities were not monasteries, and admission tothemwasnotaninitiation.AccordingtothewordsoftheTeacher,therealizationoftheTeachingalonemadeoftheneophyteanewmanandamemberofthecommunity.

Full equality of all members existed in the community. Onememberdifferedfromanother,bythedateofhisadmission.AttheelectionoftheElderagewasnottakenintoconsideration.Senioritywasnotmeasuredbygrayhair.Aboutonewhosemeritrestedonlyon his old age, it was said that he was “old-in-vain.” But “he is anElder in whom justice speaks, who knows how to master himself,whoiswise.” [8]

Buddhadidnotdemandlivinginaclosedcommunity.Fromthevery beginning, among the disciples there were some whopreferredthesolitarylife.Aboutthosewhoisolatedthemselvestoogreatly, Buddha said: “A solitary life in the forest is useful to himwhopursuesit,butoflittlehelptothewelfareofmen.”

Buddha did not wish to establish too many rules. He strove toavoid pedantry and uniformity of regulations, as well as theimposition of too many prohibitions. All rules were directedtowardprotectingandsafeguardingthecompleteindependenceofthedisciple.Thememberofthecommunitywasobligedtoobservesimplicityanddecency,butastherelienospiritualpreferencesinhow to be nourished and how to dress, Buddha left a certainfreedom to the disciples. Incited by Devadatta, some of thedisciplesaskedBuddhatoestablishamorestrictdisciplineforthecommunityandtoforbidtheuseofmeatandfish.Buddharefusedtheir request, saying that each one was free to apply to himselfthesemeasuresbuttheyshouldnotbeimposedasanobligationforall. The same tolerance was permitted in attire, as it wasinadmissible that freedom should degenerate into a privilege forthefew.ConfidentofthewisdomofthevenerableSona,theBlessedOne said to him: “Sona, thou hast been raised in refinement, Icommandtheetowearshoeswithsoles.”Sonathenaskedthatthispermission be extended to all members of the Sangha and theBlessedOnequicklyaccededtothisrequest. [9]

In the Vinaya we see how all regulations in the communityestablished by the Blessed One were always instigated by a vitalnecessity.IntheVinayaatouchingepisodewhichresultedinanewrulefortheSanghaiscited.

One time a certain bhikshu had an illness of the bowels and helay fallen in his own excrement. Now when the Blessed One,followed by the venerable Ananda, passed through the sleeping

quarters, he came to the cell of the bhikshu and saw him in thiscondition.

Andseeing,hewenttohimandsaid,“Whatisit,bhikshu,areyouill?”“Ihaveanillnessofthebowels,Lord.”“Haveyounoonetotendyou,bhikshu?”“No,Lord.”“Whydonotthebhikshustendyou?”“Because,Lord,Iamofnoservicetothebhikshus.”Whereupon the Blessed One said to the venerable Ananda, “Go,

Ananda,andbringwater,letusbathethisbhikshu.”“Yes,Lord,”repliedthevenerableAnandatotheBlessedOne,and

brought the water. Then the Blessed One poured the water whilethe venerable Ananda washed him. And the Blessed One holdinghimbythehead,andthevenerableAnandabythefeet,theyliftedhimandlaidhimuponhisbed.

Then on that occasion and in that connection, the Blessed OnecalledameetingoftheOrderandaskedthebhikshus,“Bhikshus,insuch-and-suchaquarteristhereabhikshuwhoissick?”

“Yes,Lord.”“And,bhikshus,whatisthematterwithhim?”“Hehasanillnessofthebowels,Lord.”“Andisthereanyonetotendhim,bhikshus?”“No,Lord.”“But why do not the bhikshus tend him? Bhikshus, you have

neithermothersnorfatherswhomaywaituponyou.If,bhikshus,you do not wait upon one another, who, forsooth, will tend you?Whoever,bhikshus,wouldwaituponmeshouldtendthesick.

“Ifhehaveapreceptor,hispreceptorshouldwaituponhimuntilhe is recovered and the same if he have a teacher, a co-disciple ofthe same Vihara, or a disciple lodging with his teacher. And if hehavenoneofthese,thentheSanghashouldtendhim;andwhoeverdoesnotdoso,shallbeguiltyofoffense.”

The Teacher’s dislike to establish numerous and static rules,especiallyforbiddances,andthedesiretosafeguardthevitalityofthecommunallifearevividlyexpressedinhislastcovenantstohisdisciple Ananda, “I entrust the community to alter the small andminutestrules.”

But many weak souls are more at ease if their obligations arestrictly defined; hence originated the multiplicity of rules andforbiddances of later Buddhism. It is much easier to submit torules, even under constraint, than to manifest the personalconscious energy which the Teacher demanded of his disciples.The community strove not to deprive the members of theirpersonalities, but to unite them in friendship and closeness in asingle aspiration toward general well-being. The community didnotdesiretolevelindividualpeculiarities;onthecontrary,Buddhaappreciated each evidence of initiative, each individualmanifestation, because the Teaching asserts that each one is hisowncreatorandliberator,andthatpersonaleffortsareabsolutelynecessarytoachievethishighgoal.Thustheindividualoriginhadallpossibilitiesfordevelopment.“Avoidquarrels,beingaffirmedinone’sownself,notexcludingothers.”Thiswasacceptedasaruleinthecommunity.

And so little did Buddhism fear individual manifestations, thatoftentheinspiredwordsofoneofthemembersofthecommunitywere accepted and became part of the Canon together with thecovenantsoftheTeacher.

Severediscipline,constantwatchoverthought,word,anddeed,made out of the community a school, as much a training one aseducational. The Teacher, who pronounced knowledge the onemeans of escape from earthly fetters, and ignorance, the mostheinouscrime,ordainedalltowalkthepathofknowledge.

Parallel with the condemnation of ignorance we find an equallysterncondemnationoffrivolity.

“Thefools,theignorant,aretheirowngreatestenemies,fortheydoevildeedswhichbearbitterfruits.

“Thoughafoolbecompaniontoawisemanhiswholelifelong,heyetremainsignorantoftheTruth,asdoesthespoonofthesavorofthesoup.

“Long is the night to the watcher, long is the mile to the weary.Long is the round of lives and deaths to fools that know not theTruth.” [8]

Heespeciallymadeapointofoftentellingparentstoteachtheirchildrenallsciencesandartsandtherebyhelpthegrowthoftheirconsciousness. He likewise constantly pointed out the vital

necessityoftravel.Thereinhesawareallyinstructivepurpose,fortravel tearing man away from daily circumstances, develops inhim mobility, resourcefulness, and adaptability—indispensablequalitiespreparatorytotheprocessofexpansionofconsciousness.

The Teaching of Gotama demands authenticity, but it has nodogmaswhicharetobetakenongoodfaith,becausetheTeacher,affirmingknowledgeinallthings,sawnouseinblindfaithforthedevelopment of consciousness. “Therefore,” said Buddha, “I havetaught you to believe not because you have heard, but only whenyourconsciousnesshasverifiedandaccepted.”

In a talk with a young Brahmin, Buddha pointed out how aworthy disciple attains a mastery of the Truth: “When, after amatureconsideration,thediscipleacknowledgesthattheindicatedman is entirely free from possibility of error, he trusts this man.Approaching him with trust, he becomes his disciple. Havingbecome his disciple, he opens his ear. Having opened his ear, heharkenstotheTeaching.HavingheardtheTeaching,heretainsitin his mind. He analyzes the meaning of the truths that he hasretained.Hemeditatesuponit.Fromthisisbornhisdecisiveness.What he has decided he will undertake. He appreciates thesignificance of the undertaken. Having appreciated, he applies allefforts. By applied efforts he approaches the Truth. Havingpenetrated into its depths, he sees. Yet all this is only therecognition of the Truth, not its possession. In order to master itcompletely, one has to apply, to nurture, and to untiringly repeatthispsychologicalprocess.” [4]

FromthisdiscourseitisclearhowfreethedisciplewastodiscusstheTeachinggiventohim,andthatknowledgeandmasteryofthetruthareattainedonlybyself-exertion.

TheTeachingofBuddha,asaTeachingofTruth,embracedallthepreceding great teachings and therefore, stressing their truth, itrejected denial. Rejecting denial the Teaching did not subordinateanyone. The realization of the great principle of cooperationopenedallways.

InBuddha’scommunities,apersonallyrealizedrenunciationwaspermitted, but a denial was compared to ignorance. In thecommunities of Buddha one could renounce petty considerations,butadenialwasequaltoawithdrawalfromthecommunity.Itwas

customarynevertomentiontheonewholeft—thecommunityhadtoliveforthefuture.Besides,thedepartedoneoftenreturned;thenthereturnwasneverfollowedbyanyquestionsexceptone:“Dostthounolongerdeny?”

At the beginning of the Teaching, the discipline chieflyconcernedthepurificationoftheheartandmindofallprejudicesand bad qualities. According to the progress, the emphasis of theTeachingwastransferredandconcentratedupontheexpansionofconsciousness.

Itisdifficultforamantorisewithoutpassingthroughtheseveretrialofpurification.“Iftheclothbedirty,howevermuchthedyermightdipitintoblue,yellow,red,orlilacdye,itscolorwillbeuglyand unclear—why? Because of the dirt in the cloth. If the heart isimpureonemustexpectthesamesadresult.

“Isaythatitisnotsufficienttoweararobe,tobeastrivingone.It is not enough to be naked, covered with mud, sprinkled withwater, to sit beneath a tree, to live in solitude, to stand in oneposition, to starve oneself, to repeat mantras and to twist one’shair.” [4]“Amanisnotamendicantsimplybecauseheisbeingfedthroughalms.” [8]“Amanisnotanasceticonlybecausehelivesinaforest.” [5] “Unworthy of the yellow garment is he who wears itand is impure and insincere in deed, is ignorant and has notmasteredhimself.” [8]

“Ofthethreekindsofaction,”saidBuddha,“themostheinousisnot the word, not the physical act, but the thought.” [4] From themoment of conception of an evil decision, man is already guilty,whetheritbeexecutedornot.

“Theprimeelementinallisthought.Preponderantisthought,bythought all is made. If a man speaks or acts with evil thought,suffering follows him as the wheel follows the hoof of the beastthatdrawsthecart.

“Ifamanspeakoractwithrighteousthought,happinessfollowshimcloseashisnever-absentshadow.

“Enemyworkseviltoenemy,hatertohater,butworseistheevilwroughtbyawronglydirectedmind.” [8]

The Teacher pointed out vigilance over one’s thoughts withespecial insistence, because if the disciple, too confident of theresultsattainedbyhim,weretolessenhisvigilance,hewouldpay

dearlyfortheslightestneglect.Thisadvicewasgiveninaparable:“A man was wounded with a poisoned arrow. The physician,having extracted the arrow, advised the wounded man to watchthe wound most attentively. But the patient imagined he hadnothingmoretofear.Uncaredfor,thewoundinflamedandcauseddeathwithacutepain.” [4]

“Vigilance is the road to immortality. Negligence is the road todeath.Thosewhoarevigilantdonotdie.Thosewhoarenegligentareasifdead.

“To those who are inconstant in thought, ignorant of the truelaw,orwaveringconfidence,wisdomcomesnottofullness.

“As a fletcher straightens his arrow, a wise man straightens hisfickle and unsteady mind which is difficult to guard, difficult toguide.

“Asrainleaksintoanill-thatchedhouse,socravingleaksintoanill-trainedmind.

“The great and small fetters of a bhikshu, who delights invigilance and dreads negligence, are all burned away. He moveslikefire.” [8]

Indicatingthemadness,fromthepointofviewofusefulness,ofyieldingtobaseinclinations,Buddhasaid:“Thefeeling,forthesakeofwhichyouhumiliatedyourselves,willsoonbeonlyamemorytoyou, like a pleasure experienced in a dream. But that whichremains as a constant living reproach is the deed performed forthispleasure.” [6]

“Moralityislikeaninflatedleatherbag,damageitonceanditisdestroyed.Likewise,succumbbutoncetoviciousinclinations,andnothingcanarresttherushofpassions.Andamanlefttohimselfwillirrevocablyperish.”

“Irrigators deflect water where they will; fletchers shape thearrow; carpenters turn the wood to their will; the wise bendthemselves.” [8]

In the writings, we find no difference made between themembers of the community—the social leaders the married,celibates, men, women—all may receive equally the Truth taughttothem.

Admission into the community was not followed by any vows.Theonewhocamebroughtwithhimonlyareadinesstoservethe

Teaching. But when this readiness disappeared, nothing boundhim to remain in the community. Leaving the community was assimpleasadmission.Numerousaretheexamplesofthosewholeftthecommunityandreturnedlater.

One should not expel a member of the community merelybecause one does not agree with him in the appreciation of hisdeed. To expel him would mean to free the torrent of fiery wordsanddisunioninthecommunity.“Amemberofthecommunitywillnotrepeatwhathehasheardsoastodisuniteothers,butwillbringthemcloser,pronouncingonlythewordsofpeace.” [1]

“Never was hatred destroyed by hatred; goodness alone put anendtoit;suchistheeternallaw.

“He abused me, he misused me, he overpowered me, he robbedme;inthosewhoharborsuchthoughts,angerisneverstilled.

“If a man concern himself with the faults of others and is everinclined to be offended, his own passions will grow, and he is farfromthedestructionofpassions.” [8]

“There are some who do not know the need of self-restraint; iftheyarequarrelsome,wemayexcusetheirconduct.Butthosewhoknowbettershouldlearntoliveinconcord.

“If a man finds a wise friend who lives righteously and isconstant in his character, he may live with him, overcoming alldangers, happy and mindful. But . . . with fools there is nocompanionship.Ratherthantolivewithmenwhoareselfish,vain,argumentativeandobstinate,letamanwalkalone.” [9]

Influencedbygoal-fitnessinallthings,BuddhadidnotstrivetosystematizehisTeaching.HewishedeachpointoftheTeachingtoaffect as powerfully as possible the will of his disciples. Aimingonly for the growth and development of consciousness hepermitted freedom of thought and action in all else. Buddhadesiredindividualdisciplineforeachone.

“HowdidBuddhaelectdisciplesforachievement?Duringwork,when fatigue already possessed the disciples, Buddha asked themostunexpectedquestion,awaitingthepromptestreply.

“Or placing the simplest object before them he suggested thatthey describe it in not more than three words and not less than ahundred pages. Or placing a pupil before a sealed door he asked:‘Howwillyouopenit?’

“Ororderingmusicianstoperformbeneaththewindowhemadethemsinghymnsofentirelydissimilarcontents.

“Orpassinginfrontofthepupilshewouldaskthemhowmanytimeshehaddoneso.

“Ornoticinganannoyingflyheaskedthepupiltorepeatwordsunexpectedlypronounced.

“Or noticing a fear of animals or natural phenomena he set hispupilstheconditiontomasterit.

“Thus the powerful Lion tempered the blade of the spirit.”(WrittendownfromtheoralteachingsofHinduBuddhism.)

And one should not forget the favorite pastime of Buddha withhisdisciples,duringmomentsofrest.TheTeachercastintospaceone word on the basis of which the disciples built an entirethought.Thereisnowisertestoftheconditionofconsciousness.

Buddha, through true knowledge and firm realization of thechange of all that exists, tempered his pupils, arming them withcourage, patience and compassion, training true warriors for thecommonwelfare.

Especially numerous in the ancient writings are instances ofcomplete contempt for that which makes life easy andconventionallypleasant.

Therenunciationofeverythingpersonalgivesbirthtothesenseof true freedom; from freedom is born joy; from joy, satisfaction;fromsatisfaction,thesenseofcalmnessandhappiness.

Buddha found the way to the hearts of people not throughmiracles, but by practical teaching of the perfection of everydaylifeandbyhispersonalexampleofgreatcooperation.

And so great was his tolerance and desire for close cooperationwith people that he never spoke against their rites or beliefs.“Reverenceyourbeliefandnevercondemnthebeliefofothers.”Inallcaseshewasnotconcernedwithouterformsandtriedonlytogive a broader understanding of the inner meaning, explaining itfromanewpointofview.

“While the Blessed One was staying at the bamboo grove nearRajagriha, he once met on his way Srigala, a householder, who,claspinghishands,turnedtothefourquartersoftheworld,tothezenith above, and to the nadir below. And the Blessed One,knowing that this was done according to the traditional religious

superstitiontoavertevil,askedSrigala,‘Whydoyouperformthesestrangeceremonies?’

“Srigala said in reply, ‘Do you think it strange that I protect myhome against the influence of demons? I know that thou, OGotama Sakyamuni, whom people call the Tathagata and theBlessed Buddha, wouldst fain tell me that incantations are of noavailandpossessnosavingpower.Butlistentomeandknowthatin performing this rite I honor, reverence, and keep sacred thewordsofmyfather.’

“Then the Tathagata said, ‘You do well, O Srigala, to honor,reverence,andkeepsacredthewordsofyourfather;anditisyourduty to protect your home, your wife, your children, and yourchildren’s children against the baneful influences of evil spirits. Ifindnofaultwiththeperformanceofyourfather’srite.ButIfindthatyoudonotunderstandtheceremony.LettheTathagata,whonowspeakstoyouasaspiritualfatherandlovesyounolessthandidyourparents,explaintoyouthemeaningofthesixdirections:

“ ‘To guard your home by mysterious ceremonies is notsufficient;youmustguarditbygooddeeds.Turntoyourparentsintheeast,toyourTeachersinthesouth,toyourwifeandchildreninthewest,toyourfriendsinthenorth,andregulatethezenithofyourreligiousrelationsaboveyou,andthenadirofyourservantsbelowyou.

“ ‘Such is the religion your father desires you to have, and theperformanceoftheceremonywillremindyouofyourduties.’

“And Srigala looked up to the Blessed One with reverence as tohis father and said, ‘Truly, Gotama, thou are the Buddha, theBlessedOne,theholyTeacher.IneverknewwhatIwasdoing,butnowIknow.Thouhastrevealedtomethetruththatwashidden,asone who brings a lamp into the darkness. I take my refuge in theEnlightened Teacher, in the Truth that enlightens, and in thecommunityofbrethrenwhohavefoundtheTruth.’ ” [10]

Fromtheverybeginningofhisactivityhewasconvincedthataword pronounced at the fitting time and in its proper place wasmoreconvincingthananymiracleinitspsychiceffectonmanandhis regeneration. He severely commanded his disciples not tomanifest their acquired “miraculous” powers before those whowere not acquainted with the principles inherent in such powers.

Besides this, such manifestations are harmful for the possessorhimself, exalting him above his surroundings and developingconceitinhim.

An ordained disciple must not boast of superhuman perfection.Thedisciplewhowithevilintentandfromcovetousnessboastsofa superhuman perfection, be it celestial visions or miracles, is nolonger a disciple of the Sakyamuni. “I forbid you, O bhikshus, toemploy any spells or supplications, for they are useless, since thelaw of Karma governs all things. He who attempts to performmiracleshasnotunderstoodtheDoctrineoftheTathagata.” [13]

The word and power of conviction were the only weaponsappliedbytheTeachertoinfluencepeople.

Nowheredoweeverfindangeror indignation,onlytheaustereaffirmationoftruth.“TheBlessedOneisperfectintheconductofhisspeech”pointsoutthediscipleSariputra.

“Like the earth, patiently enduring without sorrow or pleasureall things cast upon it pure and impure, so does Buddha,untouched, endure reverence as well as the disdain of men. Likewater, purifying and refreshing all without distinction thoughthey be just or evil, Buddha gives his compassion to foes andfriends.” [11]

Numerous are the visits and discourses of Buddha with hishearersonthatwhichdirectlytouchedthem,andthemany-sideddiscussions of their obligations in relation to their families andsocialwelfare.Hisdistinctionfromotherteachersandhisgreatestmerit lie in the fact that, considering the duty of man from thepoint of view of vital usefulness, he tried to apply sensitive andupliftingfeelingtothepracticallife.

Thisvital,practicalsideoftheTeachingisbeautifullyexpressedin the answer of the Blessed One to Anathapindika, a man ofincalculable wealth, called “the supporter of orphans and thefriendofthepoor,”whocametoconsulthim.

Hearing that Buddha was stopping in the bamboo grove nearRajagriha, Anathapindika set out that very night to meet theBlessedOne.AndtheBlessedOneperceivedatoncethepureheartofAnathapindikaandgreetedhimwithwordsofcomfort.

Anathapindikasaid,“IseethatthouarttheBuddha,theBlessedOne,andIwishtoopentotheemywholemind.Havinglistenedto

my words advise me what I shall do. My life is full of work, andhaving acquired great wealth, I am surrounded with cares. Yet Ienjoy my work and apply myself to it with all diligence. Manypeople are in my employ and depend upon the success of myenterprises.

“Now I have heard your disciples praise the bliss of the hermitand denounce the unrest of the world. ‘The Holy One,’ they say,‘has given up his kingdom and his inheritance and has found thepath of righteousness, thus setting an example to all the world ofhowtoattainNirvana.’

“My heart yearns to do what is right and to be a blessing to myfellowbeings.Letmethenaskyou,MustIgiveupmywealth,myhome, and my business enterprises, and, like thee, choosehomelessnessinordertoattaintheblissoftherighteouslife?”

And the Buddha replied: “The bliss of the righteous life isattainable by everyone who walks in the noble eightfold path. Hethat is attached to wealth had better cast it away than allow hisheart to be poisoned by it; but he who does not cleave to wealth,andwho,possessingrichesusesthemrightly,willbeablessingtohisfellowbeings.

“Isaytothee,remaininthystationoflifeandapplythyselfwithdiligencetothyenterprises.Itisnotlifeandwealthandpowerthatenslavemen,buttheirattachmenttolifeandwealthandpower.

“Thebhikshuwhoretiresfromtheworldtoleadalifeofleisurederives no profit. For a life of indolence is an abomination, andwantofenergyistobedespised.TheDharmaoftheTathagatadoesnot require that a man choose homelessness or resign the world,unless he feels called upon to do so; but the Dharma of theTathagata requires each man to free himself from the illusion ofself, to cleanse his heart, to give up his thirst for pleasure, and toleadalifeofrighteousness.

“And whatever men do, whether they remain in the world asartisans, merchants, and officers of the King, or retire from theworld and devote themselves to a life of religious meditation, letthemputtheirwholeheartintotheirtask,letthembediligentandenergetic.Andiftheyarelikethelotus,whichgrowinginwateryetremains untouched by water, if they struggle in life withoutcherishingenvyorhatred,iftheyliveintheworldalife,notofself

but a life of truth, then surely joy, peace, and bliss will dwell intheirminds.” [13]

As vital and practical are the beautiful answers of the BlessedOnetothequestionsofSimha,thewarrior.

“At that time many distinguished citizens were sitting togetherassembledinthetownhallandspokeinmanywaysinpraiseoftheBuddha,oftheDharma,andoftheSangha.Simha,thegeneral-in-chief, a disciple of the Niggantha sect, was sitting among them.And Simha thought: ‘Truly, the Blessed One must be the Buddha,theHolyOne.Iwillgoandvisithim.’

“ThenSimha,thegeneral,wenttotheplacewheretheNigganthachief,Nataputta,was;andhavingapproachedhim,hesaid:‘Iwish,Lord,tovisitthesamanaGotama.’

“Nataputta said: ‘Why should you, Simha, who believe in theresult of actions according to their moral merit, go to visit thesamana Gotama, who denies the result of actions? The samanaGotama, O Simha, denies the result of actions; he teaches thedoctrineofnon-action;andinthisdoctrinehetrainshisdisciples.’

“ThenthedesiretogoandvisittheBlessedOne,whichhadariseninSimha,thegeneral,abated.

“Hearing again the praise of the Buddha, of the Dharma, and ofthe Sangha, Simha asked the Niggantha chief a second time; andagainNataputtapersuadedhimnottogo.

“When a third time the general heard some men of distinctionextol the merits of the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, thegeneral thought: ‘Truly the samana Gotama must be the HolyBuddha. What are the Nigganthas to me, whether they give theirconsent or not? I shall go without asking their permission to visithim,theBlessedOne,theHolyBuddha.’

“And Simha, the general, said to the Blessed One: ‘I have heard,Lord, that the samana Gotama denies the result of actions; heteaches the doctrine of non-action, saying that the actions ofsentient beings do not receive their reward, for he teachesannihilation and the contemptibleness of all things; and in thisdoctrinehetrainshisdisciples.Teachestthouthedoingawaywiththesoulandtheburningawayofman’sbeing?Praytellme,Lord,dothosewhospeakthussaythetruth,ordotheybearfalsewitnessagainst the Blessed One, passing off a spurious Dharma as thy

Dharma?’“TheBlessedOnesaid:‘Thereisaway,Simha,inwhichonewho

sayssoisspeakingtrulyofme;ontheotherhand,Simha,thereisaway in which one who says the opposite is speaking truly of me,too.Listen,andIwilltellthee:

“ ‘I teach, Simha, the not-doing of such actions as areunrighteous,eitherbydeed,orbyword,orbythought;Iteachthenot-bringing about of all those conditions of heart which are evilandnotgood.However,Iteach,Simha,thedoingofsuchactionsasare righteous, by deed, by word, and by thought; I teach thebringingaboutofallthoseconditionsofheartwhicharegoodandnotevil.

“ ‘I teach, Simha, that all the conditions of heart which are eviland not good, unrighteous actions by deed, by word, and bythought, must be burnt away. He who has freed himself, Simha,fromallthoseconditionsofheartwhichareevilandnotgood,hewho has destroyed them like a palm tree which is rooted out, sothattheycannotgrowupagain,suchamanhasaccomplishedtheeradicationofself.

“ ‘Iproclaim,Simha,theannihilationofegotism,oflust,ofillwill,of delusion. However, I do not proclaim the annihilation offorbearance,oflove,ofcharity,andoftruth.

“ ‘I deem, Simha, unrighteous actions contemptible, whethertheybeperformedbydeed,orbyword,orbythought;butIdeemvirtueandrighteousnesspraiseworthy.’

“And Simha said: ‘One doubt still lurks in my mind concerningthe doctrine of the Blessed One. Will the Blessed One consent toclearthe cloud awayso that Imay understand theDharma as theBlessedOneteachesit?’

“TheTathagatahavinggivenhisconsent,Simhacontinued:‘Iamasoldier, OBlessedOne, and amappointed by theking toenforcehis laws and to wage his wars. Does the Tathagata, who teacheskindnesswithoutendandcompassionforallsufferers,permitthepunishment of the criminal? and further, does the Tathagatadeclare that it is wrong to go to war for the protection of ourhomes, our wives, our children, and our property? Does theTathagatateachthedoctrineofacompleteself-surrender,sothatIshould suffer the evil doer to do what he pleases and yield

submissivelytohimwhothreatenstotakebyviolencewhatismyown? Does the Tathagata maintain that all strife, including suchwarfareasiswagedforarighteouscause,shouldbeforbidden?’

“The Buddha replied: ‘He who deserves punishment must bepunished, and he who is worthy of favor must be favored. Yet atthesametimeheteachestodonoinjurytoanylivingbeingbuttobe full of love and kindness. These injunctions are notcontradictory, for whosoever must be punished for the crimeswhichhehascommitted,suffershisinjurynotthroughtheillwillof the judge but on account of his evil-doing. His own acts havebrought upon him the injury that the executor of the law inflicts.When a magistrate punishes, let him not harbor hatred in hisbreast, yet a murderer, when put to death, should consider thatthisisthefruitofhisownact.Assoonasheshallunderstandthatthe punishment will purify his soul, he will no longer lament hisfatebutrejoiceatit.’

“AndtheBlessedOnecontinued: ‘TheTathagatateachesthatallwarfareinwhichmantriestoslayhisbrotherislamentable,buthedoesnotteachthatthosewhogotowarinarighteouscauseafterhaving exhausted all means to preserve the peace areblameworthy.Hemustbeblamedwhoisthecauseofwar.

“ ‘TheTathagatateachesacompletesurrenderofself,buthedoesnotteachasurrenderofanythingtothosepowersthatareevil,betheymenorgodsortheelementsofnature.Strugglemustbe,foralllifeisastruggleofsomekind.Buthethatstrugglesshouldlookto it lest he struggle in the interest of self against truth andrighteousness.

“ ‘Hewhostrugglesintheinterestofself,sothathehimselfmaybegreatorpowerfulorrichorfamous,willhavenoreward,buthewhostrugglesforrighteousnessandtruth,willhavegreatreward,forevenhisdefeatwillbeavictory.

“ ‘Selfisnotafitvesseltoreceiveanygreatsuccess;selfissmalland brittle and its contents will soon be spilt for the benefit, andperhapsalsoforthecurse,ofothers.

“ ‘Truth, however, is large enough to receive the yearnings andaspirations of all selves and when the selves break like soapbubbles,theircontentswillbepreservedandinthetruththeywillleadalifeeverlasting.

“ ‘He who goeth to battle, O Simha, even though it be in arighteous cause, must be prepared to be slain by his enemies, forthatisthedestinyofwarriors;andshouldhisfateovertakehimhehasnoreasonforcomplaint.

“ ‘But he who is victorious should remember the instability ofearthlythings.Hissuccessmaybegreat,butbeiteversogreatthewheeloffortunemayturnagainandbringhimdownintothedust.

“ ‘However,ifhemoderateshimselfand,extinguishingallhatredin his heart, lifts his downtrodden adversary up and says to him,“Comenowandmakepeaceandletusbebrothers,”hewillgainavictory that is not a transient success, for its fruits will remainforever.

“ ‘Great is a successful general, O Simha, but he who hasconqueredselfisthegreatervictor.

“ ‘The doctrine of the conquest of self, O Simha, is not taught todestroy the souls of men, but to preserve them. He who hasconquered self is more fit to live, to be successful, and to gainvictoriesthanhewhoistheslaveofself.

“ ‘Hewhose mind isfree from theillusion of self,will standandnotfallinthebattleoflife.

“ ‘He whose intentions are righteousness and justice, will meetwithnofailure,butbesuccessfulinhisenterprisesandhissuccesswillendure.

“ ‘Hewhoharborsinhisheartloveoftruthwillliveandnotdie,forhehasdrunkthewaterofimmortality.

“ ‘Struggle then, O general, courageously; and fight thy battlesvigorously, but be a soldier of truth and the Tathagata will blessthee.’

“WhentheBlessedOnehadspokenthus,Simha,thegeneral,said:‘GloriousLord,gloriousLord!Thouhastrevealedthetruth.GreatisthedoctrineoftheBlessedOne.Thou,indeed,arttheBuddha,theTathagata, the Holy One. Thou art the teacher of mankind. Thoushowestustheroadofsalvation,forthisindeedistruedeliverance.He who follows thee will not miss the light to enlighten his path.He will find blessedness and peace. I take my refuge, Lord, in theBlessed One, and in his doctrine, and in his brotherhood. May theBlessedOnereceivemefromthisdayforthwhilemylifelastsasadisciplewhohastakenrefugeinhim.’

“And the Blessed One said: ‘Consider first, Simha, what thoudoest. It is becoming that persons of rank like thyself should donothingwithoutdueconsideration.’

“Simha’s faith in the Blessed One increased. He replied: ‘Hadother teachers, Lord, succeeded in making me their disciple, theywouldcarryaroundtheirbannersthroughthewholecityofVesali,shouting: “Simha, the general, has become our disciple!” For thesecondtime,Lord,ItakemyrefugeintheBlessedOne,andintheDharma,andintheSangha;maytheBlessedOnereceivemefromthis day forth while my life lasts as a disciple who has taken hisrefugeinhim.’

“Said the Blessed One: ‘For a long time, Simha, offerings havebeen given to the Nigganthas in thy house. Thou shouldsttherefore deem it right also in the future to give them food whentheycometotheeontheiralms-pilgrimage.’

“AndSimha’sheartwasfilledwithjoy.Hesaid:‘Ihavebeentold,Lord: “The samana Gotama says: ‘To me alone and to nobody elseshouldgiftsbegiven.Mypupilsaloneandthepupilsofnooneelseshouldreceiveofferings.’ ”ButtheBlessedOneexhortsmetogivealsototheNigganthas.Well,Lord,weshallseewhatisseasonable.Forthethirdtime,Lord,ItakemyrefugeintheBlessedOne,andinhisDharma,andinhisfraternity.’ ” [13]

Inallthingshewasinfluencedbygoal-fitness.“Whatprivilegescouldheavengiveyou?Youmustbeconquerorshereinthisworld,intheconditionsinwhichyouarenow.”

Once a great disputer tried to embarrass Buddha by plying himwith controversial questions. Buddha ceased to pay attention tohim and spoke to the crowds around him: “This man wishes notthatwhichhesees.Heseekswhathedoesnotsee.Hewillseeklongin vain. He is not satisfied by what he sees around him and hisdesires are limitless. Greetings to those who have renounceddesire.”

Buddha was affirmed as a doctrine of life, because thepenetration of a high and goal-fitted Teaching into daily lifemarked a new era in the life of humanity. For the previousforbiddances and denials a positive and practical Teaching wassubstituted,inconsequenceofwhichthemoralitywasraisedtoahigherstandard.

To abstain from all that was negative and with full energy to

promptthepositiveandbeautifulwasordained.Suicide was especially condemned by Buddha as was the taking

of any life. “All tremble when facing punishment, all fear death;judgingothersbyyourself,slaynot,neithercausetoslay.” [8]

“Thebhikshuabstainsfromalltakingoflife;shunstakingthelifeof any living creature. Laying aside cudgel and sword he is mildand merciful, kind and compassionate toward every livingcreature.”

Theconsumptionofalcoholwasforbiddenandalsotocausethe

intoxication of others, because drunkenness leads to downfall,crime, madness, and ignorance, which is the main cause of a newandburdensomeexistence.Thenecessityofcompletechastityforthe achievement of full spiritual development was also pointedout. But to have one wife and to be loyal to her was regarded as aform of chastity. Polygamy was severely condemned by GotamaBuddha,asbredbyignorance.

The Teaching concerning the sanctity of marriage wasbeautifully expounded by the Blessed One in the parable “TheMarriageFeastinJambunada.”

“ ‘Thegreatesthappinesswhichamortalmancanimagineisthebondofmarriagethattiestogethertwolovinghearts.Butthereisagreater happiness still: it is the embrace of truth. Death willseparate husband and wife, but death will never affect him whohasespousedthetruth.

“ ‘Thereforebemarrieduntothetruthandlivewiththetruthinholywedlock.Thehusbandwholoveshiswifeanddesiresaunionthatshallbeeverlastingmustbefaithfultohersoastobeliketruthitself;andshewillrelyuponhimandreverehimandministeruntohim.Andthewifewholovesherhusbandanddesiresaunionthatshall be everlasting must be faithful to him so as to be like truthitself;andhewillplacehistrustinher,[hewillhonorher,]hewillprovide for her. Verily, I say unto you, [their wedlock will beholiness and bliss, and] their children will become like unto theirparentsandwillbearwitnesstotheirhappiness.

“ ‘Letnomanbesingle,leteveryonebeweddedinholylovetothe

truth.AndwhenMara,thedestroyer,comestoseparatethevisibleformsofyourbeing,youwillcontinuetoliveinthetruth,andyouwillpartakeofthelifeeverlasting,forthetruthisimmortal.’ ” [13]

The Teaching of Buddha did more for the liberation andhappiness of woman than any other teaching of India. “Woman,”Gotama said, “can attain the highest degree of knowledge open toman—shecanbecomeanArhat.Freedom,whichisbeyondforms,cannot depend on sex, which belongs to the world of forms.”Womenplayedanimportantpartinthecommunitiesandmanyofthemwereremarkablefortheirknowledgeandstriving.

We quote his answer to the question of the woman discipleSoma, “How can this condition which is difficult for the wise toattain be reached by a woman with her limited mind? When theheart is at rest, when the consciousness is unfolded, then truth isperceived.ButifonewillthinkIamawoman,orIamaman,orIamthisorthat,letMarabehisconcern.” [14]

“Thegatesofimmortalityareopentoallbeings.Whohasears,lethimapproach,lethimhearkentotheTeachingandhavefaith.” [4]

Buddha indicated the absurdity of the prejudice that ascribes a

growingauthoritytowords,onaccountoftheirbeingreiteratedbyan increasing number of scholars. A true scholar is one who hasattained the perfection of realization, not one who mumbles theformulas,previouslyrejected,numbersoftimes.

“I say to my pupils, ‘Here is Nirvana, here is the path to it.’ Ofthoseinstructedbyme,afewattain,othersdonot.WhatcanIdo?TheBlessedOneisonlytheIndicatorofthepath.” [4]

“No man can save his neighbor. The evil committed by manstainsonlythemanhimself.Theevilavoidedbyhimconcernshimalone. Everyone is pure or impure for himself only. No man canpurifyanother.” [8]

Recoveryispossibleonlythroughaninnerprocessofworkupononeself. Therefore Buddha did not acknowledge any active powerbehindformulastransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,“likeabaskettransmittedfromhandtohand.” [4]

Buddha,denyingtheconventionalconceptofGodandaffirming

the possibility of liberation entirely by personal efforts and

assiduouslaborupononeself,bythisalonerefutedouterworship.From the very beginning, he censured all rituals and other outeractions, which only help the recrudescence of spiritual blindnessand clinging to lifeless forms. Nowhere in his Teaching is thereevenahintofpersonalworship.Hesaid:“TheTeachingissalvationnot because it was given by Buddha but because it liberates. Thepupil who follows me, clinging to the edge of my garment, is farfrom me and I from him. Why? Because this disciple does not seeme.Anotheronemaylivehundredsofmilesdistantfrommeandin spite of this be close to me and I to him. Why? Because thisdiscipleunderstandstheTeaching;understandingtheTeaching,heunderstandsme.” [15]

“If you understood and perceived the truth as it is, would yousay,‘WeowerespecttoourTeacher,andoutofrespectforhim,weshallspeakastheTeacherspoke’?

“ ‘No,BlessedOne.’“That which you affirm is it not that which you perceived and

realizedyourself?“ ‘Yes,BlessedOne.’ ” [4]Foreseeing the future, Buddha said: “The Teaching is like the

flame of a torch, kindling innumerable fires. Those fires may beused for the cooking of food or to disperse the darkness, but theflameofthefirsttorchremainsinvariablyluminous.” [18]

Beinganenemyofallritual,Buddhadeniedthepurifyingpowerof bathing. “A man will not become morally pure throughcleansinghimselflengthilyinwater.Apureman,aBrahmin,isoneinwhomabidetruthandvirtue.” [17]“TheGayaisthesamesortofreservoirasanyotherreservoir.” [4]

“All your rules,” said Buddha to the fanatics, “are base andridiculous.Someofyouwalknaked,coveringyourselvesonlywithyourhands;somewillnoteatoutofajugoraplate,willnotsitatthetablebetweentwospeakers,betweentwoknives,ortwoplates;somewillnotsitatthecommontableandwillnotacceptalmsinahousewherethereisapregnantwoman,orwhereyounoticemanyfliesormeetadog.

“One nurtures himself only on vegetables, with a brew of rice,withcowordeerdung,rootsoftrees,branches,leaves,forestfruitor seeds. One wears his robe thrown only over the shoulder, or

covershimselfonlywithmoss,thebarkofatree,plantsorreindeerskin, wears his hair loose or puts on a hair band. One wears thegarment of sorrow, always holds his hands up, does not sit on abenchormat,oralwayssitsinthemannerofananimal.

“Oneliesonpricklyplantsorcowdung.“Ishallnotenumerateothersimilarmeansbywhichyoutorture

andexhaustyourselves.“What do you expect, voluntary laborers, for your heavy work?

You expect alms and respect from laymen, and when you attainthis aim you become strongly attached to the comforts oftemporarylife,youdonotwanttopartwithitanddonotknowthemeansforit.Assoonasyounoticevisitorsfromafaryouatoncesitdownandpretendtobeabsorbedindeepmeditation,butaftertheydepartyouagaindoasyouplease,walkandrestfreely.

“When given coarse food, without even tasting it you give itback, but each tasty morsel you keep for yourselves. Indulging invicesandpassionsyouneverthelessgarbyourselvesinthemaskofmodesty.No,notsuchisthetrueachievement!

“Asceticism is useful only when it does not conceal covetousmotives.”

Asceticismhasnovalueasameansofliberationfromthebondsof Earth. It is more difficult to find a patient man than one whonurtures himself with air and roots or garbs himself in bark andleaves.“Whenamanisweakenedbyhungerandthirst,whenheistootiredtomasterhisfeelingsandthoughts,canhereachthegoalwhich is attained only by the clear mind of an expandedconsciousness?” [18]

“In order that the strings of the vina should produce aharmonious sound, they should be neither too strained nor tooloose.Sowitheacheffort:ifitisexcessive,itendsinafutilewasteofenergy;ifitisniggardly,itturnsintopassivity.

“Practicemeasurement;keepthecorrectmeasureintensityandestablishthebalanceofyourabilities.

“Adisciplinedmanisfree;beingfree,heisjoyous,heiscalmandhappy.” [4]Buddhawantedthelifeofthecommunitytobejoyous.

When he formulated the precepts for his son, he commandedhimtotreasurejoytogetherwithlove,compassionandpatience.

In Buddhism, a man is capable of a virtue only if he has

cognizance of it. One cannot despair of a man creating evil, if heknows what he does. He sees wrong, but at least he sees. Havingachieved some knowledge, he can renounce his former deeds. Butwhatmayoneexpectofamanpossessedofmentalblindness?“Oftwo people who have committed the same error, he is worse whodoes not realize it. Of two innocent persons, he is better whorealizesthatheisnotguilty.Foronecannotexpectamanwhodoesnot consider himself guilty to manifest effort for the cessation ofhiserring.” [4]

In order to cure oneself, one has to know one’s ailment, but therealization of it does not give health; for that, the necessaryconditionisamanifestationofwill.

Considering all existing manifestations as correlations of mostrefined energies, the Teacher valued especially the evidence ofeffortinhispupils.Henevertaughtthesubjugationofpassions,assuch, but the transmutation and the sublimation of their quality,for at the base of each passion is contained the spark of energywithoutwhichnoprogressispossible.

Energy and will make the pupil vigilant and full of constantstriving.Thesequalitiesarmhimwithpatience,energy,sustainedcontrol—three indispensable conditions to crush the hordes ofMara, “as an elephant crushes a bamboo hut.” Patience is born ofcompassionandknowledge.

Ofintolerance,itispointedoutthat“Themistakesofothersareeasily noticed, but one’s own mistakes are perceived withdifficulty. A man sifts the misdeeds of his neighbor like the grainfrom the husk, but hides his own as the cheat hides the bad dicefromtheplayer.” [8]

Nowhere do we see mention of non-resistance to evil, buteverywhere, active condemnation and suppression of evil. Oneshould not submit to suffering, one must be daring in theperfection of good and not be satisfied with small achievements.“Likeabeautifulflower,fullofcolorbutwithoutscent,soarethefinebutfruitlesswordsofhimwhodoesnotactinaccordancewiththem.” [8]

“I indicated to my disciples the path which they must tread in

ordertomanifestthefourperfectefforts:topreventthebeginningof the harmful, evil thing if it be not yet manifested; to hinder itsdevelopmentifitbealreadymanifested;tohelpthemanifestationofusefulthingsnotyetmanifested;andtostrengthenthosewhichare already manifested. Thus the disciple creates will, striving,developscourage,exercisestheheartandfights.” [4]

WecannevercallBuddhamild.Onthecontrary,heisthenever-despondentLeader,theFighterforcommunityandformatter,theHeroofworkandunity.

Buddha pointed out the necessity of co-measurement and goal-fitness. He said: “One should be neither less nor more.” Hisfollowers made of this formula of co-measurement the tiresomegolden mean. But the golden mean, or the middle path, should beunderstood as the realization of harmony. Buddha likewisecommanded the possession of fewer objects, in order not to allottoomuchtimetothem.Thisadvicehisfollowerstransformedintopedantry. Buddha censured fanatics and advised that the body betreated according to the necessity of conditions. Where the bodyshouldbereducedfortravel,theTeacherpointedoutslenderness.But where the contagion of the atmosphere necessitatedprotection, the Teacher ordained food. In the Teaching of Buddhawe find not only a philosophy of Matter but also the practicalimprovementofdailylife.

The Teacher pointed out the necessity of harmony in man’sforces,forthemanifestationofthehighestmeasureofknowledgeand beauty, and for the scientifically vital necessity of cosmiceconomyforthegeneralgood.

“He will observe co-measurement in clemency, and, beingresourceful in means, he will combine wisdom withcompassion.” [5]

“Thecharitablemanhasfoundthepathofsalvation.Heislikeaman who plants a sapling, thereby insuring shade, flowers andfruit for future years. Just so is the result of charity, just so is thejoyofhimwhohelpsthosethatareinneedofassistance.JustsoisthegreatNirvana.

“Immortality can be reached only by continuous acts ofkindness; and perfection is accomplished by compassion andcharity.”

Goal-fitness and compassion are vividly expressed in thefollowingdialogue:

“Does the Blessed One pronounce a word which is false,destructiveanddisagreeable?”

“No.”“Ifitistrue,destructive,anddisagreeable?”“Alsonot.”“Iftrue,usefulanddisagreeable?”“Yes,whenhefindsitnecessary.”“Ifitbefalse,destructive,andagreeable?”“No.”“True,useful,andagreeable?”“Yes,whenhefindsthetimebefitting.”“Whydoesheactthus?”“Becausehehascompassiontowardallbeings.” [4]Many indications about the evidences of compassion are

contained in the Sutras; one does not need to enumerate them,becausealltherefinementandthetouchingrelationofBuddhatohisneighborarecontainedinthelastepisode:

Chunda, the smith, hearing that Buddha had come to Pava andwasstoppinginthegrove,wenttohimand,payinghimreverence,askedtheBlessedOnetopartakeofhismealonthefollowingday.Receiving his acceptance, Chunda departed and prepared allpossible delicacies and also a large piece of juicy pork for thefollowingmorning.TheBlessedOneaccompaniedbyhisdisciplescametothehomeofthesmith.Sittingdownonthepreparedseat,headdressedChunda,thesmith:

“Chunda, bring me the pork thou hast preserved, but to thedisciplesgivetheotherdelicaciespreparedbythee.”

“Yes,Lord,”repliedthesmith,andexecutedwhatwastold.ThentheBlessedOnesaid:“Chunda,burywhateverisleftofthe

pork, for I know no being besides the Tathagata who could digestit.”

“Yes,Lord,”answeredChunda,andheburiedtheremainsoftheporkintheground.

Having partaken of food in the house of Chunda, the smith, theBlessedOnewasstrickenwithseveresicknessofthestomachandsuffered terrible pain. He said to his disciple, Ananda, “Arise,

Ananda, we shall go to Kusinara.” On the way the Blessed Onestoppedoften,sufferinggreatpain,thirst,andanguish.Thustheyreached the river Kakutshta. Having bathed here, the Blessed Onestopped at the outskirts of the grove and, lying down on anoutspread robe, said to Ananda: “Ananda, it is possible thatsomeone may harass the heart of Chunda, the smith, by saying:‘Chunda,whatdistressforthee!ThoumustfeelveryunhappythattheTathagatalefttheillusoryworldafterheacceptedthemealinthyhouse.’

“Ananda, dispel the heavy thoughts of Chunda by the followingwords:‘Friend,thoumustrejoice,forthyhappinessliesinthatthishappenedinsuchamanner.FromthelipsofTathagatahimself,Ihave heard and understood that two gifts of food receive equalappreciationandreward—verily,theyreceiveagreaterrewardandblessingthananyother.Whichtwo?That,afterwhichaTathagataattains the highest and complete enlightenment and that, afterpartakingofwhich,heenterstheliberationofNirvana.’Withsuchwords, Ananda, should you dissipate the heavy thoughts ofChunda,thesmith.” [19]

The more deeply we penetrate into the Teaching of the Blessed

One, the more vividly appear his boundless compassion and love,whichpermeateeachofhisthoughtsandactions.

“Like a mother who protects her only child with her own life,cultivatesuchboundlesslovetowardallbeings!”

His all-embracing sympathy with all existing things extendseven to the vegetable kingdom. He avoids destroying seeds andplantlife.IntheAnguttaraNikayatheBlessedOnesays,“Whoeverofmydisciplescultivatesmind-deliveringlovebutforamoment,thatdisciplemeditatesnotinvainandfollowstheDoctrineandthedisciplineoftheTeacher;howmuchmoredothosewhocultivatethethoughtoflove!”

IntheItivuttaka it is said, “All methods for the earning of meritinthislifearenotworthone-sixteenthpartoflove,thedeliveranceof mind. Love, the deliverance of mind, takes them into itself,shiningandglowingandbeaming.

“Andastheshiningofallthestarsdoesnotequalone-sixteenthof the brightness of the moon, but as moonlight absorbs it into

itself, shining and glowing and beaming, so all methods for theearning of merit in this life are not worth one-sixteenth part oflove,thedeliveranceofthemind.

“Love, the deliverance of the mind, takes them into itself,shining,glowingandbeaming.

“Andasinthelastmonthoftherainyseasoninautumnthesuninaclearandcloudlesssky,mountingthefirmament,clearsawayall darkness in the expanse of air, shining and glowing andbeaming; and as, following the night, early in the morning themorning star shines and glows and beams, even so all means fortheearningofmeritinthislifearenotworthone-sixteenthpartoflove,thedeliveranceofmind.Love,thedeliveranceofmind,takesthemintoitself,shiningandglowingandbeaming.”

Buddha’slovewasofsoimmeasurableastreamthatitcouldnotbe exhausted by any hate or hostility. On the contrary, such ahostile attack only brought it to fuller unfoldment. Therefore, hedecreed that his disciples act thus, “However men may speakconcerning you, whether appropriately or inappropriately,whether courteously or rudely, whether wisely or foolishly,whether kindly or maliciously, thus, my disciples, must you trainyourselves. Our minds should remain unsullied; neither shouldevil word escape our lips. Kind and compassionate will we everremain, loving of heart, not harboring secret hate. And we willbathe them with the unfailing stream of loving thought. Andproceeding further, we will embrace and flood the whole wideworld with constant thoughts of loving kindness, wide, ample,expanding, immeasurable as the world, free from enmity, freefromillwill.Thus,disciples,mustyoutrainyourselves!” [4]

Here we see that the love that his disciples had to cultivate wasthe boundless stream of kindness radiating to all four quarters ofspace,aboveandbelow,inallplacesthewideworldover.

AccordingtotheTeachingthesewavesofkindness,compassion,orjoysentintospacereachamindafflictedwithsorrowandgrief,which suddenly feels within itself a welling-up of peace andserenity.

Thought is energy and as such acts in full conformity with itsintensityandtheimpetusgiventoit.

Love, as taught by the Blessed One, being the deliverance of

mind,wasattherootofeverythingreallygreat.“Thegreatestofallisthelovingheart.”OnemorelegendfromBuddha’slife.“TheBlessedOnesatabove

thewatersofadeeplake.Initsdepthsonecoulddiscernanentireworld of fish and seaweeds. The Blessed One noticed how thissmall world resembled the courts of royalty, ‘If man should sinkthere, he would destroy these ephemeral dwellings with his feet,buthe himselfwouldchoke. Out ofsuch depths thespirit ofmandoesnotarise.

“ ‘But,’smiledtheTeacher,‘foreverythingthereisaremedy.Onecan shatter the rock and drain the lake. The snails will then haveeithertodryuportofindanotherplaceofexistence.Butmanwillnotperish.’ ”

In Buddhist writings six teachers, philosophers, are often

mentioned as Buddha’s constant antagonists. Those were thephilosophers who disputed the theoretical bases of Buddha’sTeaching.TwohypothesesintheTeachingofGotamaBuddhawereespecially subject to attack: his Teaching about causes and hisdenialofanindependentandunchangeablesoulinmanandintheUniverse—the very hypotheses which are so close to ourcontemporarytrendofthought.

Affirmingtherealitywhichsurroundsusandisvisibletoall,theTeacherpointedouttheexistenceofthemostsubtlereality,whichis attainable only through higher knowledge. The knowledge ofthisrealityandthepossessionofthishigherknowledgeareusuallyimperceptibletoourcoarsesenseorgans.

“If that which is realized by our feelings existed as the onlyreality, then the fool, by right of birth, would possess thefundamentalTruth;what,then,wouldbetheuseofallquestsfortherealizationoftheessenceofthings?”

In our brains are centers, the opening of which gives thepossibilityofpossessingimmutableknowledge.Inthisaffirmationwe again see how the Teacher proceeded in a purely scientificdirection, coinciding in this statement with the affirmations ofcontemporary scientists concerning the many centers in ourorganism, the functions of which are yet unknown but which,according to the importance of the places they occupy, one maysupposetobeofunusualsignificance.

The idea of God has its own interpretation for Buddhists, inaccordancewiththelawofKarmaandwiththeunderstandingofthenecessityofpersonaleffortsforone’sownliberation.“Whoisitthat shapes our lives? Is it Īśvara, a personal creator? If Īśvara bethemaker,alllivingthingsshouldhavesilentlytosubmittotheirmaker’s power. They would be like vessels formed by the potter’shand;andifitwereso,howwoulditbepossibletopracticevirtue?IftheworldhadbeenmadebyĪśvarathereshouldbenosuchthingassorrow,orcalamity,orsin;forbothpureandimpuredeedsmustissuefromhim.Ifnot,therewouldbeanothercausebesideshim,andhewouldnotbeself-existent.Thus,thouseest,thethoughtofĪśvaraisoverthrown.

“Again,itissaidthattheAbsolutehascreatedus.Butthatwhichis absolute cannot be a cause. All things around us come from acauseastheplantcomesfromtheseed;buthowcantheAbsolutebethecauseofallthingsalike?Ifitpervadesthem,then,certainly,itdoesnotmakethem.

“Again, it is said that Self is the maker. But if Self is the maker,whydidhenotmakethingspleasing?Thecauseofsorrowandjoyarerealandobjective.HowcantheyhavebeenmadebySelf?

“Again,ifweadopttheargumentthatthereisnomaker,ourfateissuchasitis,andthereisnocausation,whatusewouldtherebeinshapingourlivesandadjustingmeanstoanend?

“Therefore, we argue that all things that exist are not withoutcause.However,neitherĪśvara,northeAbsolute,northeSelf,norcauselesschance,isthemaker,butourdeedsproduceresultsbothgoodandevil.” [13]

“The whole world is under the law of causation and causes thatare mental and not mental—the gold of which the cup is made isgold throughout. Let us not lose ourselves in vain speculationsabout profitless subtleties; let us surrender Self and selfishness,and since all things are fixed by causation, let us practice good sothatgoodmayresultfromouractions.” [2]

If the eternally changing existence of man excludes thehypothesisofaconstant,changelessentity,thentheUniverse,thiscomplex of complexes, may be explained entirely without thenecessity or even the possibility of introducing into it anunchangingandeternalBeing.

TwodoctrineswereespeciallycondemnedbyBuddha:

1.Theaffirmationoftheeternalunchangingsoul.

2.Thedestructionofthesoulafterdeath.Boththesedoctrinesweredenied by the law of causal conception, which establishes that alldharmasareatthesametimecausesandconsequences.

Buddhadeniedtheexistenceofachangelesssoulinmanandin

everything, for he saw in man and the whole Universe onlyinconstancyandthetransitional.

Thethesisofthecontinuityofthestreamofphenomenaandthe

formulaofthecausalityofconceptionexcludetheexistenceoftheeternalunchangingsoul,individualaswellasuniversal.

The connotation of the word soul is absolutely inadmissible forthe Buddhist; because the thought that man can be a beingseparatedfromallotherbeingsandfromtheexistenceofthewholeUniverse,canneitherbeprovedbylogicnorsupportedbyscience.“In this world no one is independent. All that exists depends oncauses and conditions.” “Each thing depends upon another thingandthethingitdependsuponis,inturn,notindependent.” [6]

Buddha constantly taught that there is no independent “I” andthatthereisnoworldseparatedfromit.Therearenoindependentthings, there is no separate life—all are only indissolublecorrelatives. If there is no separate “I,” we cannot say that this orthatismine,andthustheoriginoftheunderstandingofpropertyisdestroyed.

If the understanding of a permanent and independent humansoul is to be rejected, what, then, in man gives him the sense of apermanent personality? The answer will be—trishna, or thecravingforexistence.Abeingwhohasgeneratedcausesforwhichhe is responsible and possesses this craving, will, according to hiskarma,bebornanew.

Of one and the same complex of elements (dharmas) are borninfinite combinations of skandhas —elements, which aremanifestedatthegiventimeasonepersonality,andafteradefiniteperiod of time appear as another, third, fourth, etc., ad infinitum.Thereoccurs,notatransmigration,butanendlesstransformationof a complex of dharmas, or elements—that is, a continuousregrouping of the elements—substrata which form the humanpersonality.

Uponthequalityofthenewcombinationofskandhas—elementsofthenewpersonality—thelastdesirebeforedeathofthepreviouspersonalityhasagreatinfluence:itgivesdirectiontotheliberatedstream.

In Buddhism a man is regarded as an individuality, built bynumerous existences, but only partially manifested in each newappearanceontheearthlyplane.

The individual existence, consisting of an entire chain of lives,which began, continue, and finish in order to begin again, ad

infinitum, is compared to a wheel or a year of twelve months,invariablyrepeated.ThechainoftheTwelveNidanasbecomesnolongerachain,buttheWheelofLife,withtwelvespokes.Oncesetinmotion,theWheelofLife,theWheeloftheLaw,willneverstop:“The Wheel of the Benevolent Law in its unchangeable rotationcrushes untiringly the worthless chaff, separating it from thegoldengrain.ThehandofKarmadirectstheWheel,itsrevolutionsmarkingthebeatofitsheart.”

Allthesechangesofformsorofexistenceleadtowardonegoal—the attainment of Nirvana; it means the full development of allpossibilities contained in the human organism. But Buddhismteaches the cognizance and creation of good, independent of thisaim, since the contrary would be absolute egoism, and suchspeculationisforedoomedtodisappointment.Asitissaid,Nirvanais the epitome of disinterestedness, complete renunciation of allthatispersonalforthesakeoftruth.Anignorantmandreamsandstrives to Nirvana, without any realization of its true essence. Tocreategoodwiththeviewofgainingresultsortoleadadisciplinedlifefortheattainmentofliberationisnotthenoblepathordainedby Gotama. Without thought of reward or achievement life mustbecrossed,andsuchalifeisthegreatest.

ThestateofNirvanamaybeattainedbymaninhisearthlylife.Buddhism recognizes no difference between the physical and

psychicworlds.Realityattributedtotheactionofthoughtisofthesame order as reality of objects cognized by our senses. Said theBlessedOne:“VerilyIsayuntoyou,yourmindismental,butthatwhich you perceive with your senses is also mental. There isnothing within or without the world that either is not mind orcannotbecomemind.Thereisspiritualityinallexistence,andthevery clay upon which we tread can be changed into children oftruth.”

Buddhism regards all existing phenomena as one reality.Physically and psychically these phenomena are dharmas, objectsofourcognizance.Withinusandwithout,wecomeintouchonlywith dharmas, for in us and outside us exist only dharmas. Theword dharma is one of the most significant and most difficult totranslate in the Buddhist terminology. Dharma is a manifold

factor, a factor of consciousness with an inherent property ofdefinite expression. Our organs give us sensations which aretransformedintodharmasthroughtheactionofcognizance.Ideas,images,andallintellectualprocessesare,firstofall,dharmas.

Ascolor,form,andsoundaretotheeyeandear,sodharmasaretotheconsciousness.Theyexistforusbytheireffects.“Thecolorblueexistsonlytotheextentthatwereceivethesensationofblue.”

It is customary to call the Teaching of Buddha itself, Dharma,sincedharmaalsosignifieslaw.

Subjectiveandobjectivephenomenaarecontinuouslychanging.Theyarereal;buttheirrealityismomentary,becauseallthatexistsis but part of an eternally unfolding development—dharmasappearonemoment,inordertochangeinthenext.ThisdoctrineoftheeternalfluxofallthingswassofundamentalacharacteristicoftheTeachingthatitwasevennamed“TheTheoryofInstantaneousDestruction.”

Dharmas(transcendentalbearersofdefinitequalities)aredrawnintothestreamofeternalchangeofvibrations.Theircombinationsdefine the specifications of objects and individuals. Only thatwhich is beyond combinations is unchangeable. The ancientteaching knew only one concept which was integral,unconditioned,andeternal—Nirvana.

Every dharma is a cause, for every dharma is energy. If thisenergy is inherent in each conscious being, it manifests itself in atwofold way: outwardly, as the immediate cause of phenomena;inwardly, by transmuting the one who has engendered it and bycontaining in itself the consequences revealed in the near ordistantfuture.

Wefindthatthephysicalandpsychicorganismofamanisbutthe combination of five groups of aggregates, or skandhas, whichare divided into physical qualities: form—rupa; feelings—vedana;perceptions—samjna; forces—samskara; consciousness—vijnana.All five are equally unstable and dual. Samskara are theinclinations and creative powers, explaining the present dharmasbythepreviousonesandindicatingwhichofthepresentdharmaspreparethoseofthefuture.

“Samskaraareaccumulationsleftbyformersensationsandlendtheir fragrance to future sensations.” From this definition of

samskara-skandhaitisclearthatthisgroupofelementsappearsasthe one absorbing all the peculiarities of the other skandhas.Samskara skandhas (causal body)—the preservation of this groupof skandhas is conditioned by the necessity of manifesting; whenthis necessity disappears, they are transformed into pure light.Vijnana-skandha and partly samjna lend their coloring, orcharacter, to the other combinations, and therefore appear as thecause defining the next existence, in the sense of strivings andinclinations.

“Rupa is like a plate; vedana is like food contained in the plate;samjnaislikeasauce;samskaraislikethecook,andvijnanaisliketheeater.”SaidtheBlessedOne:“Itisbyaprocessofevolutionthatsankharascometobe.Thereisnosankharawhichhassprungintobeingwithoutagradualbecoming.Thysankharasaretheproductof thy deeds in former existences. The combination of thysankharasisthyself.Wheresoevertheyareimpressedthitherthyselfmigrates.Inthysankharasthouwiltcontinuetoliveandthouwilt reap in future existences the harvest sown now and in thepast.” [13]

Noelementcarriesfromoneexistenceintoanother,butnotoneattains a new existence without having had its cause in thepreviousexistence.Whentheoldconsciousnessceasestoexist,itisdeath.Whenconsciousnessreturnstoexistence,anewbirthtakesplace.Oneshouldunderstandthatthepresentconsciousnessisnotbornoftheoldconsciousness,butthatitspresentstateistheresultofcausesaccumulatedinthepreviousexistence.

From one life to another there is no transmission, but there is aseemingreflection,solidarity.

“The man who sows is not he who reaps; yet he is not alsoanotherman.”

Thecontentofconsciousnessconsistsofdharmas.Dharmasarethoughts. These thoughts are as real as the four elements or theorgans of sense, because from the moment a thing is thought, italready exists. Man is a complex of combinations and at eachmoment his nature is defined by the amount and quality of theparticlesofwhichheiscomposed.Eachchangeinhiscombinationmakes a new being of him. But this change does not excludecontinuity because the motion of skandhas does not occur

accidentally or beyond the law. Drawn into the eternal ebb andflow, the aggregates change in one direction or in another, as theconditions of each new combination are defined by a cause; andthis cause is the quality of the preceding cause. Each successivecombinationharveststhefruitofformercombinationsandplantstheseedwhichwillbearfruitinthefuturecombinations.

Manisacomplexofcombinationsandatthesametimeheisthelink.Heisthecomplexbecauseateachmomenthecontainsagreatnumber of skandhas; he is the link because between the twosuccessiveconditionsthereisatthesametimethedifferenceandsolidarity. “If there were no difference, milk would not turn intocurdled milk. And if there were no solidarity, there would be noneedinmilktohavecurdledmilk.”

Let us explain by one more example: Physiologically the humanorganismcompletelychangeseverysevenyears,andyetwhentheman A is forty years of age he is absolutely identical with theeighteen-year-old youth A; nevertheless, on account of theconstantdestructionandrebuildingofhisbodyandchangesinhismindandcharacter,heisadifferentbeing.Amaninhisoldageisthe precise consequence of the thoughts and deeds of eachprecedingstageofhislife.Likewise,thenewpersonality,beingtheprevious individuality, but in a changed form, in a newcombination of the skandhas—elements, justly reaps theconsequencesofthethoughtsanddeedsofhisformerexistences.

The consciousness and its eternally changing contents are one.Thereisnopermanent“I,”whichwouldremainunchangeable.Itisnecessarythattheembryoshoulddieinorderthatachildmaybeborn;thedeathofthechildisneededinorderthattheboymaybeborn,andthedeathoftheboyproducestheyouth. [5]

It is customary to compare human existence with a necklace—each bead is one of the physical manifestations. But perhaps it isclearer to conceive of this evolution as a complex mixture intowhich, with each new embodiment on the earthly plane, a newingredient is being added which naturally changes the wholemixture.

Each new manifestation is limited by physical elements, rupa-skandha.

Theenergystrivingtocreateanewbeinganddirectedbykarmaiscalled“trishna”—thestimulus,thecravingforexistence.

And this stimulus, when imbued with the essence of theTeaching,risesbeforeusnotonlyasthegreatestcosmicprinciplebut also as the greatest and most beautiful cosmic mystery. AndGotama Buddha, who unceasingly pointed out the eternallyrushingstreamofourlives,hasthusassertedthecosmicalityand,consequently, the infinity of this stimulus, which many whomisquote the Teaching try to suppress; but the fiery spirit of theTeacher could only destroy small concepts, broadening them intoinfinity. And Nirvana is the Gate that introduces us into therhythm of the highest, fiery, creative, and eternally expandingstreamofinfiniteExistence.

TheTeachingofBuddhaisanuntiringfierycalltotherealizationof the beauty and unity of the great creativeness of infiniteExistence.

WhatisKarma?Theactionoftheconsequencesofthatwhichis

done by man—in deed, word, and thought. The inner effect, aspointed out previously, manifests itself only in conscious beings.Hence,thecolossalresponsibilityofmanbeforeallthatexistsand,firstofall,beforehimself.“ThatwhichIcallkarmaisonlythought;for, having thought, man acts through his body, word, andmind.” [20]Karmaiscreatedbythoughts.“Thereisnomeritfortheone who gives gold thinking he gives a stone.” The tendency ofthought gives man his moral value, changed by deeds in onedirectionoranother.

“Agoodactionismanifestedandcompleted.Andeventhoughitmay no longer exist, nevertheless its consequence exists. At themomentofactionadefinitecombinationofdharmasarisesinthe‘stream’ of this man.” In this is contained the indestructibility ofthe deed. Thus, to the purely mechanical understanding of causeand effect, Buddhism adds also responsibility. One of suchcombinations,aggregates,whichwecallanindividualisdefiledorupliftedbytheactionsoftheprecedingcombinationwithwhichitissolidary.“IteachnothingbutKarma.” [21]

ThepersistencewhichBuddhaexertedinordertoinstillintohisdisciplestheunderstandingofmoralresponsibilityresultingfrom

the law of Karma, proves that herein was contained the fact ofprimary Truth, self-contained and absolute, Truth which mustguidealltheactionsofman.“Todoubtthemoralpowerofadeedmeanstocloseoureyestoevidence.”

“Allbeingshavetheirkarma.Theyaretheheirsofdeedsandthesons of deeds. They are completely dependent upon their deeds.Deedsestablishdifferencesoflowandsuperiorconditionsbetweenbeings.

“Verily,outofthatwhichwasisbeingcreatedthatwhichis.Manisbornaccordingtowhathehascreated.Allbeingshavekarmaastheirheritage.” [4]

“Not only is the correspondence between fruit and seed exact,butaction,likeeverygoodseed,expandsahundredfold.”

Each man, by the action of unerring karma, receives in exactmeasureallthatisdue,allthathedeserves,neithermorenorless.Notonebenevolentorevilaction,triflingasitmaybe,assecretlyas it may be done, escapes the precisely balanced scale of karma.Karma is causality, acting on the moral as well as on the physicaland other planes. Buddhists say there are no miracles in humandeeds,what man hassown he willreap. “There existsno placeonearth or in heaven or under the water, nor is there a place in thedepths of the mountains, where evil action does not bringsufferingtohimwhobegotit.

“Ifamanoffendaharmlessandinnocentperson,theevilblowsbackuponthatfool,likelightdustthrownupagainstthewind.

“An evil that is committed, like newly drawn milk, does notcurdle at once. It follows the fool closely like a smoldering sparkthatatlastbreaksintoburningflame.” [8]

Afoolishman,learningthattheBuddhaobservedtheprincipleof

great love which commends the return of good for evil, came andabusedhim.Buddhawassilent,pityinghisfolly.

Afterthemanhadfinishedhisabuse,Buddhaaskedhim,“Son,ifamandeclinesagiftmadetohim,towhomwoulditbelong?”Andheanswered,“Inthatcaseitwouldbelongtothemanwhoofferedit.”

“My son,” said Buddha, “You have railed at me, but I refuse toacceptyourabuseandrequestyoutokeepityourself.Willitnotbe

asourceofmiserytoyou?Astheechobelongstothesoundandtheshadow to the substance, so will misery overtake the evildoerwithoutfail.

“Awickedmanwhoreproachesavirtuousoneislikeamanwholooks up and spits at heaven; the spittle does not soil the heaven,butcomesbackanddefileshisownperson.

“The slanderer is like one who casts dust at another when thewind is contrary; the dust only returns on him who cast it. Thevirtuousmancannotbehurt,andthemiserythattheotherdesirestoinflictcomesbackuponhimself.” [16]

Buddha’stolerance—honorthyownfaith,butneverslanderthatofothers.

In general, people return to Earth until their consciousness

outgrows the earthly level. Buddha pointed out that there existedwhole systems of worlds of different grades—the highest andlowest—andthattheinhabitantsofeachworldcorrespondtoeachotherintheirdevelopment.Theworldinwhichtheappointedmanmustbemanifestedaswellasthequalityofthereincarnationitselfaredeterminedbythepredominanceinhimofpositiveornegativequalities, in other words, in scientific language—the birth will becontrolled by his true attractions, or by his karma, according toBuddhists.

Like a misdeed, remorse is an action. And this action hasconsequences,whichcanbalancetheconsequenceofthemisdeed.Buddha said, “If a man who committed evil realizes his fault, isremorseful and creates good, the power of his chastisement willgradually be exhausted, like a fever which gradually loses itsdestructive effect in proportion to the perspiration of thepatient.” [16]

Karmaisthought;therefore,thequalityofthinkingmaychangeorevencompletelyliberatemanfromtheeffectsofkarma.Ifdeedsaccumulated one upon another, man would be encircled by hiskarmaasinaconjuredcircle.Butbyteachingthatthereisastateofconsciousnesswhichcandestroythereactionofcommitteddeeds,Buddha pointed out the possibility of cessation of humansuffering. Will and energy are rulers of karma. From all that wassaidit isclearthatthelawofKarmaandthelawofreincarnationareinseparable,foroneisthelogicalconsequenceoftheother.

AmongsomeWesternscholarsithasbeenanacceptedopinionto

regard Buddhism as the Teaching of despair and inaction, whichdoesnotatallcorrespondtoitsfundamentalcharacter.

Buddha,asthetrueLeaderofgeneralgood,fearlesslyrevealedtohumanity the real dangers of existence and at the same timeshowedthewaytoavoidthem—thiswayisknowledge.Whomaycallthemanwhohaltsyouattheedgeoftheprecipiceapessimist?

“Beings live in a house surrounded by flames; nevertheless theyfeelnofearnorawe.Theydonotknow;theyarefrivolous;theyarenot frightened; they do not try to save themselves; they seek

enjoyment and roam about in different directions in this tripleworld,similartoahouseensnaredbyflames.” [22]

“The fools think that suffering lies only in sensations of pain.Verily their feelings are distorted. They are like a sick man whoimaginesthatsugarisbitter.Afluffofwoolsettlingonthehandisimperceptible,butenteringtheeye,itcausesseverepain.Thepalmis like an ignorant man, the eye is like a sage. Only the sage isdeeplyaffectedbythespectacleofthesufferingoftheworld.” [23]

IfaftersuchstatementsanyonecouldcallBuddhaapessimist,hewouldbelikethoseignorantpeoplewhokillthedoctorsthatcometo make healing inoculations. And the same people, inclined toascribetotheTeachingthekeynoteofdespair,citetheaffirmationofBuddha,“Iamthedestroyerofoldageanddeath.Iamthebestphysician.Ipossessthehighestmeans.

“Drink,laboringones,drinktheremedyofTruthand,partakingof it, live. Having absorbed it you will conquer old age anddeath.” [24]

We quote an authoritative opinion of the chief abbot of themonastery Kamakura Soyen-Shaku, “Buddhism is the mostrationalandintellectualteachingintheworld.” [25]

TheTeachingofBuddha,impregnatedinitsverystructurewiththe affirmation of the self-contained human entity in its cosmicscopeofstrivingtowardfar-offworlds,isfulloftruegreatnessandbeauty.

Naturally the question may arise—how did the Teacher recallbeautyinitsearthlymanifestations?ItispointedoutthatevenatthehourofdeaththethoughtsoftheTeacherweredirectedtowardthe beautiful, remembering the beauty of the best places hetraversed. “Beautiful is Rajagriha, the Vulture’s Peak, the Robber’sCliff; beautiful are the groves and mountains.” “Vaishali, what aplaceofbeauty!”

All ancient philosophical teachings affirmed the law of Karma

and the law of final liberation, but the value of the Teaching ofBuddhaliesinthefactthatwithoutinfringinguponthebasisofallthese scientific and philosophic theses, it turned to Earth, toearthlylabor,pointingoutthatonlybythewayofreal,strenuouslaborandself-developmentcanoneachievetrueprogress;thusheaffirmed the evolution of humanity as an organic part of theCosmos.

The word stream, so often used by Buddha in its application tothe Cosmos and human existence, is nothing other than theconceptexpressedbyourwordevolution.

“Thecontactofcosmictransformationwithpsychicenergygivesbirthtotheconditionofasuccessfulstream.”ThusspokeBuddha.

Even as previous Teachings may be characterized as anestrangementfromEarth,soBuddhaappearsasatrueploughmanofourEarth,layingthefoundationofconsciousandreallabor.Inhis case the formula, “by human hands and feet,” can be applied.Andinthisiscontainedtheunrepeatableuniquenessofthevalueof the Teaching and the labor of Gotama Buddha. There does notexist a more beautiful appeal to the world than this constantlyrepeated affirmation: “Brothers, I do not come to offer you anydogmas, and I do not ask you to believe in that which so manyothersbelieve.Ionlyexhortyoutoindependentenlightenment,touseyourownmind,developingitinsteadoflettingitbecomedull.Iadjureyounottoresemblebeastsofpreyorstupidsheep.Iimploreyou to be men with right views, men who toil untiringly for theacquisitionofrealknowledge,whichwillprevailoversuffering.”

We are not interested in the latest additions which surroundBuddhism, only the foundations ordained by the Teacher himselfareneededforthefuture.AndinthesefoundationsonecanseetheTeaching, not only laid out with an iron will but impressed withthestepsofhislengthywanderings.

One is astonished at the arguments with which superficialinvestigators have supported their opinion of the Teaching ofBuddha as one of despair. This is a falsehood! It is the song of thegreatnessoflabor,thesongofthevictoryofhumanity,thesongofausterejoy.

The Teaching of Buddha may be called the experiment of aworkingcommunity.

NotonlytheBuddhistunderstanding,butalljustmindsaswell,mustvaluethestoneofBuddha’slabor.

From the very beginning a difference was made between the

spiritandtheletter.TheTeachersaid,“Knowledgeisnottheletter,butthespirit.”

The word of Buddha is different from the letter. The Teachercommunicates the Truth to the disciple, but only after deep andpersonalrealizationcanthepupilpossessit.

According to the words of Buddhist scholars the premise uponwhichtheTeachingisbasedanswersalldemandsofreason,buttoconfoundreasonwiththelimitedmindofignorantmanwouldbeexceedinglyabsurd.

TothisdaytherearepreservedasufficientnumberofBuddhistlegends,moreorlessauthentic,topermitusatleastapproximatelyto know the character of the Teacher’s discourses. From thesetraditions we know that the Teacher never hesitated to answerquestions put to him. In the ancient compilations of Buddha’swords an unusual conciseness and definiteness of expressions isevident above all. The Sutras are nothing but the aphorisms orconcisesayingsofBuddha,containingthephilosophicalandmoralstatutes of the Teaching. The aphorisms of Buddha retained theirconcisenessinBuddhisttraditions,butalreadywiththeadditionofcomments.

The vividness of the Teaching of Buddha was contained also inthepowerofhissimpleexpressions.Neverdidheapplyanyverses.Verily, like a lion, he roared about the purity of life. Never did hepreach, but only explained on occasion, using parables toemphasizethegivenadvice.

Buddha ordained that his disciples should always expound theTeaching in the colloquial language and severely censured eachattempttocodifytheTeachinginanartificialliterarylanguage.InBuddhist traditions indications exist about the travels of theTeacher beyond the contemporaneous boundaries of India, intoTibet,KhotanandAltai.

The traditions of Buddhism—to have in its communities large

schools with courses in philosophy, medicine, mathematics,astronomy, and other subjects —are the direct result of thecovenants of the Teacher, who pointed out that “ignorance is astain,whichstainsmanbeyondallotherthings.”

The Buddhist schools, as well as the exact contents of theirliterarytreasures,arelittleknowntooutsiders,buteachnewpointof information serves to broaden Western understanding aboutthe inner structure of Buddhism. Without language, withoutknowledge, without faith, no one can penetrate into thosestrongholdstowhichthecommunity,theSangha,issonear.

Let us not forget that the word lama means teacher, and notmonk as is often understood through ignorance. Since ancienttimes learned lamas copied and printed books from engravedplatesandwerehighlyskilledartists,withcompleteanonymityinauthorship. Reverence for books and libraries is traditional inTibet. Among learned lamas a custom exists to lock him who isdefeatedinanintellectualdebateintoalibrary.

The restoration of the ancient Vinaya, the Rules of moral andcommunalpreceptsofBuddhism,hasalways,andespeciallynow,stoodastheimmediatetaskofBuddhistcommunalgatherings.

A Russian scholar, in a lecture delivered by him in Petrograd atan exhibition of Buddhist objects, said, “We must say that thefoundations of the Buddhist philosophical teaching, correctlyunderstoodandtranslatedintoourphilosophicallanguage,revealan extraordinary affinity with precisely the latest, the newestachievements in the domain of our scientific conception of theworld.‘UniversewithoutGod,’‘psychologywithoutanunchangingsoul,’ ‘the eternity of the elements of matter and spirit’ which isonlyaspecialmanifestationofthelawofcausality;heredity,avitalprocess instead of the existence of things; and in the domain ofpractical life the denial of the rights of personal possession, thedenial of national limitation, the universal brotherhood of allpeoples,withouttherightsofprivateproperty;finally,thegeneral,and for us all, indispensable inevitable faith that we move andmust move toward perfection, regardless of soul and free will—thesearethefundamentaltraitsoftheBuddhist,aswellasofour

contemporary new conception of the world.” Precisely theTeaching of Buddha refutes the existing fallacy that evolution isstable and its laws act irrespectively. We know that everythinglives and moves individually, thus there must be a specialcoordinationanddisciplineinorderthatbalance,orharmony,notbe impaired. To say that man must evolute in spite of himself aspartofthegeneralplanofevolutionwouldmeantomakemannobetterthanaplayballofdestiny.

One must point out with regret that the last words of thisdistinguished lecturer, “we are moving and must move towardperfection, regardless of free will,” are in evident contradiction tothe fundamental principle of the Teaching, which, for thepossibilityofperfectionandachievementofthehighestconsciousexistence,demandsabsolutelypersonaleffortsandassiduousself-exertion.

Let us consider Buddhism and contemporary science. It is

evident that Buddhists are most open to all evolutionaryachievements. Of course, this quality was instilled by their basicTeaching. Becoming familiar with the foundations we see howgreatly the statements of the Teacher are confirmed by theachievements of our contemporary science. The same resultswhich Einstein reached by way of experiment were reached byancientBuddhistsinapurelycontemplativeway.

Once more, we repeat that Buddhism cannot be regarded as areligious revelation, because Gotama Buddha affirmed hisTeaching as the apprehension of eternal truths, which werelikewisepropoundedbyhispredecessors.

Gotama taught that all that exists issued from Akasha, orprimary substance, in conformation with the law of motioninherentinitanddissolvesafteracertainperiodofexistence.

“Nothing comes from nothing.” Buddhists do not believe inmiracles;consequentlytheydenytheCreationandcannotconceiveof the creation of something from nothing. “Nothing organic iseternal. Everything is in a state of continuous flux, undergoingchange, and sustaining the continuity according to the law ofevolution.”

“The world exists by cause. All things exist by cause. All beingsareboundbycause.”

Regardingtheconstantchangeoftheworld,visibletoourcoarseorgans, as well as it dissolution, Buddhism points out that thosedissolutions are temporary and periodical; for, according to theprinciple of evolution guided by the law of individual andcollective Karma, the disappearing world will in turn manifest anew world with all its contents, just as our Universe wasmanifestedfromtheprimarysubstance—matter.

Denyingmiracles,theTeacherpointedouttheconcealedpowersof human nature which, when developed, can produce the so-calledmiracles.

The method of developing these powers is interpreted inBuddhistbooksandisknownunderthenameofthescience“Iddhi-Vidhanana,”whichpointsouttwoformsofmanifestationofthesepowersandtwowaystoattainthem.One,thelower,isreachedby

way of various ascetic and other physical practices; the otherhigher one, embracing all possible manifestations, is attained bythepowerofinnerdevelopment.

The first method of developing these powers is not lasting andmay be lost, whereas inner development can never be lost. Itsmastery is attained by following the noble way indicated byBuddha.

All these hidden powers gradually unfold in man, usually ofthemselves, in proportion to man’s mastery of the lowerexpressionsofhisnatureinawholeseriesofpreviouslives.

For the development of powers of the higher grade, fourconditionsareindispensable:1.Will;

2.Itsexertion;

3.Mentaldevelopment;

4.Thediscriminationbetweentruthanderror.

A man possessing these powers or knowledge, increasing

nature’spowers,canperformthemostunusualmiracles; inotherwords, he can execute any scientific experiment. Buddha did notencouragemanifestationsofpowers,whichleadonlytoconfusionin minds ignorant of the principles that are represented by thosemanifestations and which create a heavy atmosphere of forciblydisturbedelements.

The Mahapari-Nirvana Sutra tells about an unusual lightemanating from the body of Buddha which was observed by hisnearest disciple Ananda. The Teacher pointed out that on twooccasions such physical radiation could become visible to thephysicaleye:1. At the time of the great enlightenment of a man who becomesBuddha;

2.Onthenightwhensuchaman—Buddha—finallydeparted.

Studying the Buddhist sources one finds many valuable

indicationsaboutthepurelyphysicalmanifestationofradiation.Itis indicated as of a luminous and most subtle quality which

surrounds man and is the nearest inner agent of humanperception.“Thismatterisexceedinglyfine, liketheradianceofadiamond, imponderable, incombustible, disappearing after deathwithoutanytraces.Neverthelessitisatomic.”

NowadaysthisradiationisknowntoEuropeansunderthenameofaura.Thisradiationisquitenormalandithasbeenscientificallyproved that not only all human and animal organisms possess it,buteventrees,plants,andstones.

The first of the scholars and scientists to point out thischaracteristicwasBaronReichenbach.Heprovedthisradiationtobe quite natural and his experiments were expounded in detail inhisResearchesof1844–45.

SimilarlyinParis,Dr. Baraductookphotographsofthisradiation,and now in London, America, and Berlin whole institutions aredevoted to the study of human emanations—auras. It has beenproved that this radiation may be of different shades, that itexpands in volume, and grows in intensity of light, according tothe spiritual and intellectual development of the man. Suchmanifestations as sudden flashes of colored rays emanating fromtheshouldershavealsobeennoted.Butsciencehasnotfoundanyexplanationfortheoriginofsuchflashes.Mentionhasbeenmadeof the decrease in power of the light of these emanations duringailingconditionsoftheorganism.

In her book, The Magnetic Aura of the Cosmic Man, Mar-Galittu(Mrs.J. P. Reimann)writes:

“Professor Yourevitch of Moscow points out the Y-rays of thehumanaura,asanewlydiscovered,highlypowerfulandinvisibleradiation.

“After a decade of detailed experiment, Professor Yourevitchbrought the results of his investigations before the InternationalPsychologicalCongress,whichtookplacelastyearatCopenhagen.

“The difference between the human emanations and those ofradium and the Roentgen rays is that human emanations are farsubtlerandcanpenetratedensewalls,whereastheRoentgenraysand radium depend upon a definite density of the bodies whichthey penetrate. The emanations, for instance, transform gaseousstreams,otherwisenon-conductors,intoremarkableconductorsofmagnetic force. Their far-reaching conductivity is the chief basic

quality of the Y-rays. Without respect for distance and intensity,these gaseous streams become conductive under the influence ofhuman emanations. Their far-reaching and penetrative power isconditioned by the cosmic contact of human emanations andthereforetheyareconcededtohaveastrongereffectthanallotherrays.

“Beyond their capacity for far-reaching conductivity and powerof penetration, the Y-rays have the power, when piercing thickobstructions, to exercise mechanical functions as well. Whenpiercing thick metal plates, the Y-rays cause molecular sedimentsas soon as the rays pass through in a consciously concentratedway. During certain experiments they induce refraction of light-waves.Theymayalsobephotographed.TheY-raysoftheauraareat the basis of levitation and telekinetic phenomena. The work ofProfessor Yourevitch, which is called ‘Y-rays as Conductors ofBiophysical Energy’ contains fifty photographs of hisexperiments.”

The contemporary theory of hypnotic suggestion may be foundin the following legend about Chullapanthaka in the PalicommentariesontheDhammapada:

“Chullapanthaka was a disciple who had mastered some of thepowers. One day Buddha sent for him, and when the messengerreached the Sangha, he saw three hundred disciples sitting in agroup, each of them an exact image of the other. To his question,‘Which is Chullapanthaka?’ every one of the three hundredanswered, ‘I am Chullapanthaka.’ The messenger returned to hisTeacher disconcerted, but Buddha ordered him to returnimmediately and if the same thing should occur, to take the firstonewhocalledhimselfChullapanthakabythehandandbringhimtoBuddha.”TheTeacherknewthatthediscipledesiredtodisplayhis newly acquired power by suggesting to the consciousness ofthemessengerhisillusiveimage.Thispoweriscalled“MahamayaIddhi” and in order to manifest it, Chullapanthaka had vividly torepresent in his mind his own image and then to suggest it up tothedesirednumbertotheconsciousnessofthemessenger.

In the same way, contemporary scientific data support thetheory of karma expounded in Buddhism. Contemporary scienceteaches that each generation of man is heir to the distinctive

characteristics of preceding generations, not only in mass but ineachindividualcase.

Psychology finds its raison d’etre in that exclusive and strongattentionwhichBuddhaapportionstothementalprocesses,tothepurificationandexpansionoftheconsciousnessofhisdisciplesbyaffirming thought as the dominant factor in the evolution of allthat exists. The psychological processes in Buddhism are closelyconnectedwithphysiology.

Buddhism does not trace any line of demarcation betweenpsychic processes and matter. The psychic processes are regardedasthemanifestationsofthesubtlestqualitiesofmatter.

In the Dialogues of the Buddha, Part II, we find an indicationabouttheexistenceinadditiontoaphysicalbodyofamentalbodywhichisitsexactcounterpartandwhichcanbeexternalizedatwillandbecomeactiveatgreatdistances.

“With his mind thus concentrated, completely purified, utterlyclear, devoid of depravity, free of taint, ready to act, firm andimperturbable, he applies and directs it to evoking the mentalbody.Hecallsupfromthisbodyanotherbody,havingform,madeofthought-stuff,havingalllimbsandparts,notlackinganyorgan.It is as if a man were to pull out a reed from its sheath. He wouldknow: ‘This is the reed, this the sheath. The reed is one thing, thesheathanother.Itisfromthesheaththatthereedhasbeendrawnforth.’ ”Justso,thebhikshucallsupfromthisbodyanotherbody,havingform,madeofthought-stuff,havingalllimbsandparts,notlackinganyorgan.

Asserting the indestructibility of energy, Buddha regarded allthatexistsasaggregatesofthefinestenergies.

For the physicist of today the moving power is matter, man’sperception of matter being the response of his senses to thevibrationsofenergy.

AndwhatisDharma,ifnotenergy?Dharmas,accordingtoBuddhism,existforusbytheireffects;all

ourperceptionsbeing,aboveall,dharmas.Therefore,translatingthisformulaintocontemporarylanguage,

we may say that all sense-perceptions are exclusively energyeffectsandenergyistheonlyrealexistingentity.

Similarly, his affirmations about thought acting at a distance

antedate our researches in the domain of thought-transmissionandwireless.Sincethoughtisenergythen,assuch,itissubjecttothe same law in its action as any other energy. We know that thehertzianwavesareemittedforathousandmilesintospacewithoutany wires, with the result that they can be caught by any equallyattuned receiver. Why, then, cannot man send out a thought-energy which will evoke identical vibrations in the mansusceptibletothem?

Thus,Buddhaisourpredecessorinmanydomainsofknowledge.Buddha also pointed out the difference that exists between the

evidentandthereality.Hiscomparisonoftheevidenttoamirageorillusion(Maya)isapplicabletoanycontemporarydiscussion.

This Great Wisdom, if studied not in the letter but in its spirit,wouldenrichanunprejudicedmindwithmanyapricelessgem.

The philosophy of Buddhism may be termed the analysis ofseparateelementsattractedintocombinationbytheformationofadefinite individual stream. The individual stream is accumulatedand fed by numberless manifestations of man on Earth, on otherplanes and other worlds. Absorbing all the characteristics of eachmanifestation,thisstreamswellsinpossibilities,transformingandremaining eternally self-containing. True individuality, trueimmortality,iscontainedintherealizationofthetrue“I”whichisconstructed by innumerable combinations of humanmanifestations.

“All concern about the personality is in vain; the self is like amirage, all tribulations that touch it will pass away. They willvanishlikeanightmarewhenthesleeperawakens.”

InBuddhismmanisnotafutilepygmyasheappearstoWesternmind,butthelordoftheworlds.BeingpartoftheCosmos,likeit,heislimitlessinhispossibilities.

The data about cosmic creation, about the existence ofinnumerable world systems in eternal motion, which aremanifested and dissolved; the affirmations of the inhabitance ofthe multitude of worlds and about the full coordination oforganisms which populate these worlds with the properties andstructure of their planet, coincide with those scientific problemswhichatpresentagitatethemindsofthetruescientists.

Thus, contemporary science, in accord with the affirmation of

fundamentalBuddhism,confirmstheveryrealisticessenceofthisTeachingoftherealityofthelife-creativeessenceofgreatMatter,impressedforthefirsttime.

Let us pay due homage to that Great Mind which, impelled by apowerful Spirit, fathomed the very foundations of Existence,solvedtheproblemsoflifeandpointedoutthegoalsofevolutionasconsciouscooperationwiththeCosmosandcommunionwiththefar-offworlds.

NoteachingforesawthefuturewithsuchprecisionasBuddhism.

Parallel with reverence for Buddha, Buddhism develops theveneration of Bodhisattvas—future Buddhas. According to thetradition,Gotama,beforereachingthestateofBuddha,hadbeenaBodhisattva for many centuries. The word Bodhisattva comprisestwo concepts: Bodhi—enlightenment or awakening, and Sattva—theessence.WhoaretheseBodhisattvas?ThedisciplesofBuddhas,who voluntarily have renounced their personal liberation and,followingtheexampleoftheirTeachers,haveentereduponalong,weary,thornypathofhelptohumanity.SuchBodhisattvasappearon Earth in the midst of the most varying conditions of life.Physicallyindistinguishableinanywayfromtherestofhumanity,they differ completely in their psychology, constantly being theheraldsoftheprincipleofthecommonwelfare.

Buddha, directing all possibilities toward the affirmation ofevolution, bade his disciples venerate the future Buddhas morethan the Buddhas of the past. “Thus as the new moon isworshipped more than the full moon, so those who have faith inMemustreverenceBodhisattvasmorethanBuddhas.” [26]

Historyhasnotrevealedtouselsewheresuchalivingexampleofself-denial.Accordingtotradition,theBlessedOnepreordainedtheBodhisattvaMaitreyaashissuccessor.

“AndtheBlessedOnesaidtoAnanda, ‘IamnotthefirstBuddhawho has come upon Earth, nor shall I be the last. In due timeanother Buddha will arise in the world, a Holy One, a supremelyenlightenedOne,endowedwithwisdominconduct,embracingtheUniverse, an incomparable leader of men, a ruler of devas andmortals.Hewillrevealtoyouthesameeternaltruths,thatIhavetaught you. He will establish his Law, glorious in its origin,gloriousattheclimax,andgloriousatthegoal,inthespiritandinthe letter. He will proclaim a righteous life, wholly perfect andpure, such as I now proclaim. His disciples will number manythousandswhileminenumbermanyhundreds.’

“Anandasaid,‘Howshallweknowhim?’“TheBlessedOnesaid,‘HewillbeknownasMaitreya!’ ” [13]The future Buddha, Maitreya, as his name indicates, is the

Buddhaofcompassionandlove.ThisBodhisattva,accordingtothe

powerofhisqualities,isoftencalledAjita—theInvincible.ItisinterestingtonotethatreverenceofmanyBodhisattvaswas

accepted and developed only in the Mahayana school.Nevertheless, the reverence of one Bodhisattva, Maitreya, as asuccessor chosen by Buddha himself, is accepted also in theHinayana.Thus,oneBodhisattva,Maitreya,embracesthecompletescope,beingthepersonificationofallaspirationsofBuddhism.

What qualities must a Bodhisattva possess? In the Teaching ofGotamaBuddhaandintheTeachingofBodhisattvaMaitreya,givenby him to Asanga according to tradition in the fourth century(Mahayana-Sutralankara), the maximum development of energy,courage, patience, constancy of striving, and fearlessness wasunderlinedfirstofall.Energyisthebasisofeverything,foritalonecontainsallpossibilities.

“Buddhas are eternally in action; immovability is unknown tothem; like the eternal motion in space the actions of the Sons ofConquerorsmanifestthemselvesintheworlds.”

“Mighty,valiant,firminhisstep,notrejectingtheburdenofanachievementfortheGeneralGood.”

“TherearethreejoysofBodhisattvas;thejoyofgiving,thejoyofhelping, and the joy of eternal perception. Patience always, in all,and everywhere. The Sons of Buddhas, the Sons of Conquerors,Bodhisattvas in their active compassion are Mothers to All-Existence.”

Throughout the entire Buddhist world the rocks on theroadsides,withtheimagesofMaitreya,pointouttheapproachingfuture.FromthemostancienttimesuntilnowthisImagehasbeenerected by Buddhists who know the approach of the New Era. Inourday,venerablelamas,accompaniedbydisciples,painters,andsculptors, travel through the Buddhist countries, erecting newimagesofthesymbolofaspirationstowardtheradiantfuture.

TheTeachingofBuddhamustbeverifiedandshouldbegivenfor

broad knowledge. In our time, it is strange to think about thecommunityandnottoknowthefoundationsofthefirstScientist-Exponent of the community. The hand of Buddha was tireless inpreparing the experiment of the world’s laboratory. The fact thatBuddha ordained the World Community as the evolution of

humanity,initselfgivestohisTeachingitsfierypersuasion.In Buddha’s structure one may move through endless stories,

and the doors everywhere will be open to the call of thecommunity. The exact knowledge of Buddha permitted him todetermine the exact condition of his contemporaries and toperceivetheuniversalcommunityonlyinthefar-offfuture.

RespectforBuddhawassuchthatnooneobscuredtheimageofthe Teacher with the garb of divinity. Buddha is impressed onminds as a Man, a Teacher who affirms. In this leonine fieryaffirmationheattainedaprevisionofMaitreya—thesymboloftheeraofcomprehensionofthegreatnessofmatterandaffirmationofthegreatuniversalcommunity!

Said the Blessed One, “Distinguish between those who

understand and those who agree. He who understands theTeachingwillnottarryinapplyingittolife,hewhoagreeswillnodand extol the Teaching as remarkable wisdom, but will not applythiswisdomtolife.

“There are many who have agreed, but they are like a witheredforest,fruitlessandwithoutshade.Onlydecayawaitsthem.

“Those who understand are few, but like a sponge they absorbthepreciousknowledgeandarereadytocleansethehorrorsoftheworldwiththepreciousliquid.

“He who has understood cannot help applying the Teaching,becauserealizinggoal-fitnessheacceptsitasasolutionoflife.

“Donotwastemuchtimewiththeagreeingones.Letthemfirstdemonstratetheapplicationofthefirstcall.”

ThusisattributedtotheBlessedOnethegoal-fittingattitudetonewcomers.

AllthismeansthatthepurificationoftheTeachingwillrestnot

onlyontheacceptanceofitsfoundations,butonitsapplicationinlife.AnabstractunderstandingoftheTeachingoftheBlessedOneis impossible. We see how greatly it penetrates into life when werealize how entire countries fell away from the Teaching, wheninsteadofapplyingittolifetheyturneditintoabstractdiscourses.In Tibet a lessening of the religious interest is apparent. One caneven notice the increase of the Bon Teaching, the antithesis of

Buddhism.TheTashiLamafounditimpossibletoremaininTibet.Following

hisexamplemanyofthebestlamashaveleftTibet.Withouttheseeducatedlamas,thereligiouslifeofTibethasbecomedormant.

SuchexamplesareusefulinobservinghowthedistortionoftheTeachingiseffected.

At the same time one can see what victory the Teaching carriesintoothercountrieswherepeopleareconcernedwithapplyingthefoundationsinlife.

The same task is accomplished by the new tendency towardtolerationofthefollowersofHinayana.

Buddha, as the source, and Maitreya, as a universal hope, willunite the austere followers of the Teaching of the South with themultiformityoftheNorth.

That which is most essential for the immediate future willdefinitely manifest itself. Instead of swelling the Teaching withcommentaries,itwillagainberestoredtothebeautyofthevalueofconciseconviction.ThenewtimeoftheEraofMaitreyaisinneedof conviction. Life in its entirety must be purified by the flame ofachievement. The great Buddha, who preordained Maitreya,prescribedthepathforthewholeofexistence.Forthosewiseandclearcovenants,themanifestationofthenewevolutioniscalling.

The demand for the purification of the Teaching is notaccidental. The dates are approaching. The Image of Maitreya isready to rise. All the Buddhas of the past have combined theirwisdomofexperienceandhavehandeditontotheBlessedComingOne.

The lama proclaims, “Let life be firm as adamant; victorious as

the banner of the Teacher; mighty as an eagle, and may it last foreternity.”

SOURCES

1. Anguttara-Nikaya2. Ashvaghosha,Fo-Sho-Hing-Tsun-King,ALifeofBuddha,the

ChineseversionofBuddhacarita3. BuddhistBirthStories,orJatakaTales4. Majjhima-Nikaya5. Sikshasamuccaya,compiledbySantideva6. Santideva,Bodhicaryavatara7. Sutta-Nipata8. Dhammapada9. Mahavagga

10. M.P.Grimblot,SeptSuttasPalis11. TheJataka12. Milinda-Panha,TheQuestionsofKingMilinda13. PaulCarus,TheGospelofBuddha14. Samyutta-Nikaya15. Itivuttaka16. SutraofForty-twoSections17. TheUdana18. Ashvaghosha,Buddhacarita19. MahapariNirvanaSutra,TheBookoftheGreatDecease20. Katha-Vatthu21. Mahavastu22. Saddharma-Pundarika,TheLotusoftheWonderfulLaw23. Madhyamakavritti24. Lalitavistara25. SermonsofaBuddhist26. Madyamakavatara

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