forms of political and para-military youth … · forms of political and para-military youth...

ISSN 1696-0300

Estudios Humanísticos. Historia. Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 209

FORMS OF POLITICAL AND PARA-MILITARY

YOUTH ENROLLMENT IN ROMANIA. CASE

SURVEY: THE COUNTRY’S SENTINEL (STRAJA

ŢĂRII) 1934-19401

Sorin RADU

University from Sibiu/Romania

RESUMEN: La historiografía rumana no se ha acercado de una manera coherente y consistente a la

cuestión de los movimientos juveniles y a las formas de encuadramiento de la juventud del siglo XX;

estos temas quedaron marginados por la historiografía comunista. La organización El Centinela del Pais

(Straja Tãrii) no fue investigada durante el régimen comunista en Rumania, probablemente debido a que

presenta muchas similitudes con la organización de los comunistas pioneros. Después de que el régimen

comunista se derrumbara en 1989, los historiadores se han acercado a otros temas considerados más

importantes.

La única excepción ha sido la organización de la Legión del Arcángel Miguel (el Movimiento

Legionario), de ideología de extrema derecha, que también desarrolló una estructura de encuadramiento

de la juventud y ha sido muy investigada por historiadores rumanos y del resto de Europa. El presente

estudio tiene la intención de ofrecer una presentación panorámica de la organización juvenil El Centinela

del País, insistiendo en las causas de su constitución, su organización y las modalidades de formación y

adoctrinamiento de los Centinelas. Esta organización tenía por un lado el objetivo político e ideológico de

atraer a los jóvenes de Rumania, debido a la necesidad del Estado de ofrecer una alternativa a la

propaganda de extrema derecha; principalmente del Movimiento de los Legionarios de Cristo, que era

muy atractivo para los jóvenes. Por otro lado, buscaba mantener el régimen personal del rey Carlos II,

jugando un papel importante dentro de la propaganda y la formación del culto a su personalidad

PALABRAS CLAVE: Rumania, El Centinela del País, el rey Carlos II, la adscripción de jóvenes.

ABSTRACT: So far, the Romanian historiography has not approached, in a coherent and consistent

manner, the issue of youth movements, forms of regimentation of the 20th century youth, these subjects

being marginalized by the communist historiography. The Country‘s Sentinel (Straja Ţării) remained

unexplored during the communist regime in Romania, probably also because it presented too many

similarities with the communist pioneers‘ organization. After the Communist regime collapsed in 1989,

historians have approached other issues, considered to be more important. The only exception has been

the organization The Legion of the Archangel Michael (the Legionary Movement), extreme-right

oriented, which also developed a youth regimentation structure, and has been consistently investigated

both by Romanian historians and historians from Europe and elsewhere.

The present survey intends to offer a panoramic presentation of the youth organization ―The

Country‘s Sentinel‖, insisting upon the causes of its establishment, its organization and the modalities of

training and indoctrinating the Sentinels. The survey advances the idea that this organization had the aim

1 Recibido el 6 de septiembre de 2011. Aceptado en el consejo de 8 de noviembre de 2011.

Sorin Radu

Estudios Humanísticos. Historia 210

of politically and ideologically enroll Romania‘s youth, on the one hand, due to the State‘s necessity to

offer an alternative to the far-right propaganda (mainly of the Legionary Movement), which appeared

very attractive to young people, and on the other, in order to sustain the personal regime of King Charles

II, playing an important part within the propaganda and the shaping of his own personality cult.

KEYWORDS: Romania, The Country‘s Sentinel, King Charles II, youth enrollment.

THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE ISSUE2

So far, Romanian historiography has not approached, in a coherent and

consistent manner, the issue of youth movements, the forms of enrollment of the

20th century youth, these subjects being marginalized by the Communist

historiography. ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ (Straja Ţării) remained unexplored

during the Communist regime in Romania, probably also because it presented too

many similarities with the Communist pioneers‘ organization. After the

Communist regime collapsed in 1989, historians have approached other issues,

considered to be more important. The only exception has been the organization the

Legion of the Archangel Michael (the Legionary Movement), extreme-right

oriented, which had also developed a youth enrollment structure, and has been

consistently investigated both by Romanian historians3 and historians from Europe

and elsewhere4.

2 The present article is based on the paper delivered at the international scientific conference in

Pécs (Hungary), on December 4th – 5th 2009, on the topic ―State Youth Organizations and Youth

Organizations of the German Minorities in South East Europe‖, organized by Die Stiftungsprofessur

für Deutsche Geschichte und Kultur im südöstlichen Mitteleuropa des Historischen Instituts der

Universität Pécs. 3 ORNEA, Z. (1995). Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească. (The 1930s.The Romanian Far-

right Wing) Bucureşti: Fundaţia Culturală Română; PETCULESCU, Constantin (1997). Mişcarea

legionară. Mit şi realitate. Bucharest: Editura Noua Alternativă; ZAMFIRESCU, Dragoş (1997).

Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihail de la mit la realitate (The Legion of Archangel Michael from Myth to

Reality). Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedică; BELDIMAN, Dana (2002). Armata şi Mişcarea Legionară

1927-1947 (The Army and the Legionary Movement 1927-1947). Bucharest: Institutul Naţional pentru

Studiul Totalitarismului (The National Institute for the Study of Totalitarianism); 4 VEIGA, Francisco (1993). Istoria Gărzii de Fier. 1919-1941. Mistica ultranaţionalismului (The

History of the Iron Guard 1919-1941. The Mystique of Ultranationalism). Bucharest: Editura

Humanitas; VOLOVICI, Leon (1995). Ideologia naţionalistă şi „problema evreiască”. Eseu despre

formele antisemitismului intelectual în România anilor ’30 (The Nationalist Ideology and “the Jewish

Problem”. An Essay upon the Forms of Intellectual Anti-Semitism in Romania in the 1930s).

Bucharest: Editura Humanitas; MUTTI, Claudio (1995). Mircea Eliade şi Garda de Fier (Mircea

Eliade and the Iron Guard). Sibiu: Editura Puncte Cardinale; NAGY-TALAVERA, Nicolas, M. (1996).

O istorie a fascismului în Ungaria şi România (A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania).

Bucharest: Editura Hasefer; LIVEZEANU, Irina (1998). Cultură şi naţionalism în România Mare 1918-

1930 (Culture and Nationalism in Great Romania). Bucharest: Editura Humanitas; HEINEN, Armin

Forms of Political and Para-military Youth Enrollment in Romania. Case Survey: The Country’s Sentinel…

Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 211

Regarding ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ (Straja Ţării), there is a true

historiographic gap, as the organization has been investigated only tangentially,

within general works on the political life between the two World Wars, especially

works dedicated to King Charles II5. Research is more difficult because of the

inexistence of a documentary fund within the National Archives of Bucharest

regarding ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖, or in any of the county archives. Information

about this organization is scattered through various archival funds, thus making the

research process very hard.

The present survey intends to offer a panoramic presentation of the youth

organization ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖, insisting upon the causes of its

establishment, its organization and the modalities of training and indoctrinating the

Sentinels. The survey advances the idea that this organization had the aim of

politically and ideologically enroll Romania‘s youth, on the one hand, due to the

State‘s necessity to offer an alternative to the far-right propaganda (mainly of the

Legionary Movement), which appeared very attractive to young people, and on the

other, in order to sustain the personal regime of King Charles II, playing an

important part within the propaganda and the shaping of his own personality cult.

FORERUNNERS OF THE SENTINELS IN ROMANIA

In the late 19th and early 20th century, Europe witnessed the emergence of a

number of organizations, most of them created of private initiative, in which young

people were free to enroll according to their interests and aspirations (The Scout

Movement in Great Britain or The Socol Movement in the Austrian-Hungarian

Empire). Between the two World Wars, youth became a target group for the

governments of various countries, especially those where the ascent to

totalitarianism was obvious. The enthusiasm and energy of youth, as well as their

naivety were speculated by political parties and the authorities [see especially the

case of The Youth Organization of the German National Socialist Party –

(1999). Legiunea “Arhanghelul Mihail”. O contribuţie la problema fascismului internaţional (The

Legion “Archangel Michael”. A Contribution to the Issue of International Fascism). Bucharest:

Editura Humanitas; VAGO, Bella (2003). Umbra svasticii. Naşterea fascismului şi antisemitismului în

bazinul Dunării (1936-1939) (The Shadow of the Swastika. The Birth of Fascism and Anti-Semitism

in the Danube Basin (1936-1939)). Bucharest, Editura Curtea Veche. 5 SCURTU, Ioan (2004). Carol al-II-lea (Charles II). Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedică; SCURTU,

Ioan (1991). Monarhia în România 1866-1947 (Monarchy in Romania 1866-1947). Bucharest:

Editura Danubius; ALEXANDRESCU, Sorin (1998). Paradoxul roman (The Romanian Paradox).

Bucharest: Editura Univers; BRUJA, Radu Florian (2006). Carol al-II-lea şi partidul unic, Frontul

Renaşterii Naţionale (Charles II and the Single Party, the Front of National Rebirth). Iaşi: Editura

Juminea.

Sorin Radu


Hitlerjugend or those of The Italian Fascist Party – Opera Nazionale Balilla

(National Organisation of the Balilla), Avanguardisti (The Fascist Youth

Forefronts)]. Taking these youth organizations as a model, in the late 19th and early

20th century, there were a number of associations based in Romania, with regional

activity, gathering school-aged youth, trying to prepare them for life through

cultural and sporting activities. The best known through their work were the

associations: ―Oltenii Voinici‖ (The Brave Walachians), ―Micii Dorobanţi‖ (The

Little Soldiers) (1877), ―Arcaşii Bucovinei‖ (Bukovina’s Archers) (1905),

―Asociaţia Creştină a Tinerilor‖ (The Christian Youth Association) (1919), ―Şoimii

României‖ (Romania’s Falcons) (1927), ―Şoimii Carpaţilor‖ (The Carpathian

Falcons) (1928)6.

The most important organization of youth enrollment on a national level was

founded in 1914 and named ―Romania‘s Scouts‖. The establishment of Scouts in

Romania was part of the world trend at that time and drawing on the model created

by Lord Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, who initiated an original

education program based on games, hiking, outdoor camp life in a community of

comrades. Scouting taught youth to collaborate, socialize and participate in

charitable and voluntary activities7. In general, children were co-opted into the

organization between 11 and 18 years of age. Church, school and parents were seen

as major contributors of the Scout Movement, but the State was not supposed to

interfere with the organization8. In terms of its method of work, scouting dealt with

the individual education of the child, completing school, aiming at the

comprehensive development of the individual‘s personality9. Scouting developed

the youth‘s sportsmanship, sense of mutual help, responsibility, sense of

observation and orientation, love towards nature, moderation, etc. Young people

would also learn to be moral, industrious, courageous under all circumstances,

solidary and patriotic10.

6 GABREA, Iosif (1936). Şcoala şi străjeria în pregătirea tineretului (School and the Sentinel in

the Instruction of Youth). Bucharest: Editura Bucovina, pp. 16, 17. 7 PETRESCU, I.M. (1915). Ce trebuie să ştie şcolarii şi părinţii lor despre cercetăşie. Manual de

informaţiuni şi propaganda ideilor şi doctrinei cercetăşeşti (What School Students and Parents

Should Know about Scouting. A Textbook of Information and the Propaganda of Scouts’ Doctrine

and Ideas). Craiova: Editura Scrisul Românesc, p. 55. 8 GOIA, A.S. (1933). Cartea cercetaşului practic. (The Book of the Practical Scout), vol. I. Cluj:

Imprimeria Fondul Cărţilor Funduare, pp. 1, 2. 9 SIRCA, L. (1937). Cercetăşia în cadrul curentelor contemporane de pedagogie (Scouting within

Contemporary Pedagogical Trends). Deva: Tipografia Decebal, p. 10. 10

(1919). Programul de lucru al cercetaşilor (The Scouts’ Work Program). Bucharest: Tipografia

Jockey Club, pp. 111-126.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 213

During Romania's involvement in World War I (1916-1918), the organization

"Romania‘s Scouts" engaged in various actions in support of the state authorities,

filling in for those who had gone to the front, working in hospitals, canteens, etc.,

running various errands within postal services, etc. helping to supply the army etc.

11

After World War II, scouting entered a period of decline, being integrated in the

Cultural Foundation ―Prince Charles‖ between the years 1924 and 1929, and

passing under the authority of the National Office of Physical Education after

1929. In 1932 King Charles II became commander of the Association ―Romania‘s

Scouts‖, and he decided its inclusion into the organization ―The Country‘s

Sentinel‖ by a 1937 Royal Decree.12.

FOUNDATION AND ORGANIZATION

―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ emerged in a complex political context, marked by

the deep economic crisis existent in Romania, corruption, as well as the

effervescence of right and far-right political trends. We should mainly note the

youth activities undertaken by the Legionary Movement, led by Corneliu Zelea-

Codreanu, which was outlawed in December 1933, but which started to function

legally from 1934, under the name of the Party ―Everything for the Country‖

(―Totul pentru ţară‖). After 1933, the conflict between the Legionaries and King

Charles II (Annex No.1) had already sharpened and become public13.

In this context, the question of organizing young people, who had been

neglected for years by the State, became pressing for the King. A first step in this

regard was made on the 9th of May, 1934, by the foundation of the Office for the

Education of Romanian Youth. The purpose of this institution was to manage and

control the activities of all the organizations which aimed to educate young men

and women, aged 7 to 18, following a unitary program. The second step was made

11

DAIA, Alexandru (1981). Eroi la 16 ani. Jurnal de război (1916-1918) (Heroes at 16. A War

Log (1916-1918)). Bucharest: Editura Ion Creangă, pp. 185, 276-278. 12

Enciclopedia României (Encyclopedia of Romania), (1938), vol. I. Bucharest, pp. 484-485. 13

See extensively: VEIGA, Francisco (1993). Istoria Gărzii de Fier 1919-1941. Mistica

ultranaţionalismului (The History of the Iron Guard 1919-1941. The Mystique of Ultranationalism).

Bucharest: Editura Humanitas, pp. 183-236; HEINEN, Armin (1999). Legiunea „Arhanghelul Mihail”.

O contribuţie la problema fascismului internaţional (The Legion “Archangel Michael”. A

Contribution to the Issue of International Fascism). Bucharest: Editura Humanitas.

Sorin Radu


on the 1st of September, 1934, through the establishment of ―The Country‘s

Sentinel‖ (―Straja Ţării‖) organization14.

The King and his acolytes believed that the foundation of ―The Country‘s

Sentinel‖ was justified by the government‘s instability that was reflected out on the

streets and influenced young people, thus creating a fertile ground for the

Legionary propaganda. Charles II‘s plan was very clear and simple: by the

establishment of the Country‘s Sentinel, youth had to be taken away from the

influence of the Legionary leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and directed towards

the adulation of the King. The marks of the Sentinels were clearly fascist: the

outstretched arm salute, the uniforms, the parades, the paramilitary training, the

leader principle (Fürehrprinzipe), the cult for the head of State. Prime Minister

Gheorghe Tătărescu admitted to the fact that, by establishing this organization, as

well as by the paramilitary training that the Sentinels undertook, young people

were controlled and trained to be future soldiers15.

Nevertheless, ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ was an autonomous institution for the

guidance and education of youth, being directly coordinated by Charles II. The

propaganda presented the creation of this organization as proof of the King‘s

profound interest in young people, as he desired to take them away from the dives,

taverns and the street ferment. According to the official propaganda, the youth was

growing up without any ideal, subject to morbid manifestations. ―The Country‘s

Sentinel‖ could save them from this deviation and perversion, by actively involving

young people in society. The King considered ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ as a

nursery and school for practical life, where they practiced solidarity among each

other and developed working and active living skills. Furthermore, the Sentinels

practiced sports in order to help strengthen the biological race and to obtain a

higher body immunization against disease. The Sentinels had to represent a model

of behavior both for the young and for adults, an example of order and discipline.

In 1936, the King stated that the Country‘s Sentinels had to become a ―movement

of national regeneration‖, and Sentinels had to be educated to become good

citizens and perfect patriots16. The resemblance with the Legionary Movement was

quite obvious.

14

SIDOROVICI, Teofil Gh., ENESCU-BUGHEA, C. (1937). Straja Ţării. O credinţă şi un avânt (The

Country’s Sentinel. Faith and Impetuosity. Bucharest, p. 18-19; (1938). Encyclopedia of Romania,

vol. I. Bucharest, p. 483. 15

TĂTĂRESCU, Gheorghe (1996). Mărturii pentru istorie (Testimonies for History). Bucharest:

Editura Enciclopedică, p. 159. 16


Country’s Sentinel. Faith and Impetuosity). Bucharest, pp. 18-22.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 215

Although ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ was organized according to the principles of

other fascist youth organizations from Europe, Charles II claimed it was a pure

Romanian creation. He rejected the comparison with the Italian organization

Balilla, because ―The Sentinel‖ was not a military formation. It did not resemble

the Hitlerjungend organization either, because it did not lead a state policy (sic!).

Finally, the organization neither resembled the Czechoslovak Socols, as the

sportive side of the Sentinels was only secondary. Straja Ţării (The Country‘s

Sentinel) was, in fact – according to the King – a school of citizens and a social-

moral school, in the scout spirit of Baden-Powell, also having a national mystic

atmosphere about it. The King considered that the purpose and the methods of

―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ were different from those of fascist organizations17. ―…

The Sentinel – King Charles II declared – is specific to Romania; […] the Sentinel

will be permanently checking the educational potential, in terms of practice, and

the training of our youth‖18. Moreover, the King stated that the Sentinel ―inculcates

youth with moral precepts, the cult for the dead and the respect for work […] it is a

school without cold walls, without a teacher‘s desk, or grades, or grade book,

without desks to immobilize the first childhood […] a live school of character‖19.

The leader of the Sentinel, Teofil Sidorovici (Annex No.2), reinforced the King‘s

words, saying that: ―In the Country‘s Sentinel we are more than Sentinels, we are a

new sect, and we are fanatics in the most beautiful and sublime sense, for the

Nation, Country and King. We pledge to stay Sentinels to the end of our lives, no

matter what‖20.

The public personalities in Romania had different opinions regarding the

establishment of ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ organization. The politicians sharing

democratic views, such as the leaders of the National-Peasant Party, Iuliu Maniu

and Ion Mihalache, or the leader of the National Liberal Party, Dinu Brătianu,

showed great suspicion related to the royal plans of enrolling youth. In stead,

among the right-wing politicians these ideas tended to be accepted. In his memoirs,

Nichifor Crainic claims the paternity of the idea of creating the Sentinel21. A very

well-known right-wing journalist, Pamfil Şeicaru, appreciated the King‘s plan to

17

―Curentul‖ (―The Trend‖), Bucharest, February 22nd 1938, p. 3. 18

The Central National Historical Archives, Bucharest, the Royal House Fund, file 43/1936, f. 5-

6. 19

The Central National Historical Archives, Bucharest, the Ministry for National Propaganda –

the Intelligence Service Fund, file 673, f. 22 20

―România‖ (―Romania‖), Bucharest, January 13th 1939, p. 5. 21

CRAINIC, Nichifor (1991). Zile albe, zile negre. Memorii (White Days, Black Days. Memoirs).

Bucharest: Casa Editorială Gândirea, p. 264.

Sorin Radu


take youth away from the Legionary influence and enroll them into „The Country‘s

Sentinel‖22. Later on, Horia Sima, the Commander of the Legionary Movement,

would share the same opinion23.

Unofficially, ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ was called ―The King‘s Guard‖ or ―The

White Army‖. Joining the organization was compulsory for girls aged 7 to 21 and

boys between 7 and 18. The organizational structure was the following: the Nest

(formed of six members, was the basic Sentinel unit; the Century (a unit

corresponding to a class of school students); the Troop (comprising all the

centuries in a school); the Cohort (subordinated the Sentinel units from the towns

and villages of a county. Bucharest had four cohorts, corresponding to the four

administrative sectors); the Legion (subordinated all the Sentinel units in a county);

Territorial Commandments (which were the commanders‘ initiation and training

centers). The Sentinels above 12 years of age made a promise towards the

movement, and those aged between 12 and 18 were tied to the organization by an

oath. The young people between 18 and 21 took an oath of faith towards the King.

The official day of the Country‘s Sentinel was set to be the 8th of June, the same

date when the King had been crowned, and the Sentinel‘s Hymn was the song Trei

culori (The Three Colors), signed by the national composer Ciprian Porumbescu.

The organization's propaganda slogan was: ―Faith and Labor for the Country and

the King‖. The Sentinels greeted by saying ―Gesundheit!‖ (―health‖, t.n.), a

greeting also used by other organizations. The Sentinels‘ uniform consisted of a

white shirt, ultramarine three-quartered trousers or skirt for the girls. The

equipment was completed with a cloak, a white beret and a tie in the color specific

to the region that the Sentinel unit belonged to. Uniforms varied depending on the

season, the activities performed or the ranks of the Sentinels. Starting with

September 1st 1938, the Sentinel uniform became compulsory for all school

students. The supreme leader, the ―Great Sentinel‖ (―Marele Străjer‖), was King

Charles II, and the second rank commander was Teofil Sidorovici, who was close

to the King. All of the major leading positions with the Sentinels were occupied by

members of the royal camarilla, or by people close to Prime Minister Gheorghe

22

ŞEICARU, Pamfil (2000). Istoria Partidelor Naţional, Ţărănist şi Naţional-Ţărănist (The

History of the National, Peasant and National-Peasant Parties). Bucharest: Editura Victor Frunză, p.

134. 23

SIMA, Horia (2003). Istoria Mişcării Legionare (The History of the Legionary Movement).

Bucharest: Editura Metafora, pp. 274-276.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 217

Tătărescu. The most important governing body was the Superior Guidance Council

(Consiliul Superior de Îndrumare)24.

There were two distinct periods in the evolution of the Country‘s Sentinel: I.

1934-1937, when the Sentinel developed in a slow step on a county level, in spite

of the support offered by the State; II. 1938-1940, the period of the authoritarian

monarchy, when the Sentinel of the Country was marked by the strict control of the

State, obliging the young to enroll as Sentinels and overloading the training

program.

In August 1934 an experimental center for the training of trainers was

established at Breaza (Prahova County). The first experimental group was trained

in Breaza between the 1st and the 13th of September 1934, and consisted of 25

male and 24 female teachers from Bucharest. The training program lasted for 25

days25. In the subsequent years two centers for the training of trainers were created:

at Sfântul Gheorghe and Predeal.

In a first phase, the Sentinel was introduced as an experimental model in 10

counties and about 600 students were taken to Breaza (the Prahova County) for

training. Being superficially applied, the Sentinel had the effect of a cheap

imitation; therefore, at the end of 1936, ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ was not at all

represented in more than half of the counties. At the end of 1937 it worked

superficially in 30 counties. Only in 1938 would it expand throughout the country,

due to the stringent measures imposed by the authorities. For example, starting

with 1937, all students attending private and state schools were obliged to go

through the Sentinel program (Annex No.3). Moreover, factory owners were also

forced to enroll their apprentices into ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖. By 1938 ―The

Country‘s Sentinel‖ had incorporated all of the youth organizations existing in

Romania (Romania’s Scouts, The Archers, The Carpathian Falcons – Cercetaşii

României, Arcaşii, Şoimii Carpaţilor), and the Sentinel uniform was required in all

schools. Teachers were also obliged to participate in training courses organized in

permanent or temporary centers active during the summer. The number of the

24

Sidorovici, Teofil Gh., ENESCU-BUGHEA, C. (1937). Straja Ţării. O credinţă şi un avânt (The

Country’s Sentinel. Faith and Impetuosity). Bucharest, pp. 139, 140; STRECOVSCHI, Toma I. (1939).

Cuibul străjeresc. Contribuţii (The Sentinels’ Nest. Contributions). Bucharest, pp. 24-27;

RĂDULESCU-ZONER, Şerban (2003). A fost un destin. Amintiri, mărturii, dezvăluiri (It Was Destiny.

Memories,Testimonies, Revelations). Bucharest: Editura Paideia, p. 47. 25

―Straja Ţării – Buletin‖ (―The Country‘s Sentinel - Bulletin), no. 1-2, 1940, p. 66.

Sorin Radu


Country‘s Sentinel members increased substantially during the years of the

authoritarian monarchy 1938-1940, being directly financed by the State26.

Young people above the age of 18 were integrated into the pre-military, a

service that allowed boys to practice shooting, while being closely monitored by

the authorities. In 1939 students were enrolled into the Social Service. Gathered in

summer camps, students were required to comply with an ideological education

and to participate in parades and marches, glorifying the King27.

THE SENTINEL PROGRAM

The Sentinel doctrine placed an important stress upon collective active life and

a lot of practical work, borrowing from the scouts the principles of social

solidarity, developing moral skills in the daily routine, developing the civic sense

etc. However, beyond copying the scout-specific methods, their practical

application and the training of Sentinels were deficient, adding to formalism the

awkwardness experienced by both Sentinels and their commanders, due to their

being permanently supervised, followed, controlled. The Sentinel program was

designed by taking into consideration the Sentinels‘ age, the different seasons and

the specific region. In autumn, the Sentinels worked in workshops and farming, in

winter they prepared the artistic program for the holidays, raised funds for the poor

and participated in winter sports competitions organized among the regions. In

spring they started work on the field again, they volunteered to repair the roads, de-

clog the ditches, prove maintenance for schools and churches etc. Summer began

with the participation to the ―Restoration‖ celebration28. The preparations for this

very important event, which overlapped with the Sentinel day, began in February,

when guide booklets were sent to schools in order to be purchased; they contained

26


Country’s Sentinel. Faith and Impetuosity). Bucharest, pp. 80-82. 27

The Central National Historical Archives, Bucharest, the Ministry for National Propaganda –

the Intelligence Service Fund, file 673, ff. 124-126. 28

After Prince Charles of Hohenzollern‘s return to the country, on June 8th 1930, Romania‘s

Parliament decided the annulment of the laws of January 4th 1926 (which proclaimed Prince Michael,

King Ferdinand‘s grandson as King – in the context of his father, Prince Charles‘ willingly

renouncing the throne and leaving the country) and the proclamation of Charles as King, under the

name Charles II. This event remained in Romanian history as the ―Restoration‖.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 219

songs and overall exercises that were to be executed during demonstrations29. The

months July and August were reserved to Sentinel camps30.

The Sentinel curriculum allocated 30 annual meetings for training. A meeting

summed 7 hours. Annually the Sentinel had 210 hours of class. The courses took

place in schools and besides Geography, History, Hygiene and military training,

students also had a theoretical educational program within which students would

learn about: the purpose and the organization of ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖, the

functioning of the Sentinel units, the attributions of the commanders, the role of the

Social Service etc. Practice was much more important than theory. In the years

1934-1935 Sentinel classes were not included in the curriculum. Therefore, the

Sentinel activity was included in the extra-curricular activities, and teachers had to

do voluntary work. Thus, Sentinel training overloaded the teachers‘ program. The

fact that they were not paid for the overtime classes made teachers disinterested in

these activities. Starting with 1935, Thursday was declared the Sentinel‘s day. The

students‘ program was also overloaded (they used to spend 10 hours at school),

bringing about parents‘ discontent31.

In 1936 ―The Regulations of Camps and Colonies‖ were attached to the

Sentinel curricula, including rules on: preparation, installation, organization,

working program and the conduct of Sentinels inside the camp. The extension of

the Sentinel program by setting up summer camps was not a novelty. Saxons and

Legionaries combined relaxation with volunteer work in their own camps. The

Sentinel program was not original, as alleged by Charles II, it was in fact a

synthesis of the programs of all existing youth organizations, many of the activities

being already performed by Scouts, Archers, Falcons and even Legionaries. The

camp ceremony included activities such as organizing social evenings, artistic

programs (with the theme of worshipping the King), gymnastics, sports (especially

shooting practice, athletics, and field orientation), organizing trips to visit tourist

attractions with historical significance, attending religious services at churches

close to the camps. The camp program also included community service work

(volunteer work): roads and fences repairs in villages, maintenance of cultural

29

BUHMAN, A.E. (2006). Patru decenii în serviciul Casei Regale a României. Memorii. 1898-

1940 (Four Decades in the Service of the Royal House of Romania. Memoirs). Bucharest. Editura

Sigma, pp. 397-407. 30

ŞOIMESCU, Ştefan (1939). Pe drumurile reînoirii (On the Path of Renewal). Bucharest: Editura

Bucovina, p. 63; SIDOROVICI, Teofil (1939). Brazdă nouă (A New Furrow). Bucharest: Tiparul

Oltenia, p. 56. 31

―Straja Ţării – Buletin‖ (―The Country‘s Sentinel – Bulletin‖), no. 9-10, 1939, p. 40; ―Solia

Străjerului‖ (―The Sentinel‘s Mission‖), Bucharest, no. 7, 1940, p. 7.

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centers, etc. The average duration of camps was 20 days and the necessary number

of participants was 60-100 Sentinels. In reality, documents show that the number of

those who participated in such camps did not exceed 4032.

In 1937 the Sentinel‘s week was introduced in the Sentinel curriculum. The

curriculum had a series of attached annexes that presented the standard type of

meeting, the required models of songs and dances to be included in the festivals

organized throughout the year. In subsequent years, the curriculum diversified, the

Sentinels were forced to participate in different circles depending on their proven

skills. The Sentinel’s Notebook (Annex No.4) also appeared and it contained, apart

from the activities to be carried out daily, some practical advice on first aid, use of

medicines from the Sentinel pharmacy, useful literature in Sentinel training,

information on hygiene, a few Sentinel songs, etc. The duty of the Sentinels was to

consult this book whenever they encountered difficulties / questions about the rules

to be observed. The good deeds of Sentinels were also recorded within33.

On September 1st 1939, the Sentinel program was added another Sentinel day –

Saturday. The Sentinel program was drawn up for each Saturday by the troop

commander, in collaboration with the school, the century commanders and the

teachers who helped to run the program. Saturday, like Thursday, started with

group refreshing drills, the report and then the inspection of the Sentinels‘ posture

and body hygiene. The program continued with specific activities, mentioned

above, usually accompanied by folk dance performance and patriotic songs, many

of them in adulation of Charles II. It is interesting to note that Voivode Michael,

the King‘s son, also participated in the program every Thursday34.

―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ regularly organized competitions on various subjects

among the Sentinels, the best of them being rewarded, music circles, model

airplane flying, Marine, physical education, etc. Starting from 1935, every

Thursday, the Romanian Radio Company broadcast for one hour a Sentinel

propaganda program – ―The Sentinels‘ Hour‖ (Annex No. 6). From April 1938 the

program was extended to 90 minutes. Schools were encouraged to prepare artistic

programs, social evenings and present them on the radio within ―The Sentinels‘

32

ŞOIMESCU, Ştefan (1940). Doctrină, metodă sau curent de viaţă?(Doctrine, Method, or Life

Trend?). Bucharest, pp. 34-36; ENESCU-BUGHEA, Constantin (1936). Sunt străjer! ... Cartea

năzuinţelor străjereşti (I Am A Sentinel!... The Book of the Sentinels’Aspirations). Bucharest:

Tipografia „Universul‖, p. 101. 33

―De Strajă‖ (―Sentinel‖), Bucharest, no. 7-8, 1939, p. 39. 34

(1940). Straja Ţării – cinci ani de activitate (1935-1940) (The Country’s Sentinel. Five Years

of Activity (1935-1940)). Bucharest: Editura Cartea Românească, p. 145.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 221

Hour‖ 35. This program aimed at educating the young generations in the spirit of

adulation of the ―Savior‖ Charles II. Prominent figures of the Romanian culture,

such as Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, were invited at ―The Sentinels‘ Hour‖ to

speak in favor of the King and the Country‘s Sentinel.

―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ was financed by the State through grants awarded by

ministries, provinces (a territorial-administrative structure that included several

counties, imposed in Romania by the administrative reform of 1938),

municipalities, communes, the kings of the state. For example, counties,

municipalities and rural and urban communes were required to include in their

annual budgets grants for the Sentinels equal to at least 0.5% of their respective

budget. Municipalities, state institutions in general, had to provide all the necessary

facilities for carrying out the activities of the Sentinels. The Ministry of Health

provided healthcare to Sentinel work camps, and The Country‘s Sentinel, in

general, by assigning doctors. The girls from ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ were

trained by the Red Cross within special courses to provide medical care to the sick

or injured in times of peace or war. An important activity of the Sentinels was the

reforestation of some areas. In this respect, Forestry Departments were required to

provide the necessary seedlings. The King imposed the collaboration between the

Country‘s Sentinel and the Ministry of Education36.

The Sentinel project was enforced through the schools; teachers became

Sentinel commanders, and students, important pawns of the movement. During the

authoritarian monarchy37, sports clubs were obliged to assist the Sentinels in

organizing their sports training, and put their sports facilities at the disposal of

―The Country‘s Sentinel‖. Furthermore, the army was directly involved, assigning

officers to ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ camps, in order to ensure an efficient military

training program and to organize parades. An interesting collaboration developed

with the cultural institutions of Romania, especially with theatres and cinemas.

Professionals of these institutions were urged to assist the Sentinels in organizing

35

DENIZE, Eugen (1999), Istoria Societăţii Române de Radiodifuziune (The History of the

Romanian Radio Society), vol. I, part I. Bucharest: Editura Casa Radio, p. 100. 36

MOISESCU, D.N. (1938). Şcoală veche şi şcoală nouă (Old School and New School). Bucharest:

Editura Cultura Românească, p. 20. 37

The authoritarian monarchy regime (January 10th 1938 – September 6th 1940) was established

through a coup d‘etat by King Charles II, who assumed the position of head of state, subordinating all

state institutions after introducing the February 1938 Constitution. The Carlist Regime – as it is also

known in history – was characterized by the banning of political parties, repressive measures against

the opposition, especially the Legionaries, imposing a state of siege, censorship, and developing the

personality cult.

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artistic performances, having as a topic the King's personality cult, especially after

1937 (Annex No. 5). At the same time, the Sentinels would regularly watch

propaganda films about the King's activities, and also about the activities of other

youth organizations from Europe38.

As early as 1935, ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ established formal working

relationships with similar organizations in neighboring countries, particularly

France, Yugoslavia, Poland and Czechoslovakia. In 1937 ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖

started to establish closer connections with youth organizations in Germany and

Italy39.

Concerning the evolution of the Sentinel contingent, a serious increase was

recorded: in 1934 there existed over 90,000 Sentinels, and in 1940 approximately

4,373,039; apart from these, there were 44,875 commanders and 36,150 extra-

school Sentinels40. This considerable increase can be explained by youth‘s as well

as teachers‘ obligation to enroll in ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖, which, thus, had

become a mass organization.

CONCLUSIONS

The compulsory character and the authorities‘ excessive control had adverse

effects to what the king had expected. Students, pre-military, Sentinels as a whole,

showed disregard towards and distanced themselves from the Sentinels‘ movement.

In the years 1938-1940, formalism became constant during the demonstrations

organized by the leaders of The Country‘s Sentinel. Town Hall citations, fines and

the police force were necessary in order to bring young people to pre-military

training, without, however, being able to improve their frequency and the actual

involvement of young people into the program. Students did participate, although

without any enthusiasm, for fear of school repercussions.

Regarding the Sentinels‘ program and activities, ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖

imitated the Legionary Movement, and other similar organizations from Europe:

the cult of the leader, the working camps, the legionary cooperatives, a rigorous

38


of Activity (1935-1940)). Bucharest: Editura Cartea Românească, pp. 211-214. 39

―Straja Ţării‖ (―The Country‘s Sentinel‖), Bucharest, no. 1-2, 1939, pp. 90, 123; no. 1-2, 1940,

p. 55; ―Almanahul Străjerilor‖ (―The Sentinels‘ Almanach‖), Bucharest, no. 3-6, 1939, p. 239; (1940).

Straja Ţării – cinci ani de activitate (1935-1940) (The Country’s Sentinel. Five Years of Activity

(1935-1940)). Bucharest: Editura Cartea Românească, p. 226 40


of Activity (1935-1940)). Bucharest: Editura Cartea Românească, p. 216.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 223

program, youth indoctrination, and the religious spirit. The King also tried to

impose ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ the mystical spirit, specific to the Legionaries.

He failed, mainly due to the fact that participation was compulsory, youngsters

being forced to participate, but also because the King did not have Zelea

Codreanu‘s charisma and his personal life was not a moral example in terms of

public life. Due to their behaviour, greeting and elements similar to those of the

Legionary Movement, the Sentinels were sometimes taken for Legionaries by the

police, although their uniforms were different. Copying a series of elements from

the Legionaries was intended to create confusion among the young people and thus

persuade them that there was no reason to join the Legion. Many of the teachers

who had become trainers in ―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ secretly sympathized with

the Legionary Movement, thus, sharing their right-oriented ideas in a legal form

under the Sentinel‘s curtain.

―The Country‘s Sentinel‖ became a mass organization, comprising all the young

people up to the age of 21, as well as teachers and priests. This organization would

stop functioning once the authoritarian monarchy regime of Charles II was

dissolved, after his abdication on September 6th 1940.

The organization model of the Country‘s Sentinel would be later imitated by the

Communists, young people aged between 7 and 14 being enrolled into ―The

Pioneers‘ Organization‖.

REFERENCES

The Central Historical National Archives, Royal Household Fund, 1934-1940.

BRUJA, Radu Florian, Carol al II-lea şi partidul unic: Frontul Renaşterii Naţionale

(Charles II and the Single Party: the National Rebirth Front), Junimea, Iasi, 2006.

ENESCU BUGHEA, Sunt străjer! …cartea năzuinţelor tinereşti (I am a Sentinel! …The Book

of Youthful Aspirations), Bucharest, 1936.

HEINEN, Armin, Legiunea ―Arhanghelul Mihail”. O contribuţie la problema fascismului

internaţional, (The Legion of “The Archangel Michael”. A contribution to the Isssue of

International Fascism), Humanitas, Bucharest, 1999.

GABREA, Iosif, Şcoala şi străjeria în pregătirea tineretului (The School and the Sentinels in

Youth Training), Bucharest, 1936.

GOIA, A.S., Şcoala de comandanţi de la Breaza (The Commanders’ School in Breaza),

Cluj, 1934.

GOIA, A.S., Taberele de muncă cercetăşeşti la sate (The Scout Work Camps in Villages),

Bucharest, 1936.

SIDOROVICI, Teofil, Gh., Enescu Bughea, C., Straja Ţării. O credinţă şi un avânt (The

Sentinels of the Country. Faith and Impetuosity), Bucharest, 1937.

SIDOROVICI, Teofil Gh., Carnetul străjerului (The Sentinel’s Notebook), Bucharest, 1939.

SIDOROVICI, Teofil Gh., Pe căile renaşterii (On the Path of Rebirth), Bucharest, 1940.

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STRECOVSCHI, Toma, I., Cuibul străjeresc. Contribuţii (The Sentinels’ Nest. Contributions),

Bucharest, 1939.

ŞOIMESCU, Stefan, Cu marele străjer – curent de viaţă nouă (Along with the Great Sentinel

– a New Life Trend), Bucharest, 1939.

ŞOIMESCU, Stefan, Doctrină, metodă sau curent de viaţă? (Doctrine, Method, or Way of

Life?), Bucharest, 1940.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 225

Annex 1. The King Charles the 2nd of

Hohenzollern 1930 – 1940

Annex 2. Teofil Sidorovici and his sentinels

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Annex 3. King Charles the 2nd among the sentinels of Cernatu

village (Braşov County).

Annex 4. A student’s notebook with the face

of “The Great Sentinel” and two sentinels

saluting.


Nº 10, 2011, pp. 209-227 227

Annex 5. The Great Sentinel, Charles the 2nd, at inauguration

of the sentinels’ parade on a stadium in Bucharest on the 8th of

June 1937

Annex 6. The sentinels organization of the secondary school

“Vasile Lupu” in Iasi, singing songs at radio for ”The

Sentinels’ Hour” (1939)

forms of political and para-military youth … · forms of political and para-military youth...

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