forests and trees of the central highlands of xieng … and trees of the central highlands of xieng...

Forests and Trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng Khouang, Lao P.D.R.

A field guide

Lutz Lehmann Martin Greijmans David Shenman

Forests and Trees of the Temperate Highlands of Xieng Khouang, Lao P.D.R.

A field guide

For more information contact NAWACOP Xieng Khouang, P.O. Box A, Xieng Khouang, Lao P.D.R., phone: +856 (061) 312026; e-mail: [email protected] German Development Service (DED), P.O. Box 2455, Vientiane, Lao P.D.R., phone: +856 (021) 413555; e-mail: [email protected] Lao Tree Seed Project, P.O. Box 9111, Vientiane, Lao P.D.R., phone: +856 (021) 770074; e-mail: [email protected] Natural Resources and Environment Programme, DANIDA, P.O. Box 9990, Vientiane, Lao P.D.R., phone: +856 (021) 223687 © Copyrights of this book belong to Lutz Lehmann: [email protected] Martin Greijmans: [email protected] David Shenman [email protected]

Acknowledgements Thanks to Ole Pedersen Danida Coordinator of the Natural Resources and Environment Programme, for giving the opportunity to produce this field guide and supplying the budget. Preface Forests are known for their numerous functions such as regulating the climate and the water flow. In Laos, where most of the population is living in rural areas, forest products are collected in times of food shortage and rural people depend on this natural “supermarket”. Numerous timber and non-timber forest products are collected and sold on local markets and thus significantly contribute to the local economy. Forests in all their variety make up the specific characters of different regions, they attract visitors and belong to the natural heritage of the local people. This field guide provides an overview over the forests and tree species of the central highland of Xieng Khouang Province – a region known to most visitors because of the “Plain of Jars” with its ancient artefacts. The natural beauty of Xieng Khouang with its still existing forests however is nearly unknown. Experts believe that Lao forests contain a higher biodiversity than many other countries in South East Asia. Discovering Lao forests by identifying the rich diversity of trees can be very interesting and rewarding for Lao and foreign visitors alike. This book describes the morphology and ecology of the most common tree species of Xieng Khouang. It also informs about the use of different tree species and thus opens a window to rural economy as part of the Lao culture. The authors have drawn their considerable knowledge from many years of forest field work in the province of Xieng Khouang. Martin Greijmans worked with the ‘Lao Tree Seed Project’ (DANIDA funded), assessing 100 tree species for conservation. He is now working with local people in forest management and seed collection. Lutz Lehmann (DED) has been working with the ‘Nam Ngum Watershed Management and Conservation Project’ (funded by the German Government) on forest inventory, seed collection and direct sowing in numerous villages with local foresters and experienced villagers. Observations in the field as well as the collection of tree seed of many local tree species, germination trials in forest nurseries and planting the seedlings out in the field generated considerable knowledge about the ecology of the species. Frequent visits to local markets over the seasons and interviews with villagers helped to gather facts about the uses of different forest tree products. It turned out that some species are already on the brink of extinction since forests are being destroyed and trees are being exploited on a large scale. Others are still abundant but might be threatened in future. This field guide is an important step towards a first popular tree flora for Lao P.D.R.. Since Jules Vidal described the Lao flora in the 1960’s no other work has been available in Laos except from neighbouring countries. The book addresses foresters, botanists, students and laymen alike, hoping to stimulate many people to discover and learn about Lao forests, eventually propagating and planting local tree species and thus helping to preserve parts of the rich natural heritage of the country for future generations. Christiane Oermann – DED

Lars Ravensbeck – LTSP Ole Pedersen – NREP DANIDA

Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................. Preface .................................................................................................. Background and Justification ............................................................. Use of the field guide ............................................................................ Part 1. Introduction ................................................................................ Part 2. Major Forest Types ................................................................... Part 3. The guide proper ....................................................................... References ........................................................................................... Appendices Appendix 1. Overview of Quercus spp. in Xieng Khouang .............. Appendix 2: Overview of the Castanopsis spp. .............................. and Lithocarpus spp. in Xieng Khouang ....................... Indices Lao .................................................................................................... Scientific ..........................................................................................

Background and Justification NAWACOP in Xieng Khouang province has been carrying out activities concerning seed collection and distribution of seedlings, direct sowing, as well as collecting of information of the local tree flora. A large information and photographic data base compiled by Lutz Lehmann was catalogued and labelled with species-characteristic data for over 5 years. In addition information from the “Conservation Status Assessment of 100 Tree species” carried out in 2001-2002 by the Lao Tree Seed Project has been included. In that, one of the most urgent needs recognised concerned taxonomic descriptions to identify species, which are still greatly lacking in Laos even after the major contributions from Jules Vidal. Without an up to date tree flora it is almost impossible to start considering a species’ need for conservation. The same is true for forest types and their fragile microhabitats, of which many are disappearing in the name of development. Use of the field guide In part 1 this field guide introduces the “Plain of Jars” and its surrounding hills in Xieng Khouang province with its typical characteristics in topography and population to forest use. Then ten forest types found in this temperate region are described in the second part, which includes ecology, flora, use and threats endangering each habitat. Part 3 is the major section of the book describing almost 100 illustrated tree species in their natural habitat including their use and propagation potential. In Lao language a tree species name is often pre-ceded with “Mei” (Ä´É) which translates “tree”. In this book it is left out and this guidebook is obviously a tree flora. Species are ordered according to their occurrence in the forest recognised in Xieng Khouang. Each species has a colour on the page which may serve as a quick guide to possible tree species in that forest type. Some species with a wider ecological range have more colours on the page. Many Fagaceae members, the Oak and Chestnut family, are listed here because they are an important floristic component in several forest types and very useful to local people.

Forest types Legend

1 Pine savannah forests and pine forests yellow 2 Mixed conifer+broadleaved forests light green 3 Moist evergreen forests dark green 4 Dry evergreen hill forests medium green 5 Riverine forests blue 6 Swamp forests black 7 Dry deciduous forests on limestone light grey 8 Moist, dense secondary forests orange 9 Dry, open secondary forests light violet 10 Transitional stages between forest types 3, 4 or 7; semi-

evergreen or mixed deciduous+evergreen forest medium turquoise

Note For each species description in part 3 the colour is included which represents the forest type it has been found. In the species descriptions first the local Lao name used in Xieng Khouang is mentioned, then names from other parts of Laos. The phonetic transliteration of the Lao names is based on Jules Vidal’s French system instead of the English, which serves the pronunciation of the names better. Sometimes a local name may refer to more than 1 species, and even to non-tree species, and then more information is needed to avoid confusion. Both the species descriptions and photographs in this book can help in identifying your tree. However it may well be that the specimen studied is not included here as many more tree species and non-timber

species occur in Xieng Khouang then are described here. The problem is that little is known about these species and would at this stage only result in poorly described specimen. In this case we have to refer to other useful works such as “Trees of Northern Thailand” and “Trees in the Sikkim Himalayas”. When more detailed information is required a botanical specimen, preferable with flowers and/or fruits should be collected, including data on the habitat where the specimen is collected. These specimens can then be further studied with botanical experts such as at the Biology of the National University of Laos. We encourage botanical field work which is fundamental in increasing our knowledge about the flora and forest ecosystems. Needless to say is that this first tree field guide in Laos also needs continuous improvements or expansion, even to other ecological habitats. We hope that this book assists foresters, students, botanists and interested lay people in identifying tree species and stimulates in further studies either in Xieng Khouang or other parts of Lao P.D.R. Have fun! The authors.

Part 1. Introduction Topography The area of reference in this book is the “Plain of Jars” and its adjacent hilly areas in the three districts of Paek, Phoukoud and Paxay in Xieng Khouang province of Lao P.D.R. This area lies on an altitude of about 1,000-1,100 m of the plain of Jars, and 900-1,000 m in the valley of the Nam Ngum river. The Plain of Jars consists of flat and undulating land with rolling hills of natural grassland, nearly devoid of trees. It is surrounded by steeper forested hills reaching from 1,300 m to 1,800 m, like the Phou (= mountain) Gaeng, Phou Nyuan and Phou Hae in Paek district, the Phou Koud, Phou Saeo and Phou So in Phoukoud district and the Phou Seu and Phou Dteui in Paxay district. Beyond this area the landscape becomes more mountainous with summits exceeding the 2,000 m mark like the Phou San in Paek district, The Phou Paxay in Paxay district and the Phou Xao and Phou Xamsoum in Khun district. Map of Central Xieng Khouang around the Plain of Jars (source: NAWACOP) Map of Xieng Khouang province (source: Lutz Lehman) Climate There are some special natural conditions in the temperate highlands which have resulted in the occurrence of certain tree species and forest types only to find in a few other but similar areas of Laos. The climatic conditions are characterised by a relatively low mean annual temperature of about 19-20°C. Central Xieng Khouang is located in a low annual rainfall area with an average of 1,500 mm of rain, ranging from 1,100 mm in dry years to 1,900 mm in wet ones. Rains are partly blocked by the surrounding high mountain ranges. Three main types of weather follow each other, starting with a cool season, followed by a hot dry season with mainly eastern winds, and a rainy season with rain brought on by the south-west monsoon. Spring in central Xieng Khouang is in February-March when many tree species are blossoming and bearing new leaves. The hot and dry but short summer follows in April-May with the highest temperatures during the year. The rainy season lasts more or less from May to October. The months with the highest amount of rainfall are July-September. During this time it rains nearly every day only sometimes interrupted by a short, one-week dry spells. Vegetation growth proceeds mainly in the rainy season. Autumn follows in October to December characterised by the ripening of many fruits of forest trees, in particular nuts of oaks and chestnuts, and deciduous trees start to shed their leaves. The cool dry winter season brings regularly mist in the mornings from November to February. Frost may occur once in 10-15 years during December-January. In December 1999 temperatures of minus 5 °C were recorded in Phoukoud district during mornings of four subsequent days. Occasional rains may occur in each month of the dry season and those in February are called the “mango rains”. This happens when eastern winds prevail and rain clouds from Vietnam cross the Annamite mountain range. Meteorological Data - Phonesavanh (19° 31’ N – 103° 14‘ E ; 1,148 m a.m.s.l.)

Month Rainfall (mm)

Amount of Wet Days

Mean Temp (°C)

Mean max. (°C)

Mean min. (°C)

Evaporation (mm)

January 8 (10) 1 14.5 22.7 (24.2) 9.0 (9.2) 78 February 23 (16) 3 17.3 24.4 (25.4) 10.7 (10.1) 87 March 33 (48) 4 19.3 25.6 (26.5) 12.4 (13.6) 97 April 118 (135) 13 20.9 26.7 (28.6) 16.0 (16.7) 104 May 238 (158) 20 22.2 26.7 (27.9) 18.2 (19.4) 111

June 275 (210) 20 22.5 26.7 (26.8) 19.3 (20.0) 113 July 312 (269) 25 22.0 25.6 (26.9) 19.3 (19.9) 110 August 458 (278) 25 21.8 26.1 (27.4) 19.1 (19.3) 109 September 206 (132) 18 21.4 26.7 (28.1) 18.0 (18.4) 107 October 88 (132) 10 19.5 26.1 (26.6) 14.9 (15.7) 98 November 28 (4) 5 17.2 24.4 (21.4) 12.9 (11.5) 86 December 2 (2) 5 14.1 23.3 (20.9) 9.6 (8.3) 70 Total 1789 (1344) 149 - - - 1167

Mean Annual wind speed 3.2 m/s (double that of Vientiane) (Source: PAS Xieng Khouang, Meteorological Department 1988–1992) Soil The Plain of Jars consists mostly of a yellow-red lateritic loamy soil with low pH, derived from quartz. In river valleys humus-rich sandy alluvial soil can be found. In some flat areas and the mouth of small ravines grey clay and organic swampy soils can be found. The hills around the plain consist mainly of sandstone, granite and schist, with medium-rich loams. West of Ban Sui in Phoukoud district and east of Ban Hat Yae in Paek district, the parent rock changes to limestone with the occurrence of deep rich calcareous soil. Similar areas in Laos Within Laos areas with similar natural conditions and tree species can be found in the Boloven plateau of Champassak province, in Bolikhamsay province in the Annamite mountain range (Khamkeut district) and Houa Phan province. Outside Laos there are similar natural conditions and tree species such as in Northern Vietnam, Northern Thailand, Southern China as well as the Indian and Nepalese Himalayas. Forests and people in the Xieng Khouang highlands Xieng Khouang province is considered the homeland of the Hmong, an ethnic group occupying mainly the high mountains of Northern Laos as well as Northern Vietnam, Northern Thailand and Southern China. The Plain of Jars area with its flat land and undulating hills however is the settlement area of the Thai Phouan, an ethnic group belonging to the lowland Lao and should not be mixed up with the better known Siamese Thai. Both ethnic groups practise different forms of land use to make a living. In Appendix 1 aerial photographs are included showing the different land use patterns and their effect on the forest vegetation. Effects of the war The Vietnam War has deeply affected Xieng Khouang province and in particular the Plain of Jars. On one side there were North Vietnamese troops and the red Pathet Lao fighting, on the other soldiers of the Hmong ethnic group supported by Thai mercenaries and US Air Force. The heavy bombing by the USAF over the years – mainly from 1967-1973 - resulted in the evacuation of almost the whole civil population to Vietnam or Vientiane province. The bombing also caused losses of forest in particular on hilltops where the positions of defenders with anti-aircraft guns were located. The hilltops were scarred with trenches and manholes that still can be seen today. High explosive bombs, the insidious cluster bomblets and many other kinds of exploded and unexploded ordnance can are still found. Collection of metal scrap from forests is a main occupation of many villagers but also a source of deadly accidents. The absence of people and with them the interruption of large-scale shifting cultivation led to a strong push of forest regeneration after the war, until the evacuees returned to their previous homesteads. Thai Phouan – means of living and forest use

The Thai Phouan engages mainly in paddy farming and raising large livestock. The wide valley bottoms of tributaries of the Nam Ngum river provide plenty space for the layout of rice paddies. Farther away the creation of paddies is limited as the valleys with steep mountain flanks become narrower. Rice is grown only once a year in the rainy season, because winter with its low temperatures and the lack of sufficient water restricts the growth of rice in the dry season. Vast areas of natural grassland in the highlands provide good opportunities for cattle and buffaloes breeding, and meat is a major source of cash for the Thai Phouan. Manure is also used to make the paddy soil more fertile. Farming on flat grassland is not practised nowadays because of the low soil fertility and low soil pH, but in the past however some areas were cultivated for rice farming. Villages of the Thai Phouan are usually located near their paddy fields on flat land or the foothills. Fruit tree gardens and bamboo groves surround the villages. Gardens with kitchen herbs and vegetables are located near the villages in moist ravines on moderate steep slopes. Vegetables like spring onions, garlic, morning glory, white cabbage and chilli are mainly grown in the dry season. The Thai Phouan people build large wooden houses as well as rice stores on stilts. One house consumes about 10-15 cubic metres of timber, a rice store about 2-4 cbm. Main timber species are Paek (Pinus kesiya) and Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana) as softwoods for the boards, beams and the interior construction, Mi (Schima wallichii) as a hardwood for the stilts. Instead of Mi also Hing, Somsuai (Paramichelia baillonii) or Ketlin (Toxicodendron succedanea) are used. The two latter are already rare hardwoods. Roofs are mainly made of Nja kha (Imperata cylindrica) grass that is cultivated in separate gardens. Nowadays people change their roofing to corrugated metal or asbestos sheets. Timber is usually cut in sections of 4 or 5 metres length. One or two sections can be cut out of one tree. About 1 meter of the stump and the lower trunk as well as all wood of the tree above is wasted and left in the forest. Timber is exclusively cut with hand tools such as saw and axe. The use of chain saws is prohibited except for commercial logging operations with a government permit. The wood of a house lasts about 25-30 years before any repair or replacement is necessary to carry out. Grass roofs have to be replaced every other year. To avoid too much work at once villagers replace half of the roof every year. Preferred fuel woods are the tree species of the Fagaceae family. Among them Ko khae (Quercus serrata) is the most valued one, followed by Castanopsis sp. and Ko sak (Lithocarpus truncatus). These tree species are also the fuels that are marketed most in Phonesavanh town. In areas which lack forests with hardwoods dry pine wood and even bamboo are used. Much small-dimension wood is used in fence building around homesteads, gardens and paddies. Fence posts are cut from Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana), Du than (Tristania merguensis) and Ko keut (Castanopsis tribuloides). Hing posts last about 2 years, Du than and Ko keut posts up to 10 years. Other products collected and used by the Thai Phouan are pine torch-wood as well as many kind of edible fruits from Mak Theun (Nyssa javanica), Mak Bei (Canarium nigrum), Mak Fei (Baccaurea sp.), Mak Ngam (Myrica esculenta), Mak Somfot (Rhus chinensis), Mak Fen (Protium serratum), Mak Gork (Spondias pinnata), Mak Muat (Aporosa villosa), Mak Saleng and Mak Wa (both Syzygium sp.), Mak Khor (Livistonia speciosa), Mak Bpeng (Phoenix loureiri), Mak Sida (Psidium guayava) and nuts like those of Ko keut (Castanopsis tribuloides), Ko deng (C. hystrix) and Ko nam (C. echinocarpa). Many kinds of edible mushrooms among others the Russula, Boletus, Amanita and Cantharellus genera emerge at the beginning of the rainy season in May-June and can be found in abundance on local markets. Vegetables from the forest such as young tree shoots and leaves, tree flowers from Dork Ban (Bauhinia variegata) and Dork Lieb (Rademachera ignea), fern sprouts and herbs are collected, consumed and marketed by both Thai Phouan and Hmong.

Roots from certain trees are chipped and dried and used for making alcoholic medicinal drinks called “Lau Bong Ya”. Hmong – means of living and forest use Unlike the Thai Phouan Hmong villages are usually located on upper slopes and mountain ridges. The Hmong have been restricted to areas which are less favourable for lowland farming and therefore they practise upland farming of rice, maize, pumpkins and cucumber on steep slopes in a rotation system of swiddens and fallows. Furthermore they are engaged in opium poppy farming and hunting, both activities which the government is trying to restrict due to their negative impacts. Hmong people mainly raise pigs and goats instead of large livestock due to the absence of natural grassland in their surroundings. Pigs and goats roam free, and the Hmong place their upland fields far away from their villages to avoid being destroyed by the pigs. Pigs are fed with banana trunks, cassava, aeroroot and pumpkin all being rich in starch. Parts of the pig food is grown on swiddens and part is collected in the forest. Hmong people have a good knowledge in growing temperate fruit trees, in particular peach. Most of the peach production in Xieng Khouang is derived from Hmong villages planting small groves of peach trees near their houses but also at swidden field. Due to the rotational swidden agriculture the forest in areas with a high population resembles a mosaic of freshly slashed and burned swiddens mixed with fallow areas being secondary forests of different ages. The Hmong usually cultivate their swidden for only 1-2 years, after which they abandon it in order to let it regenerate. Large trees, in particular of pioneer tree species, such as (Sakai) Betula alnoides, Schima wallichii and Keteleeria evelyniana are often left standing and become the centres from which natural regeneration by seed spreads. Other tree species resprout from stumps and rootstock growing up to dense secondary forests within a couple of years. The secondary forest is usually slashed and burned again once its trees have reached a diameter of about 15 cm and can be used for fence posts and fuel wood. Only areas which have undergone many cycles of clearing and burning, maybe also affected by wildfires, tend to loose their regenerating capability and give room to weeds like Imperata cylindrica grass. This grass is not as invading and competitive as in lowland areas. It is used by both Thai Phouan and Hmong for roof thatching. Areas with Imperata grass are therefore often fenced and protected against browsing cattle. Older Hmong ladies have an extensive knowledge of medicinal plants that can be found in the forest. On local markets and even in Vientiane in front of the General Post Office they offer their medicines for sale. Other forest products usually collected by Hmong are bamboo shoots, edible mushrooms, chestnuts, pine torch-wood, orchids, rattan and certain edible fruits of forest trees. Sachuang (Cinnamomum iners) leaves and young bark of birch (Betula alnoides) are sold in bundles for preparing sweetened drinking water. Fuelwood is extensively used by the Hmong, and usually they have 3 kinds of cooking stoves in their kitchen: one each for cooking their meals, the pig fat and the pig feed, the latter being the largest. Hmong houses are built on the earth without stilts. One house consumes about 5-10 cubic metres of timber. The boards of its wooden walls leave some small gaps for wind circulation. Roofs are either made of Imperata grass or wooden roof shingles for which mainly Keteleeria evelyniana but also Fokienia hodginsii and Toona ciliata are used. Basic data on Xieng khouang province

Total land area 15,879 km2 Forest cover (1999) 50 %; 740,000 ha * Total population (families, people), 1998 216,000

Lao Loum (Thai Phouan) 57 %

Lao Theung (Khmu) 8 % Lao Soung (Hmong) 35 %

Annual population growth 2.5 % Number of districts 7 Number of villages 516 Paddy land 14,000 ha Upland agriculture 9,000 ha, with 80 % secondary forest (Hai lau), 12 % Virgin forest (Hai

dong) and 8 % permanent upland (Hai kongti) Potential agricultural land 39,000 ha Other forms of land use 12 % which includes natural grassland of the Plain of Jars Main means of economy scrap metal trade, handicraft, sawmills (conifer wood), tourism (Plain of

Jars, hot springs), silk production Main NTFP edible chestnuts, eagle-wood, pine torch wood, bamboo shoots, edible

mushrooms, orchids Main agricultural crops on upland white rice, maize, maniok, cucumber, squash, opium poppy Main agricultural crops on paddy glutinous rice, potatoes, cucumber, garlic, water chestnuts (Mak Haeo) Main fruit trees planted plum, pear, peach, Mak Leung, bananas, mango, passion fruit, guava,

papaya Domesticated forest trees guava, Mak Gork, Mak Khor palm, Mak Khaen Main kind of livestock of the Thai Phouan cattle, buffaloes, poultry, pigs Main kind of livestock of the Hmong pigs, goats, bulls, poultry * According to the 1999 the National Forest Inventory, the potential forest cover is 85 %. It is however not clear how the secondary forests such as swidden forests are included. Slash-and-burn agriculture is practised 90 % in secondary forest and 10 % in primary forest. The distribution of forest cover over the province is not equal, with the Plain of Jars itself having only around 5 % cover, mainly with pine forest. NAWACOP project villages have up to 80 % of all kinds of forests.

Part 2. Major Forest Types The temperate highlands of Xieng Khouang are dominated with the occurrence of extensive conifer forests, mainly pines. Low temperatures determine the absence of important Lao timber tree species like Pterocarpus macrocarpus (Dou), Tectona grandis (Teak – Sak) and the Dipterocarpaceae family. Secondary forests hardly contain bamboo species that prevail elsewhere in Laos. In riverine forests, the otherwise in northern Laos dominant Pterocarya tonkinensis is also absent. The temperate genus of Rhododendron is also well represented.The main broadleaved species are Schima wallichii and numerous species of the Fagaceae family. This family is represented by tree species of the 3 genera: Castanopsis, Lithocarpus and Quercus. Generally people in Northern Laos refer to them as “Mak Ko” - the nut family. These oaks and chestnuts form distinctive forest types, and comprise a major share of the dominant tree species in moist evergreen and dry evergreen hill forests. Some species occur also in dry deciduous and riverine forests, and in many cases only locally occurring species can be found. Oaks and chestnuts are mainly evergreen and frost-hardy species, with only 3 oak species being deciduous. Year rings are visible in the wood of deciduous and some evergreen species. Flowering takes place mainly in the hot dry season from February to April and the flowers are always wind-pollinated. The nuts, enclosed by a cupula, of many species ripen in autumn from October to December. Rats and squirrels get their main diet in the beginning of the dry season by eating nuts. Fagaceae species establish a relationship with mycorrhiza fungi which benefits both the tree as the fungi, with many kinds of edible mushrooms growing in oak and chestnut forests. Planting Fagaceae seedlings requires soil with existing mycorrhiza or inoculation of the potting soil in the nursery. This can be done by taking topsoil with leaf debris from the original forest where the seed was collected. If no mycorrhiza is present the oak and chestnut seedlings will have a stunted growth on the planting site. Oaks and chestnuts are of great importance for the Xieng Khouang people, and are the most common hard woods used for fuels, not charcoal, with all species having good coppicing ability. The temperate highlands of Xieng Khouang consists of the following major primary forest types:

• Pine savannah forests and pine forests • Mixed conifer+broadleaved forests • Moist evergreen forests • Dry evergreen hill forests • Riverine forests • Swamp forests • Dry deciduous forests on limestone In between the major forest types there can be transitional stages such as Mixed evergreen+deciduous forest between Moist evergreen forest and Dry evergreen hill forest or Dry deciduous forest. Through degradation by swidden agriculture, forest fires and logging there are two main types of secondary forests developing from the major forest types:

• Moist, dense secondary forests • Dry, open secondary forests Pine savannah forests and pine forests On the Plain of Jars pine savannahs and pine forests occur on plain or gently sloping areas as well as in eroded ravines on dry, poor red lateritic soils with low pH. The ground vegetation consists mainly of Nja chik-chok grass (Themeda arundinacea). In spring the occurrence of Dork wan (Curcuma sp.) flowers is a striking red-maroon feature. In areas degraded by cattle grazing, bare soil is visible. On

vast areas of flat land pines and regeneration are absent, whereas new pine trees and forests emerge in bomb craters and eroded riverbanks and ravines. The dominant tree species are Kua or Paek sorng bei (Pinus merkusii) which grows up to altitudes of 1,200 m, and Paek or Paek sam bei (Pinus kesiya) which is found from 900 m onwards. In some areas both species can be found growing mixed together. Except for pines there are only a few other species to be found in low numbers such as Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana), Mi (Schima wallichii), Gao (Wendlandia tinctoria), Muat (Aporosa villosa), Sakai (Betula alnoides) and Khi mot (Glochidion fagifolium).

Crown cover in these forests is low to medium dense with nearly no trees in the medium layer. This phenomenon is due to regular burning and fuel wood collection by villagers reducing the abundance of broadleaves severely. Natural regeneration, in particular of pine, can be very strong if not destroyed by fire. Among the two pines, regeneration of Pinus kesiya is the most vigorous. Pinus merkusii seedlings halt their height growth for 2-4 years during their so-called “grass stage” but the terminal bud of the seedling tends to survive ground fires. Pine savannah forests and pine forests are one of the most important forest types in Xieng Khouang for timber production, torch wood and grazing cattle and buffaloes. The structure is often one-layered, sometimes two-layered. The upper layer delivers timber but to ensure regeneration some trees need to be kept as seed trees. The lower layer is the regeneration and should be given full sunlight after some time to ensure survival. Keteleeria evelyniana can survive more shade. Fire protection is very important for successful natural regeneration. Pine forest does provide only a few non-timber forest products such as edible mushrooms, like Het Phouak.

The major threats are forest fires, overgrazing and soil erosion. The number of previous, subsequent fire-free years in a pine forest can be estimated by counting the whorls of branches of the seedlings of Pinus kesiya which are developed each year. When young trees reach a height of about 1.5 m they usually survive ground fires without permanent damage. Below that height they die. Old pine trees are not susceptible to fire damage because of their thick bark. Pinus kesiya is vulnerable to fungus attacks and may die at an age of about 30 years, with often groups of pine trees infested at the same time. At the end of the rainy season, from October-November, this outbreak is visible through the dying needles that change their colour from green via yellow to red-brown.

PIC Mixed Conifer+Broadleaved Forests In the hilly areas surrounding the Plain of Jars the soil improves, however yellow-red lateritic soils but with sandstone as parent rock occur instead of quartz. On hills and lower and mid slopes of higher mountains mixed conifer+broadleaves forests are the major forest type, on medium to dry soils.

Ground vegetation consists mainly of grasses (“Nja chik-chok” and “Nja liam”) and herbs and ferns like Pteridium sp.. Epiphytes such as orchids do occur sparsely on old trees.

The dominant tree species are Paek (Pinus kesiya), Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana), Mi (Schima wallichii) as well as oaks, in particular Ko saa (Quercus griffithii) and Ko khae (Quercus serrata), but locally also Ko nang xang (Quercus vestita) or Ko som (Quercus brandisiana). Minor associated species are Muat (Aporosa villosa), Ko sak (Lithocarpus truncatus), Gao (Wendlandia tinctoria), Tao tiou (Cratoxylon sp.), Mak ngam (Myrica esculenta), Saleng (Syzygium sp.), Khi Mot (Glochidion fagifolium), Nang na (Anneslea fragrans), Kham porm (Phyllanthus emblica), Som khor (Vaccinium exaristatum) and Pao hoong (Engelhardtia serrata). Some giant figs (Ficus sp.) occur scattered.

Crown canopy is medium dense, with many trees in the second layer, and good natural regeneration of all tree species, sometimes reaching up to 30,000 seedlings per ha.

Mixed conifer+broadleaved forests provide both timber and fuel wood. Conifers and Mi are managed for timber and crooked pines are chipped for resinous wood, oaks and other broadleaves are used for fuel wood, posts and poles. Collection of edible mushrooms like Boletus, Russula and Cantharellus is an important activity for side dishes or cash income on the local markets. Mak ngam and Kham porm deliver edible fruits.

Threats are mainly forest fires and because of the easily accessibility over cutting of timber and fuel wood.

PIC Dry evergreen hill forests On the upper slopes and hill ridges the mixed conifer+broadleaves forests change gradually in to dry evergreen hill forests. The soil here is often shallow, stony, dry and of medium fertility. Ground vegetation is composed of mostly grasses (Nja chik-chok and Nja liam), some ferns and herbs. Epiphytes like orchids, mosses and lichens occur in abundance. Dominant species are evergreen broadleaves like Du than (Tristania merguensis), Ko keut (Castanopsis tribuloides) and Ko dam (Lithocarpus podocarpus). Many other tree species are found in this forest type like, Gabor (Dalbergia cultrata), Sakai (Betula alnoides), Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana), Paek (Pinus kesiya), Mi (Schima wallichii), Ko sak (Lithocarpus truncatus), Ko saa (Quercus griffithii), Pao deng (Engelhardtia spicata), Tao tiou (Cratoxylon sp.), Muat (Aporosa villosa), Khi mot (Glochidion fagifolium), Sa-xaang (Helicia sp.), Hop sang (Pieris ovalifolia) and Som khor (Vaccinium exaristatum). In some areas dry evergreen hill forests are dominated by oaks such as Ko nang xang (Quercus vestita).

The canopy cover is often dense to medium with slow growing medium-small (15 m) trees are and often crooked. Trees in the medium layer are abundant, and natural regeneration of all tree species is good.

Dry evergreen hill forests are managed for fuel wood and fence posts gathered from Du than and Ko keut trees with sufficiently straight boles. Ko keut produces also edible chestnuts. Paek does not produce sufficient dimensions for timber, but Hing grows vigorously and some large specimen can be used for construction wood. The collection of mushrooms is a common activity in this forest type. The threat for forest fires, mainly ground fires, is rather moderate and broadleaved species are capable to regenerate by coppicing. Over cutting of fuel wood and fence posts is a major threat.

PIC Moist evergreen forests In valley bottoms, along ravines with northern aspects and at foothills with rich deep moist soil patches of moist evergreen forests exist called “Bpa dong” meaning virgin forest.

The ground vegetation is species-rich and consists of mosses, many species of ferns, Zingiberaceae and sometimes rattan. In undisturbed and fire-free forests the Mak Khor palm (Livistonia speciosa), the fish-tail palm and the multi-stemmed Areca triandra palm can be found. Lianas and epiphytic plants occur in abundance, a regular indicator species is Bei dteui (Pandanus sp.).

Dominant tree species consists either of chestnuts like Ko nam (Castanopsis echinocarpa), Ko deng (C. hystrix) and Ko kieb (C. ceracantha) or oaks such as Ko kiao (Quercus blakei), Ko xay dong (Q. kerrii) or Ko pook (Q. fleuryi). Alternatively the tree species composition is made out of a mixture, but without any species dominating. In swampy areas Mak Theun (Nyssa javanica), Dtang (Schefflera sp.), Ko deng (Castanopsis hystrix), Kiou (Carpinus poilanei), Fung fad (Bischofia javanica) and Gor Kilek (Eriobotrya cavaleriei) are found. On lower and mid slopes Ko khi mou (Lithocarpus sp.), Sanjan deng (Styrax benzoides), Mak Meu (Spondias axillaris), Som Hor (Spondias lakonensis), Somsuai (Paramichelia baillonii), Mi (Schima wallichii), Mak Moun (Elaeocarpus siamensis.), Mak Bei (Canarium nigrum), Nyom (Toona ciliata), Din pet (Alstonia rostrata), Mak Luang (Garcinia multiflora), Mak Lam (Ormosia semicastrata) and Podocarpus neriifolius are growing together. Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana) is a common species here. Dork Gao Dork Mai (unidentified species) with its white flowers is a characteristic tree growing in deep ravines. This forest type is characterised by many species of the Lauraceae family like Sa-chouang (Cinnamomum sp.), Mi nou (Phoebe lanceolata) or Mi to (Nothaphoebe umbelliflora). At higher altitudes above 1,500 m Longleng (Fokienia hodginsii) occurs, mixed with Rhododendron sp., Acer sp., Lithocarpus sp. and many species.

Many unidentified species occur in this forest type and many new species await discovery. Especially species of the Fagaceae family occur often in small pockets.

The tree canopy is dense with tree heights up to 30 m. The vertical structure is characterised by an even composition of trees of all sizes and seedlings of many species are abundant.

Quality timber trees are often straight and very tall but only found scattered. Moist evergreen forests are threatened by shifting cultivation, illicit selective cutting of timber tree species and fuel wood as well as through overexploitation of some non-timber forest products. The biodiversity value is the highest among all forest types in the Xieng Khouang area and conservation of this rare and threatened forest type should have the highest priority. Many non-timber forest products like rattan, lianas, mushrooms, medicinal plants etc. can be found.

PIC Riverine forests Along rivers, creeks and small streams riverine forests are found which stretch from the riverbanks to the lower slopes of the river valleys, often less than 50 m wide. The sandy alluvial soil is often deep and rich in humus, with layers of boulders. Inundation occurs during the rainy season when the rivers swell up.

The ground vegetation is rich in woody shrub species, among them 2 species with decorative flowers: Rosa sp. and Dork Wae (Rhododendron simsii). On the river banks the soil is often bare, but covered with lush ground vegetation on the upper belt.

Dominant tree species growing here are Khai (Salix tetrasperma), Hat (Celtis sinensis), Kiou (Carpinus poilanei) and Mak Wo (unidentified). Being outside the pine area, other tree species like Pei (Duabanga grandiflorus) or Soom (Pterocarya tonkinensis) take over. Associated tree species are Mak Theun (Nyssa javanica), Ko xay (Quercus poilanei) and Morn (Morus sp.) at lower slopes, Mak Sak (Sapindus rarak), Mak Fen (Protium serratum), Haefa (Fraxinus sp.), Alangium chinense, Sterculia lanceolata, Fung fad (Bischofia javanica), Ko saa (Quercus griffithii), Sam (Garruga pinnata) and Mak Meu (Spondias axillaris) on the upper slope along the river. Along some small streams stands of conifers such as Lélé (Calocedrus macrolepis) or Hing nam (Dacrydium elatum) can be found.

The crown cover varies with state of degradation of the forest which can vary from very dense to open. Some large trees with diameters above 20 cm are present, but most trees are of smaller dimension. Natural regeneration is sparse. In spring many tree seedlings emerge from seed, carried by water, on sandy riverbanks but these will succumb due to inundation during the next rainy season.

The main non-timber forest products are fruits of several tree species like Mak Theun, Mak Fen and Fung fad. Khai bark can be used for natural dyeing. Hat and Kiou are good fuelwood species. Hat wood can also be used for making charcoal.

Threats for this forest type are riverbank erosion by the river current and cattle raising, over cutting of wood and shifting cultivation. Xieng Khouang villagers prefer to use the upper slopes of river valleys to cultivate maize and peanuts in the light sandy soil. This forest type should primary serve to protect the river banks.

PIC Swamp forests At the mouth of ravines or on lower slopes of foothills where groundwater emerges on the soil surface swamp forests can be found. The soil is either deep clayey or organic swampy with the groundwater shallow, just beneath the soil surface. Swamp forests occupy only as patches in Xieng Khouang. The ground vegetation is rich in mosses in particular peat moss (Sphagnum sp.), ferns, lianas, orchids and rattan.

No dominant tree species occur in swamp forests, but common species are Mak Theun (Nyssa javanica), Gor Kilek (Eriobotrya cavaleriei), Ki morn (Saurauja thorelii), Ko deng (Castanopsis hystrix), Lyonia foliosa (Ericaceae), Podocarpus neriifolius and some other unidentified species. Swamp forests have often a dense canopy and natural regeneration is abundant in the shade.

This forest type serves as an important buffer for water and should be left untouched for watershed protection. The extractable amounts of timber and fuel wood in swamp forests are negligible. Edible mushrooms do not occur. A major threat for this forest type is its conversion into paddy through slash-and-burn.

PIC Dry Deciduous Forests on Limestone Dry deciduous forests occur mainly in areas with limestone as parent rock. The relief can be rugged and steep at limestone cliffs which are difficult to access. These dry calcareous soils are shallow to deep with abundant stones and rocks, in some cases with soil only in the gaps between the rocks. The water retention capacity of these soils is low, and rain water is infiltrating into and running down the gaps of the rock causing the typical limestone carst.

Ground vegetation consists of many herbs and few grasses and ferns. Many ground and epiphytic orchids and some grow directly on limestone rocks. Cycas ferns are a common feature here.

Dominant tree species are Dork Ban (Bauhinia variegata), Ko meui (Quercus kingiana), Ko khae (Q. serrata) and Nyab (Colona floribunda), with conifers completely absent. Associated species are Dork Thorng (Erythrina stricta), Ngiou (Bombax anceps), Ketlin (Toxicodendron succedanea), Ko saa (Quercus griffithii), Sapi (Dalbergia sp.), Liang (Eriolanea candollei), Guai ling (Diospyros glandulosa), Mak Gen (Flacourtia indica), Pha Kang (Albizia chinensis) and Dork Lieb (Rademachera ignea). Many of these species are light-demanding.

Dry deciduous forests are often open forests that filter much sunlight to the forest floor, enabling strong natural regeneration of many tree species.

These forests deliver mainly fuel wood and poles as well as non-timber forest products like edible flowers and mushrooms. Some tree species deliver timber like Ketlin. Because of the fertile soil villagers prefer this forest type for swidden agriculture and poppy cultivation.

PIC Moist Dense Secondary Forests This degraded forest type is mainly the result of shifting cultivation and can be found at places where the fallow swidden is abandoned and undisturbed natural plant succession has taken place for already some years. The succession is limited because of short cycles of shifting cultivation, which hardly exceeds 15 years. The Lao people call this forest stage, “Bpa lau”.

This forest type can be found on moderate to steep slopes with relatively fertile moist soil, which are of interest for cultivation.

In the young stage very lush ground vegetation of grasses, herbs, ferns and lianas can be found, until it is shaded out by the trees closing the canopy. Spiny creeping Rubus sp. occurs regularly and make the forest difficult to access.

Moist secondary forests are species-rich, with often no dominant tree species. The species composition is depending on the tree species present in the previous forest. Those trees resprout from the tree stumps and root stocks with very fast growth. Among these are often Quercus, Lithocarpus and Castanopsis species of the Fagaceae family and also Mi (Schima wallichii), Mak Meu (Spondias axillaris), Dtin pet (Alstonia rostrata), Fung fad (Bischofia javanica), Somsuai (Paramichelia baillonii), Sanjan deng (Styrax benzoides), Kiou (Carpinus poilanei), Dtang (Schefflera octophylla), Pao deng (Engelhardtia spicata) and species of the Lauraceae family like Sa-chouang (Cinnamomum iners), Mi nou (Phoebe lanceolata) or Mi to (Nothaphoebe umbelliflora). Many pioneer tree species invading the swidden by seed from nearby or distant seed trees are Sakai (Betula alnoides), Leub lang (Triadica cochinchinensis), Sae (Macaranga andersonii), Mi, Khi mot (Glochidion fagifolium), Mak Khaen (Zanthoxylon rhetsa), Ben bai (Archidendron clypearia), Thong tao (Mallotus barbatus), Thong koop (Macaranga denticulata) and others. Pine (Pinus kesiya) can be introduced to this once pine-free forest when mineral soil is exposed. Species with no or low coppicing ability like Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana) are easily wiped out in the secondary forest unless reintroduced by seed.

There is no crown cover from large trees since these are mostly cut. Only some large trees of Mi (Schima wallichii), Sakai (Betula alnoides) and Hing (Keteleeria evelyniana) are sometimes left standing, and provide seed during the fallow phase of the swidden. Most trees occur in the pole stage and are often of the same age and height. Tree density is high and growth fast. Natural regeneration from the forest trees themselves does not yet occur since the trees have not yet reached their minimum flowering and fruiting age. Seedlings to find in the forest are derived mainly from alien sources, distributed by wind, birds and animals.

Most secondary forests contain few timber tree species of commercial interest and are managed for fuel wood, posts and poles and deliver many non-timber forest products derived from the ground flora. Their susceptibility to wildfires is quite low, but their fate is however sealed with the next cycle of slash-and-burn farming.

PIC

Dry Open Secondary Forests Dry open secondary forest can be found near settlements and comprises the remnants of the old forest plus the regrowth after a former cutting of the original forest. In other cases dry secondary forests develop along roads, in wastelands or abandoned “Hai kang” swidden fields. They can also comprise a temporary stage in the natural plant succession of grassland. Mostly they are found in flat or gently sloping areas on dry, infertile lateritic soils of low pH.

Prevailing species of the ground vegetation are grasses like Nja chik-chok (Themeda arundinacea), Nja kiou, Osbeckia and the woody shrub-like Nja falang (Eupatorium sp.). Nja kha (Imperata cylindrica) is not common here.

On abandoned Hai kang fields Mi (Schima wallichii), Gao (Wendlandia tinctoria) and Paek (Pinus kesiya) dominate. Otherwise a mix of many pioneer species can be found, consisting regularly of Ben (Rhus rhetsoides), Muat (Aporosa villosa), Somfot (Rhus chinensis), Mak Sida (Psidium guayava), Mak Than (Zizyphus mauritiana), Thong tao (Mallotus barbatus), Nang na (Anneslea fragrans), Leub lang (Triadica cochinchinensis), Mak Nod din (Ficus semicordata), Saleng (Syzygium sp.), Gadeng (Gordonia dalglieshiana), Khi mot (Glochidion fagifolium), Kham bporm (Phyllanthus emblica), Kem On (Ilex umbellulata), Pha kang (Albizia chinensis), Hang di (Eurya laotica), Muat ae (Symplocos macrophylla) and Sakai (Betula alnoides). Species of the Fagaceae family are almost absent.

Dry secondary forests appear very open and do not have an upper canopy. Tree density is low and tree growth is slow. Some scattered large trees may occur and trees of pole-sizes are scattered. This “forest type” consists mostly of mixed bush-land with sparse natural regeneration. If the vegetation develops undisturbed it can form a mixed high forest that is called “Bpa khang”.

Only marginal amounts of fuel wood trees are to be expected and timber trees are hard to find, therefore this forest type is mostly used for grazing of large livestock.

Threats for this forest type are wildfires and further degradation by cutting wood. In particular children cut even finger-thick wood as fuel when rearing cattle and buffaloes. Most tree species have hard inedible leaves so they are not browsed upon.

PIC

Part 3. The guide proper In the following part over 96 tree species are fully described. Some additional (32) species are only briefly mentioned, together with species they resemble, and are included to assist the user in differentiating them for each other. These species all occur in the area of the Plain of Jars and direct surroundings. For other similar species other guides and floras have to be used as they have not been recorded here. Because this field guide is also intended for simplicity only the most common synonyms are given. Synonyms are alternative names given to species and renamed over time when they were studied in detail by taxonomists. This has often lead (and leads) to much confusion also because botanists do not always agree on the correct use of names.

Calocedrus macrolepis Kurz. Family Cupressaceae Local names ÀìÀìÈ (Lé lé), Ä´ÉÂì¤Àì¤ (Long leng) Description This medium sized to large conifer resembles Fokienia. Trees can reach a diameter of up to 75 cm, but grow slow. The dark red-brown bark is stringy. Leaves are dark green and flat. Flowering and fruiting have not yet been observed. Natural regeneration in shade under mother trees is strong. The young seedlings develop first a pair of long cotyledons, then 1 centimeter long tip-pointed needles follow until the typical flat leave blades emerge similar to the Fokienia genus. Occurrence and Distribution Calocedrus is a rare species with a very limited habitat on the upper banks of valleys of small streams. In Xieng Khouang it grows along some creeks of the Nam Ngum river such as the Nam Sui near Ban Douk village and Nam Xane near Ban Om in Phoukoud district. On the latter site it is mixed with an evergreen oak Ko say (¡Ò §¾¨ -- Quercus sp.) and Podocarpus neriifolius. Calocedrus is also recorded for Vietnam. Use Calocedrus wood is suitable for light construction similar to that of Fokienia but with less fragrant resin. Exploitation of the few growing sites left has not been observed, because commercial logging is not feasible since the habitat is very limited and the harvestable amount of wood is too little. Propagation There is no information available on seed collection and germination. Digging out of wildlings might be feasible. In natural forest young seedlings are found in March, and it is expected that seed is ripe during the beginning of the dry season in October. Calocedrus is habitat specific and it is unlikely that there is a demand for planting.

Castanopsis spp. Castanopsis species or chestnuts almost always have a spiny cupula that encloses the seeds completely. The nuts of the genus are all edible and much appreciated by the local people. They form an important group of non-timber forest products of the highland forests and are sold on local markets, with some species exported. Propagating chestnuts is more difficult since the germination percentage is lower, germination takes longer time, and the initial seedling growth is very slow. (see overview op Castanopsis species in appendix 3)

Castanopsis diversifolia (Kurz) King Family Fagaceae Local name ¡Òêñ® (Ko tab) English name Chestnut Description Castanopsis diversifolia is medium tall evergreen tree, with a fissured grey-brown bark. The leaves are without dents. The red-brown nuts ripen in October. The size of the nut is 20-25 mm in diameter and 12-15 mm long, being the largest among the edible chestnuts in Xieng Khouang. Natural regeneration is sparse and has good coppicing ability. About 200 chestnuts per kg. Occurrence and Distribution C. diversifolia prefers a medium fertile, well-drained soil on upper slopes and hill ridges. It replaces Castanopsis tribuloides in the non-pine area and grows in dry evergreen hill forests on altitudes of 1,000-1,500 m. In Xieng Khouang C. diversifolia is found in the area of Nam Chad of Phoukoud district and in the Muang Ngan area of Khun district. Uses The nut is edible but the amounts for sale on markets in Xieng Khouang do not match those of Castanopsis echinocarpa. The wood is hard and used as fuel or for construction posts. Propagation Propagation by seed is possible, but the germination and seedling growth are slow. Similar species

Castanopsis argyrophylla King ex Hk. f. Castanopsis sp. Local names ¡Ò-Â©¨ (Ko doi) ¡Ò-¡ó® (Ko kieb) Both these chestnut species have all large nuts and are traded regularly on Xieng Khouang markets. They come mainly from remote forests of the Muang Ngan area of Khun district, and little is known about the ecology of the species in that area. About 300 chestnuts per kg. Propagation by seed has been successfully carried out.

Castanopsis hystrix A.DC Family Fagaceae Local names ¡ÒÁ©¤ (Ko deng); ¡Ò³¾¤ (Ko fang) English name Chestnut Description Castanopsis hystrix is a medium to large evergreen tree with a brown and flaky bark, easily to distinguish from other chestnut species. In soft soil on slopes it builds buttresses. The small leathery leaves are white to light brown beneath. Young emerging shoots and leaves are dark red-brown. Flowering in March-April and fruiting in October-December. Flowers are pollinated by wind, and nuts eaten by rats and squirrels. The fruits are spiny and the shell opens into 4 sections releasing a single chestnut. The nut is round with a small tip, dark brown, with a diameter of 7 mm. About 1,200 nuts per kg. The seedlings are shade-demanding and slow growing. Regeneration through coppicing is good on abandoned swiddens. Occurrence and Distribution C. hystrix prefers fertile, well-drained soil on lower slopes and in valleys. It can be found on sandstone, granite and limestone bedrock or ferralitic red-brown basalt. The species is a regular sight in moist evergreen forests but it is also found in deciduous or mixed deciduous+evergreen forest on altitudes of 300-1,500 m. There it is associated with Castanopsis ceracantha, Castanopsis echinocarpa, Castanopsis indica, Alstonia rostrata, Betula alnoides, Schima wallichii, Keteleeria evelyniana and the Lauraceae family, sometimes also with bamboo species. It is common allover Xieng Khouang province. In Laos it is also found in all other northern provinces. Recorded from Vietnam, China, Thailand and India. Uses C. hystrix is one of the popular fuel woods in Xieng Khouang, but is also used for poles and timber. C. hystrix and C. echinocarpa poles are used for scaffolding in large quantities in the construction business because they are straight. The use for timber is limited since large, old trees are often rotten and hollow inside, since this chestnut does not have a distinct heartwood. Edible nuts are eaten by the local people, sold at local markets and even exported to Vietnam. Propagation Propagation by seed is possible but the germination percentage is quite low. Seedling growth is also slow. Outplanting can only be done in shade, not in full sunlight. Similar species

Castanopsis echinocarpa A.DC. Castanopsis ceracantha Hick. et A. Camus

¡Ò−Õ (Ko nam); ¡Ò-ªº¤ (Ko dtorng) ¡Ò-¡ó® (Ko kieb); ¡Ò-Â´¡ (Ko moog) Both these chestnut species have a similar morphology as C. hystrix. Their bark is however grey and smooth, and their leaves are larger and dented on the upper half. Leaves of C. echinocarpa are shiny green beneath, those of C. ceracantha velvety brown. Flowering of C. echinocarpa takes place in

February, before that of C. hystrix and C. ceracantha. Nuts are ripe in October-December and have the same size as C. hystrix. C. ceracantha fruit-shells contain often 1 pair of nuts. All 3 chestnut species grow in the same habitat, C. echinocarpa being often the dominant one to find. They all have similar wood properties with visible year rings, and major fuel wood species in Xieng Khouang, their nuts are sold often mixed together.

Castanopsis indica A.DC Family Fagaceae Local names ¡Ò¹−¾´-¨¾¸ (Ko naam njao); ¡Ò¦ö´ (Ko som) English name Chestnut Description Castanopsis indica is a medium to large evergreen tree with a grey-brown and fissured bark. Large leaves have dents along the whole margin. The spiny fruits (“naam njao” = long spines) are similar to those of C. hystrix. Flowering is in April and May, fruiting in October-December. Flowers are pollinated by wind, and nuts eaten by rats and squirrels. Poor natural regeneration through seed but good coppicing ability. Occurrence and Distribution C. indica prefers fertile, well-drained soil on mid and upper slopes. It is an uncommon species in the Plain of Jars area but becoming dominating in mixed deciduous+evergreen on altitudes above 1,000 m in the Nam Chad area of Phoukoud district and the adjacent Phoukoune district of Luang Prabang province. In north Kham district it can be found along the way to the border to Houa phan province, where it is associated with Betula alnoides and Schima wallichii. The distribution area is in the mountains up to India and Nepal where it forms mixed forests with Schima wallichii. Uses Wood is used as fuel and the nuts are edible.

Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC. Family Fagaceae Local names ¡Ò¡ô© (Ko keut); ¡ô© (Keut) English name Chestnut Description Castanopsis tribuloides is a medium to large evergreen tree with a fissured bark. Leaves are without dents. With its flowers appearing in April it is the latest chestnut to flower. Fruits ripen in September – October being the first chestnut on the markets. New leaves occur in November and are susceptible to frost damage. Flowers are pollinated by wind, and nuts eaten by rats and squirrels. C. tribuloides has abundant natural regeneration and good coppicing ability. After nuts have fallen down, they germinate

fast. The young seedlings benefit from the rains at the end of the rainy season and usually survive in half shade of the forest. Occurrence and Distribution C. tribuloides prefers medium fertile, well-drained soil on upper slopes and hill ridges and can be found on sandstone and granite. It is one of the dominating species in dry evergreen hill forests on altitudes of 1,000-1,500 m where it is associated with Betula alnoides, Tristania merguensis, Lithocarpus truncatus, Lithocarpus podocarpus, Schima wallichii, Keteleeria evelyniana, Pinus kesiya and Dalbergia sp. Common allover Xieng Khouang province. Uses Among the Xieng Khouang chestnuts it has the hardest wood and the year rings are not visible. This makes it one of the most popular woods for making fence posts in Xieng Khouang. If the bole of the tree is straight the wood is also used for construction posts. Edible nuts are eaten by the local people and sold at local markets. Propagation Propagation by seed is possible with a good germination percentage even without pre-treatment. Seedling growth is slow but faster than that of other chestnut species.

Dacrydium elatum Hickel Family Podocarpaceae

Local names »š¤-»-º´ (Hing horm), Ä´É»š¤-−Õ (Hing nam) Description This slow growing medium sized tree resembles the Cupressus type. The dark red-brown bark is stringy, and the needles are very fine. Flowering and fruiting have not been observed. Natural regeneration occurs but not very abundant. Young seedlings grow continuously with needle-like leaves covering the whole stem. Occurrence and Distribution Dacrydium elatum is a rare tree species with a very limited habitat in valleys of small streams. In Xieng Khouang it grows along some creeks of the Nam Ngum river such as the Nam Ko near Ban Sang village in Paek district or near Ban Baen in Phoukoud district. It can be found more widely in the Phou Kau Kuai mountains NBCA in Vientiane province in heath forest mixed with Pinus merkusii. Use D. elatum wood is good for light construction similar to that of Fokienia but with less fragrant resin. Old trees have mostly been cut. Propagation There is not much known about seed collection and germination. Digging out wildlings might be feasible. D. elatum only grows in a very limited habitat and it is unlikely that there is much demand for planting. Fokienia hodginsii (Dunn.) Henry & Thomas Family Cupressaceae Synonyms F. kawai Hayata; Cupressus hodginsii Dunn.

Local names Âì¤Àì¤ (Long leng), Àì−ÀìÈ (Len le), ì¾¤Àìñ− (Lang len) Description Fokienia is a large conifer and when mature measures diameters of up to 2 m. It is a very slow growing tree species, with year rings measure about 1 mm / year. The wood contains a resin with pleasant odour. The bark is slightly fissured. Leaves are flat and dark green on both sides similar to those of Cupressus or Thuja species. Pollination and seed dispersal is by wind. Flowering has not been observed, occurring only with old trees. The fruit is a small dark brown cone. Good natural regeneration. Occurrence and Distribution Fokienia occurs in moist evergreen forests on high altitudes above 1,500 m mixed with Dacrydium pierrei, Pinus sp. and broad-leaved species of Fagaceae, Lauraceae and Magnoliaceae as well as Acer sp. and Rhododendron sp. It needs a mild climate with abundant rainfall and humid soil, and mainly

grows on granite or limestone. The number of trees per ha can be quite high, composed of natural regeneration, pole stage and mature trees. In Xieng Khouang it is found on mountains whose summits exceed 2,000 m altitude such as Phu San, Phu Paxay, Phu Xao and Phu Xamsoum. Elsewhere it is recorded for Khammouane, Bolikhamxay and Houa Phan provinces in Laos, also in the Annamite Range as well as from Vietnam and southern China. Use The wood of Fokienia is very much appreciated for making furniture and handicraft articles. It is a major export item of Xieng Khouang province. Local villagers living near the Fokienia forests make roof shingles of the wood which have a long durability. The wood which contains a high amount of resin is preferred because of its nice fragrant. The oil from seeds is used for cosmetics and medicine preparation. Fokienia forests have already been exploited considerably by logging concessionaires. The remnants are used by villagers who may cut the trees illegally. Propagation Fokienia can be propagated by seed. Until now no efforts have been undertaken to plant Fokienia seedlings in appropriate areas to save this species from extinction. Attempts to plant this species in lower altitudes or without sufficient shade have mostly failed. Seedlings can be raised in the nursery or dug out from the natural forests. Young seedlings have a high demand for shade. Lithocarpus spp. Trees of the Lithocarpus genus are usually smaller trees occupying the second layer of the forest. Their inflorescences are located on long upright standing spikes, and so are the ripe nuts which are not edible. Propagation of Lithocarpus species is quite difficult because in many years seeds are empty. (see overview op Lithocarpus species in appendix 3)

Lithocarpus silvicolarum (King) Rehd et Wils. Family Fagaceae Local names ¡Ò¢ó-¹´ø (Ko khi mou); ¡ÒÁ¢¤ (Ko keng) Description A medium-sized fast growing evergreen tree with a fluted stem and smooth grey bark. Green leaves without dents. Flowers and fruits on stalks in the upper crown. Flowering in April, fruits ripen in October. Flowers are pollinated by wind, and nuts eaten by rats and squirrels. Abundant natural regeneration by coppices but not from seed. Occurrence and Distribution Lithocarpus silvicolarum prefers medium fertile, well-drained soil in ravines and lower to mid slopes and is commonly found in moist evergreen forests on altitudes of 1,000-1,500 m. There it is associated with Castanopsis hystrix, C. echinocarpa, Alstonia rostrata, Lithocarpus dealbatus, L. polystachius, L. fenestratus and Styrax tonkinensis. Common allover Xieng Khouang province. Uses

A common fuel wood in Xieng Khouang. Nuts are not edible. Propagation Propagation by seed not yet tested due to lack of viable seed. Similar species

Lithocarpus polystachius (Wall.) Need.

Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb.) Rehd.

Lithocarpus dealbatus (Hook.f. et Thom.) Rehder Local names ¡Ò¢ó-¹´ø (Ko khi mou); ¡ÒÁ¢¤ (Ko keng) All these species grow in the same habitat, often mixed together. They have the same morphology, distinguishing them is only possible with ripe fruits since leaves, flowers and bark are very similar. Wood is used as fuel wood. Nuts not edible, and often not viable.

Lithocarpus sp. Local name ¡Ò-¹¸É¾− (Ko wan = sweet nut) Small tree up to 4-5 m tall, occurring mainly in secondary forests of medium humidity, on the edges of ravines. Fruits are similar to those of L. polystachius but smaller, dark brown to violet-black when ripe. Flowering in March, fruits are shed with stalks in October. Distinct of Lithocarpus sp. are its young edible leaves with their sweet taste when chewed. Wood used as fuel.

Lithocarpus truncatus (King) Rehd et Wils. Family Fagaceae Local names ¡Ò¦ñ¡ (Ko sak); ¡Ò¦½ (Ko sa) Description A medium stall slow growing evergreen tree, with a slightly fissured grey bark. Grey-green leaves are without dents. Flowers and fruits are on stalks in the upper crown. Flowering is in April and fruits ripen in October. The flowers are pollinated by wind, and nuts eaten by rats and squirrels. The white-brown seeds are round and nearly entirely covered by the grey-green cupula of a diameter of 12-15 mm. Abundant natural regeneration by coppicing but not from seed. Occurrence and Distribution Lithocarpus truncatus prefers medium fertile, well-drained soil on upper slopes and hill ridges, and can be found on sandstone and granite. It grows regularly in dry evergreen hill forests on altitudes of 1,000-1,500 m, where it is associated with Betula alnoides, Tristania merguensis, Lithocarpus podocarpus, Schima wallichii, Keteleeria evelyniana, Pinus kesiya and Dalbergia sp. L. truncatus is common allover Xieng Khouang province. Recorded in Thailand, Vietnam, India and China. Uses

The wood is very hard and heavy. It is a preferred fuel wood in Xieng Khouang, but also used for making charcoal. Nuts are not edible. Propagation Propagation by seed is possible, but with slow germination, and slow growing seedlings. Similar species

Lithocarpus podocarpus Chun. Local name ¡Ò©¿ (Ko dam) Description Lithocarpus podocarpus has a very similar morphology as L. truncatus, but the bark is deeper fissured. The seeds are dull red-brown, round-ovate, with a diameter of 8-10 mm. Flowering and fruiting at same time as L. truncatus, occurring in the same habitat on upper slopes and hill ridges. The nuts are often empty or infested by insects. Natural regeneration is sparse because of the absence of viable seed. Slow growing tree, with the wood used as fuel wood. Quercus spp. Quercus species or oaks are a more diverse genus than the chestnuts and Lithocarpus (all Fagaceae) and are found in more forest types. Some of them have a very wide range of growing sites such as Ko Saa (Quercus griffithii). Unlike the chestnuts and Lithocarpus species which can be found also in the lowlands, oaks occur in Laos only in the hills at higher altitudes. They are very similar to the Lithocarpus genus but their male inflorescences are hanging down. Some of the oaks bear ripe nuts during the rainy season. Acorns are not edible but can be fed to pigs. Oak wood logs can be used as substrate for mushroom-cultivation. Oaks are easy to propagate, as the seeds are rich in nutrients, and have a high germination percentage and a fast seedling growth. (see overview op Quercus species in appendix 2)

Quercus blakei Skan. Family Fagaceae Local names ¡Ò¢¼¸ (Ko kiao); -¡Ò§¾¨ (Ko xay) English name Oak Description Quercus blakei is a large evergreen tree with smooth grey-brown bark. Small dark green leathery leaves, the upper half serrated and white beneath. The acorns are coffee-brown, 3-3.5 cm long and 1.5-2 cm in diameter, with a smooth dull surface. Cupula with concentric rings covering ⅓ - ½ of the acorn. Acorns ripen in May-July, Q. blakei being the only oak in Xieng Khouang with ripe acorns during the rainy season. Natural regeneration is very strong in shade. Seedlings develop first one whorl of three to four leaves. Young emerging leaves are white to pink with hairs. Seedlings are shade demanding.

Occurrence and Distribution Q. blakei occurs in moist evergreen forests in mixed oak stands with Q. fleuryi and Q. kerii on rich moist loamy soils. In Xieng Khouang province good stands can be found in the conservation forest area between Ban Xay and Ban Poua villages and at the Nam Sui river near Ban Sia / Ban Xay villages in Phoukoud district. Also recorded in Vietnam and China. Use Q. blakei wood is hard and a good fuel but little used since most stands are located within conservation forests. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy. Acorns cannot be stored for long time.

Quercus brandisiana Kurz Family Fagaceae Local name -¡Ò-¦ö´ (Ko som) English name Oak Description Quercus brandisiana is a medium-sized, light-demanding evergreen tree up to 15 m tall and 60 cm in diameter with a slightly fissured grey bark. The whole elliptic leaves have a rounded tip or are lightly dented on the upper half. Flowering in November and December, fruiting in April and May. The red-brown acorns are round, with a diameter of 12-15 mm. Natural regeneration by seed and coppicing is strong. Acorns germinate immediatley after falling down and benefit from the inset of the rainy season in April-May. Seedlings develop first one pair of large leaves before the next flush sets in. Occurrence and Distribution A common forest tree in dry deciduous, mixed conifer+broadleaves and dry evergreen hill forests on red lateritic and loamy soils. Occurring on upper slopes and hill ridges. There it is associated with Pinus kesiya, Keteleeria evelyniana, Schima wallichii and Quercus griffithii or forming pure stands. In Xieng Khouang province the only known stand can be found on the hill ridge between the watersheds of Nam Ngum and Nam Khan near Ban Keung village in the north of Phoukoud district. Q. brandisiana is also recorded for Thailand. Use Q. brandisiana oak wood is mainly used as fuel in the Muang Keung area of Phoukoud district where it replaces Quercus serrata which does not occur in there. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy.

Quercus fleuryii Hickel et A. Camus Family Fagaceae

Local names ¡ÒÂ²¡ (Ko pook); ¡ÒÂ¡ (Ko ko) English name Oak Description A large evergreen tree with smooth grey bark, leaves are large and long, whole and sometimes slightly toothed at the tip. The red-brown acorns are 4-5 cm long and 2-2.5 cm in diameter, the cupula covering ⅔ of acorn. Young twigs and leaves as well as the acorn and cupula are densely covered with yellow-brown hairs. Acorns ripen in February-March and are preyed heavily on by rats. Insect infestation of acorns is also very high, therefore natural regeneration is nearly absent. Seedlings develop first 2 pink hairy leaves. Occurrence and Distribution Q. fleuryii occurs in moist evergreen forests in pure stands or mixed with Q. kerrii and Q. blakei on rich moist loamy soils. In Xieng Khouang province a good stand can be found in the conservation forest area between Ban Xay and Ban Poua villages in Phoukoud district. Also recorded in Vietnam and southern China. Uses Q. fleuryii wood is hard and good for fuel and construction, but little used since it occurs mainly in conservation forests. The nuts contains edible starch and are sold on markets in Yunnan (China) and Hongkong. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy.

Quercus griffithii Hook f. et Thoms. Family Fagaceae Local names -¡Ò-¦¾ (Ko saa) -¥ò¡-Ã®-Ã¹¨È (Chik bei njai) in Boloven plateau / Champassak province English name Oak Description Quercus griffithii is a medium-sized, light-demanding deciduous tree up to 20 m height and 0.80 m diameter. Growth is almost straight and often builds up a large crown very early. The bark is deeply fissured with larger intersections than Quercus serrata. At moist conditions growth is fast, but when dry it is slower. Leaves with lobes along the whole leaf. Leaves are shed in December, and new foliage appears in February. New leaves are arranged in whorls, 3-4 flushes of growth per year. Flowering in February-March, fruiting in October-November. The dark brown acorns are long-elliptic, 8 mm in diameter, and 15 mm long. Natural regeneration by seed and coppicing is strong. Acorns germinate immediatley after falling down and benefit from the remaining soil moisture, in particular if near moist grassland, at the end of the rainy season. Q. griffithii is able to resprout after fire damage. Occurrence and Distribution

Q. griffithii is probably an oak able to cope with the widest range of site and soil conditions. It is a common forest tree in riverine, dry deciduous, mixed conifer+broadleaves and dry evergreen hill forests on sandy, clay, red ferralitic, rich loamy and calcareous soils. It is occurring on flat or undulating land as well as on lower to upper slopes and associated with Pinus kesiya, Keteleeria evelyniana, Schima wallichii and Q. serrata. It is also found at forest edges near moist meadows and paddy fields associated with Carpinus poilanei. In Xieng Khouang province Q. griffithii is the most common oak besides Q. serrata. Within Laos Q. griffithii can be found also on the Boloven plateau in Champassak province. Uses In smaller dimensions the wood is used for fence posts. Some farmers use the wood to make agricultural tools like ploughs. The wood is not used as a fuel or for house construction since it is difficult to split and to work. Acorns can be fed to pigs. Wood logs can be used as a growing substrate for mushroom cultivation. Q. griffithii is one important host tree for stag beetles. Another value is its function to protect soil against erosion with its deep root system. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy. Planting sites should contain mycorrhiza fungi otherwise potting soil has to be inoculated in the nursery. Insect infestation of acorns by larvae of Curculionidae is common and causes losses of stored seed. Acorns cannot be stored as long like Q. serrata.

Quercus kerrii Craib. Family Fagaceae Local name ¡Ò--§¾¨©ö¤ (Ko xay dong) English name Oak Description Quercus kerrii is a large evergreen tree with scaly grey-brown bark, with trees growing on steep slopes developing buttresses. The leaves are soft, not leathery, with white fir beneath and the upper half of the blade toothed. Acorns are 1.5-2 cm long and 2-3 cm in diameter, red-brown with white fir and sometimes appearing lilac. The cupula has concentric rings and covering just the bottom of the acorn. Acorns ripen in December to February-March. Natural regeneration very strong in half shade. Seedlings develop first one whorl of four leaves. Occurrence and Distribution Quercus kerrii occurs in moist evergreen forests in pure stands or mixed with Q. fleuryi and Q. blakei on rich moist loamy soils. In Xieng Khouang province good stands can be found in the conservation forest area between Ban Xay and Ban Poua villages and at the Nam Xane river near Ban Om / Ban Ang villages and Nam Sui river near Ban Sia / Ban Xay villages in Phoukoud district. It is also recorded in Thailand, Vietnam and China. Use Q. kerrii wood is hard and a good fuel. Propagation

Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy.

Quercus kingiana Craib Family Fagaceae Local name ¡Ò--À¹´óº¨ (Ko meui) English name Oak Description Quercus kingiana is a medium-sized, light-demanding deciduous tree with a slightly fissured reddish-grey bark. Elliptic leaves are dented or lobed on the upper half of the blade. Flowering is in February and fruiting in November. The red-brown acorns are elliptic, 14 mm in diameter and 20 mm long. The cupula has spines similar to those of Quercus serrata but shorter. Natural regeneration by seed is moderate, but is able to coppice. Occurrence and Distribution Q. kingiana is a common forest tree in dry deciduous and semi-evergreen hill forests on limestone soil. It is occurring on lower to upper slopes and hill ridges where it is associated with Bauhinia variegata, Quercus serrata, Bombax anceps and Castanopsis tribuloides. In Xieng Khouang province forests with Q. kingiana can be found in Ban Naluang / Ban Mang villages of Muang Sui area in Phoukoud district. Q. kingiana is also recorded for Thailand where it occurs in dry Dipterocarp forest e.g. in Doi Inthanon national park. Use Q. kingiana oak wood is used as a fuel but not extensive since local people prefer Quercus serrata. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy.

Quercus poilanei Hickel et A. Camus Family Fagaceae Local name ¡Ò§¾¨ (Ko xay) English name Oak Description Quercus poilanei is a small evergreen tree with a smooth grey-brown bark. The leathery leaves are dented on the upper half of the leaf blade. Flowering is in March and acorns ripen in November. The dull dark-brown acorns are elliptic, with a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 18 mm, similar to those of Q. griffithii but slightly bigger. Cupula with concentric rings. Good coppicing ability and natural regeneration occurs where acorns fall on the soil which is not flooded. Seedlings develop first one pair of large leaves before the next flush sets in. Occurrence and Distribution

Q. poilanei grows exclusively at river banks on deep sandy soil, where it is associated with Salix tetrasperma, Nyssa javanica and Celtis sinensis. In Xieng Khouang province it is found at the Nam Ngum and Nam Sui rivers in Phoukoud district. Use The oak wood is hard and a good fuel but little used since trees often grow in locations difficult to reach. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy. Planting trials on red lateritic soil have been successfully carried out, where its performance is sometimes better than that of Q. serrata and Q. griffithii.

Quercus serrata Roxb. Family Fagaceae Local names ¡Ò-Á£½ (Ko khae) -¥ò¡-Ã®-−Éº¨ (Chik bei noi) in Boloven plateau / Champassak province English name Oak Description Quercus serrata is a large deciduous tree with a straight growth and pointed crown. The bark is black-grey and fissured. Leaves are with dents along the whole leaf blade, and do not occur in whorls as with other oaks. During the dry season leaves are shed late, in January, with new leaves and flowers occurring in February and March. Acorns ripen in November and December. The cupula is spiny and acorns are round-elliptic red-brown, 10-15 mm in diameter and 15-20 mm long. Q. serrata has good coppicing ability, with shoots resprouting after fire damage, natural regeneration is fair. Occurrence and Distribution A common forest tree in dry deciduous and mixed conifer+broadleaves forests on yellow-red ferralitic, rich loamy and calcareous soils. Occurring on flat or undulating land as well as on lower to upper slopes with moderate soil moisture and associated with Pinus kesiya, Keteleeria evelyniana, Schima wallichii and Quercus griffithii. Sometimes occurring in pure stands. In Xieng Khouang province Q. serrata is very common and stands can be found in Muang Sui area and Ban Ang village of Phoukoud district, Nongpet area of Paek district as well as in Khun, Kham and Nonghet districts. Within Laos Q. serrata can be found also in Houa Phan and Bolikhamsay (Khamkeut district) provinces as well as on the Boloven plateau in Champassak province. Q. serrata is also recorded for Vietnam and South China (Yunnan). Uses This oak is appreciated fuel wood species in Xieng Khouang because it’s straight growth and is easy to split wood. Acorns can be fed to pigs. Wood logs can be used as growing substrate for mushroom cultivation. It is also one of the most important hosts for stag beetles. Propagation Propagation by seed and raising seedlings is easy. The planting site should contain mycorrhiza fungi otherwise potting soil has to be inoculated in the nursery. Insect infestation of acorns by larvae of

Curculionidae is common causing losses of stored seed. Direct sowing can be done with good success. Acorns have been stored from December until May and then been sown in pits on ploughed land with subsequent soil coverage. Germination was 70 %.

Quercus vestita Rehd. & Wils. Family Fagaceae Local name -¡Ò-¹−ñ¤-§É¾¤ (Ko nang xang = Elephant Skin Oak) English name Oak Description Quercus vestita is a large evergreen tree, and the bark fissures are like the skin of an elephant. The leaves have dents on the upper part of the blades and are fur-like underneath. New shoots appear in February, which are yellow-orange to red-brown and covered in soft hairs. Flowering is in March and acorns ripen in September and October, being the first oak at the end of the rainy season. Acorns are still green when they are shed. The wide and flat cupula has a diameter of 20 mm and is 4 mm in length, and the acorns are flat, with a diameter of 15-22 mm and 10-12 mm long. Germination takes place very fast at the bottom of the acorn and not at the tip like all the other oaks in the region. At the bottom where the nut shell is thinnest, the root emerges and pushes the cupula away. Natural regeneration by seed is sparse because rats and squirrels prey on the acorns. Good coppicing ability. Occurrence and Distribution Q. vestita grows in pure stands or in mixed broadleaves+conifer forests with loamy soil, mainly on dry upper slopes and hill ridges, mixed with Pinus kesiya, Keteleeria evelyniana, Quercus griffithii and Lithocarpus sp. In Xieng Khouang Q. vestita is found between Ban Piang Luang and Ban Phouviang villages in a mixed stand. A large pure stand exists in Ban Bouaknam / Ban Ang near Phou Saeo in Phoukoud district. Also recorded in Thailand. Use Q. vestita wood is mainly used as fuel. Propagation Q. vestita can be propagated by seed. Emergence of seedlings takes place in March-April after germination has already started in September. It seems that during the following cold season the nutrients of the acorn flow into the root and stay dormant for several months. References Callaghan, R.M.: Plants of Laos. a list of tree species, Vientiane 1995 FORRU: Tree Seeds and Seedlings for restoring forests in Northern Thailand, Chiang Mai 2000 Gardner, Simon; Sidisunthorn, Pindar and Anusarnsunthorn, Vilaiwan: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand, Bangkok 2000

Greijmans, M. and C. Phongoudome. An Assessment of the Conservation Status of Selected Tree Species in Lao P.D.R. Lao Tree Seed Project. The Lao Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, Laos. 2002 Rai, Topdhan and Rai, Lalitkumar: Trees of the Sikkim Himalaya, New Delhi 1994 Storrs, Jimmie and Adrian: Trees and Shrubs of Nepal and the Himalayas, Kathmandu 1990 Vidal, Jules E.: noms vernaculaires de plantes, Paris 1959 Vidal, Jules E.: Paysages végétaux et plantes de la Péninsule indochinoise, KARTHALA, Paris 1997 Vu Van Dung (Ed.): Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1996

Appendix 2: Overview of Quercus spp. in Xieng Khouang

Ripe acorns in month

Lao Name Scientific name Seeds per 1 kg

Leaf regime Soil type Forest type 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Ko pook Q. fleuryi 90-100 evergreen loam pure, moist evergreen x x Ko xay dong Q. kerrii 150-170 evergreen loam pure, moist evergreen x x x Ko som Q. brandisiana 250-400 evergreen loam, red laterite dry evergreen + conifer x Ko kiao Q. blakei 150-170 evergreen loam moist evergreen x x x Ko nang xang Q. vestita 200 evergreen loam, laterite pure, dry evergreen + conifer x x Ko saa Q. griffithii 400-500 deciduous clay, loam, red

laterite dry deciduous, dry hill evergreen, mixed deciduous + conifer

x

Ko xay Q. poilanei 250 evergreen sand riverine x x Ko meui Q. kingiana 250-350 deciduous limestone dry deciduous x x Ko khae Q. serrata 200-500 deciduous limestone, loam, red

laterite pure, mixed deciduous + conifer x x

Lao Name Scientific name Ratio of length / height of

the acorn to its diameter Share of cupula covering the length of the acorn

Leaf pattern of seedlings Appearance of new leaves and twigs

Ko pook Q. fleuryi 1.5-2 : 1 2/3 to 4/5 whorl of 2-3 tomentose-hairy pink leaves tomentose yellow-brown

Ko xay dong Q. kerrii 1 : 2 about 1/3 whorl of 3-4 glabrous green leaves glabrous green

Ko som Q. brandisiana 0.8-1 : 1 about 1/4 one pair of glabrous dark brown leaves glabrous green

Ko kiao Q. blakei 1.3-1.5 : 1 1/4 to 2/5 whorl of 3-4 soft tomentose-hairy pink-brown leaves

glabrous green

Ko nang xang Q. vestita 1 : 1.5-2 about 1/3 whorl of 2-3 slightly tomentose green leaves tomentose yellow-orange-brown

Ko saa Q. griffithii 1.8-2 : 1 about 1/3 whorl of 2-3 dull green leaves tomentose white-green

Ko xay Q. poilanei 1.5 : 1 1/5 to 1/4 one pair of glabrous dark brown leaves glabrous dark brown

Ko meui Q. kingiana 1.3-1.5 : 1 1/4 to 1/3 whorl of 2-3 slightly dull green leaves slghtly tomentose green

Ko khae Q. serrata 1.2-1.3 : 1 1/2 to 2/3 long shoot with many yellow-green leaves aligned like a spiral staircase

slightly tomentose yellow-green

Appendix 3: Overview of the Castanopsis spp. and Lithocarpus spp. in Xieng Khouang

Flowering (F) and Ripe nuts (R) in month

Lao Name Scientific name Seeds per 1 kg Leaf regime Forest type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Ko doi C. argyrophylla 300 evergreen moist evergreen R Ko kieb C. ceracantha 1,200 evergreen moist evergreen F R R R Ko tab C. diversifolia 200 evergreen dry evergreen hill R R Ko nam C. echinocarpa 1,200 evergreen moist evergreen F R R R Ko deng C. hystrix 1,200 evergreen moist evergreen F F R R Ko nam njao C. indica 1,200 evergreen deciduous+evergreen F F R R Ko keut C. tribuloides 1,200 evergreen dry evergreen hill F R R Ko khi mou L. fenestratus 500 evergreen moist evergreen F F R R Ko dam L. podocarpus 1,000 evergreen dry evergreen hill F F R R Ko wan L. sp. 400-1,000 evergreen open secondary F F R R Ko khi mou L. polystachius 500 evergreen moist evergreen F F R R Ko khi mou L. silvicolarum 500 evergreen moist evergreen F F R R Ko sak L. truncatus 500-600 evergreen dry evergreen hill F F R R Lao Name Scientific name Cupula Cupula encloses nut Ripe cupula splits into Leaf margin Ko doi C. argyrophylla log thin spines completely 2 sections upper half serrated Ko kieb C. ceracantha short thick spines completely 2 sections upper half serrated, tapering tip Ko tab C. diversifolia long thin spines completely 2 sections entire Ko nam C. echinocarpa short warts completely 2 sections upper half serrated, tapering tip Ko deng C. hystrix long thin spines completely 4 sections entire, tapering tip Ko nam njao C. indica long thin spines completely 4 sections serrated Ko keut C. tribuloides short warts completely 2 sections entire, tip Ko khi mou L. fenestratus warts nearly completely no, nuts fall down in whole clusters entire Ko dam L. podocarpus flat scales about ½ no, nuts fall down in whole clusters entire Ko wan L. sp. flat about ½ no, nuts fall down in whole clusters entire Ko khi mou L. polystachius flat about 1/3 no, nuts fall down in whole clusters entire

Ko khi mou L. silvicolarum flat about 1/3 no, nuts fall down in whole clusters entire Ko sak L. truncatus green flat scales nearly completely no, nuts fall down in whole clusters entire, tapering tip

Index

Species (related species or synonym) Lao Phonetic English Alangiun chinense §É¾-¨¾− Sanyan Albizia chinensis ²½-£ñ¤ Pa khang Silk Tree Albizia odoratissima (see A. chinensis) ÀÍñ´ Lem Aleurites montana (Vernicia montana) ¹´¾¡ À¨ö¾ ¹ó− Mak Njau hin Alstonia rostrata -ªó−-À¯ñ© Dtin pet Alstonia rostrata ªó−À¯ñ©²ø Dtin pet phou Alstonia rostrata -ªó−Ä¡ Dtin gei Alstonia rostrata -ªó−−ö¡ Dtin nok Anneslea fragrans −¾¤-−¾ Nang na Aporosa villosa À¹´õº© Muat Aralia montana ª¾¤ Dtang Archidendron clypearia À®ñ−-®É¾¨ Ben bai Bauhinia variegata -©º¡-®É¾− Dork Ban Orchid tree Betula alnoides ¦¾-£¾¨ Sakai Birch Betula alnoides À¡©¦½-−¾ Ketsana (Boloven plateau /

Champassak) Birch

Bischofia javanica ²ø¤-±¾© Fung fad Bishop wood, Java cedar Bischofia javanica ¢ö´-±¾© Khom fad Bishop wood, Java cedar Bischofia javanica -¦í´-±¾© Som fad Bishop wood, Java cedar Bombax anceps ¤ó¸ Ngiou Silk cotton tree, Kapok Bombax anceps ¤ó¸−Éº¨ Ngiou noi Silk cotton tree, Kapok Bombax anceps ¤ó¸¢¾¸ Ngiou kao Silk cotton tree, Kapok Bombax ceiba (see B. anceps) ¤ó¸Ã¹¨È Ngiou njai Bombax ceiba (see B. anceps) ¤ó¸Á©¤ Ngiou deng Broussonetia papyrifera ¯ð¦¾ Por sa Paper mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera ¦¾Áì Sa lae Paper mulberry Calocedrus macrolepis ÀìÀìÈ Lé lé Calocedrus macrolepis Âì¤Àì¤ Long leng Canarium nigrum ¹´¾¡-Ã® Mak Bei Chinese olive Canarium subulatum (see C. nigrum) ¹´¾¡-Ã® Mak Bei Carpinus poilanei -¡ó¸ Kiou Hornbeam Castanopsis argyrophylla (see C. diversifolia) ¡Ò-Â©¨ Ko doi Chestnut Castanopsis ceracantha (see C. hystrix) ¡Ò-¡ó® Ko kieb Chestnut Castanopsis ceracantha (see C. hystrix) ¡Ò-Â´¡ Ko moog Chestnut Castanopsis diversifolia ¡Òêñ® Ko tab Chestnut Castanopsis echinocarpa (see C. hystrix) ¡Ò−Õ Ko nam Chestnut Castanopsis echinocarpa (see C. hystrix) ¡Ò-ªº¤ Ko dtorng Chestnut Castanopsis hystrix ¡ÒÁ©¤ Ko deng Chestnut Castanopsis hystrix ¡Ò³¾¤ Ko fang Chestnut Castanopsis indica ¡Ò¹−¾´-¨¾¸ Ko naam njao Chestnut Castanopsis indica ¡Ò¦ö´ Ko som Chestnut Castanopsis sp. (see C. diversifolia) ¡Ò-¡ó® Ko kieb Chestnut Castanopsis tribuloides ¡Ò¡ô© Ko keut Chestnut Castanopsis tribuloides ¡ô© Keut Chestnut Celtis sinensis -»ñ© Hat Nettle tree, Chinese or Japanese

Hackberry Cinnamomum iners §È¾¥¸¤ Sa chouang Cinnamomum iners ¥ñ−¹º´ Chanhorm Cinnamomum iners ¦óÄ£ªí− Si khai ton Cinnamomum iners ¥¸¤¹º´ Chouang hom Cinnamomum obtusifolium §È¾£ð Sakhor Dacrydium elatum »š¤-»-º´ Hing horm Dacrydium elatum »š¤-−Õ Hing nam Dalbergia cultrata ¡¾-®ð Gabor Rosewood Dalbergia cultrata £¿-²ó Khamphi Rosewood Dalbergia sp. ¦¾-²ó Sapi Diospyros glandulosa -¹´¾¡¡¸¨-ìó¤ Mak Guai Ling Zebra-wood, streaked ebony Elaeocarpus stipularis (E. siamensis) -´ø− Moun Oil fruit Elaeocarpus stipularis (E. siamensis) -¦í´´ø− Som moun Oil fruit

Engelhardtia coolebrokiana (see E. spicata) ¹ñ¤ ºö© Hang ot Engelhardtia serrata (see E. spicata) ²¾¸¢¼¸ Pao kiao Engelhardtia serrata (see E. spicata) ²¾¸Â»¤ Pao hoong Engelhardtia spicata ²¾¸-Á©¤ Pao deng Eriobotrya cavaleriei ¡ð ¢™-ÀÍñ¡ Gor Kilek Erythrina stricta êº¤ Thorng Coral Bean, Coral tree Erythrina subumbrans (see E. stricta) êº¤ Thorng Eurya acuminata ¹¾¤-©ó Haang-di Ficus altissima Ä» Hai Fig Ficus auriculata ¹´¾¡ ¹¸É¾ Mak Wa Fig Ficus benjamina ºí¤ −ö¡ Ong nok Fig Ficus fistulosa ¹´¾¡ À©ˆº Mak Deua Fig Ficus hirta var. hirta ©½-À¥ˆº −Éº¨ - Dacheua noi Fig Ficus hirta var. roxburghii - ©½-À¥ˆº Ã¹¨È Dacheua njai Fig Ficus hispida ¹´¾¡ À©ˆº ¯Èº¤ Mak Deua porng Fig Ficus lacor Ä» Hai Fig Ficus racemosa ¹´¾¡ À©ˆº ¡É¼¤ Mak Deua kiang Fig Ficus religiosa Â² Po Fig, the Bodhi or Pipal tree or

Sacred Ficus Ficus semicordata ¹´¾¡ −-º© ©ò− Mak Nord din Fig Flacourtia indica ¹´¾¡ À¡ñ− Mak Gen Governor’s or Indian plum Fokienia hodginsii (F. kawai, Cupressus hodginsii)

Âì¤Àì¤ Long leng

Fokienia hodginsii (F. kawai, Cupressus hodginsii)

Àì−ÀìÈ Len le

Fokienia hodginsii (F. kawai, Cupressus hodginsii)

ì¾¤Àìñ− Lang len

Fraxinus floribunda Á¹-³¾ Haefa Ash Fraxinus floribunda ¡½-À¥õº Gachua Ash Garcinia multiflora ¹´¾¡ Í¸¤ Mak Luang Garcinia xanthochymus (see G. multiflora) ¹´¾¡ Àìó¨ Mak Leui Garuga pinnata §Õ Sam Gleditsia fera -¹−¾´ À´ñ− Nam Men Glochidion fagifolium ¢š-¹´ö© Khi mot Pin-flower tree Gordonia dalglieshiana ¡¾-Á©¤ Ga deng Helicia nilagirica §¾-§˜¤ Xaxang Heteropanax fragrans ª¾¤ Dtang Ilex umbellulata Á¡´ ºö− Gaem-on Keteleeria evelyniana -»š¤ Hing Lithocarpus dealbatus (see L. silvicolarum) ¡Ò¢ó-¹´ø Ko khi mou Lithocarpus dealbatus (see L. silvicolarum) ¡ÒÁ¢¤ Ko keng Lithocarpus fenestratus (see L. silvicolarum) ¡Ò¢ó-¹´ø Ko khi mou Lithocarpus fenestratus (see L. silvicolarum) ¡ÒÁ¢¤ Ko keng Lithocarpus podocarpus(see L. truncatus) ¡Ò©¿ Ko dam Lithocarpus polystachius (see L. silvicolarum) ¡Ò¢ó-¹´ø Ko khi mou Lithocarpus polystachius (see L. silvicolarum) ¡ÒÁ¢¤ Ko keng Lithocarpus silvicolarum ¡Ò¢ó-¹´ø Ko khi mou Lithocarpus silvicolarum ¡ÒÁ¢¤ Ko keng Lithocarpus sp. (see L. silvicolarum) ¡Ò-¹¸É¾− Ko wan Lithocarpus truncatus ¡Ò¦ñ¡ Ko sak Lithocarpus truncatus ¡Ò¦½ Ko sa Litsea glutinosa (L. sebifera) ¹´† ÂêÉ Mi Tho Livistonia speciosa ¹´¾¡ £Ó- Mak Khor Fan palm Lyonia ovalifolia (Pieris ovalifolia ) »ö® §É¾¤ Hop sang Macaranga denticulata ªº¤ Â£® Thong koop Macaranga kurzii (see M. denticulata) Á¦ Sae Mallotus barbatus ªº¤ Àêö¾ Thong tao Pom pom tree Markhamia stipulata ©º¡ Á£ Dork Khae Melia azedarach (see M. toosendan) -À©ö¾-§É Gadau xang China berry or Bead tree Melia toosendan -»ú¼− Hian Myrica esculenta ¹´¾¡-¤Õ Mak Ngam Nothaphoebe umbelliflora ¹´† ÂêÉ Mi Tho Nyssa javanica -¹´¾¡À«ó− Mak Theun

Ormosia semicastrata ¹´¾¡ ì¿ Mak Lam Oroxylum indicum (Bignonia indica) ìò− Ä´É Lin mai Sword of Damocles, Damocles’

tree, Midnight horror Paramichelia baillonii (Michelia baillonii) ¦Óö´§¸¨ Som suai Paramichelia baillonii (Michelia baillonii) §¾¨ Sai Paramichelia baillonii (Michelia baillonii) ¥¿¯¾¯È¾ Champa bpa Paramichelia baillonii (Michelia baillonii) ¥¿®Ó¯È¾ Champi bpa Paramichelia baillonii (Michelia baillonii) ¹¿§¾¨ Ham sai Paramichelia baillonii (Michelia baillonii) §¾¨À¹õ-ìº¤ Sai luang Phoebe lanceolata ¹´† ¹−ø Mi Nou Phoenix loureiri (P. humilis) ¡ö¡ Á¯Ê¤- Gok Bpeng Date palm Phyllanthus emblica ¹´¾¡-¢¾´-¯Éº´ Mak Kham bporm Indian gooseberry Pinus kesiya Á¯¡- Paek Yellow pine Pinus kesiya Á¯¡-¦¾´-Ã® Paek sam bai Yellow pine Pinus merkusii -Á¯¡-¦º¤-Ã® Paek sorng bai Black Pine Pinus merkusii Á¯¡ µ¾¤ Paek yang Black Pine Pinus merkusii £ö¸ Khoua Black Pine Podocarpus neriifolius Protium serratum ¹´¾¡-Á³− Mak Faen Prunus cerasoides ´ñ−-Àêõº− Mantuan Wild Cherry Psidium guayava ¹´¾¡-¦ó-©¾ Mak Sida Guava Psidium guayava ¹´¾¡ºº¨ Mak Oi Guava Pyrus pashia ¹´¾¡ ¥º¤ Mak Chorng Wild Pear Pyrus pashia ¹´¾¡ ¥º¤ ¯È¾ Mak Chorng bpa Wild Pear Quercus blakei ¡Ò¢¼¸ Ko kiao Oak Quercus blakei -¡Ò§¾¨ Ko xay Oak Quercus brandisiana -¡Ò-¦ö´ Ko som Oak Quercus fleuryii ¡ÒÂ²¡ Ko pook Oak Quercus fleuryii ¡ÒÂ¡ Ko ko Oak Quercus griffithii -¡Ò-¦¾ Ko saa Oak Quercus griffithii -¥ò¡-Ã®-Ã¹¨È Chik bei njai in (Boloven

plateau / Champassak) Oak

Quercus kerrii -¡Ò-§¾¨©ö¤ Ko xay dong Oak Quercus kingiana -¡Ò-À¹´óº¨ Ko meui Oak Quercus poilanei ¡Ò§¾¨ Ko xay Oak Quercus serrata ¡Ò-Á£½ Ko khae Oak Quercus serrata -¥ò¡-Ã®-−Éº¨ Chik bei noi ( Boloven plateau,

Champassak) Oak

Quercus vestita -¡Ò-¹−ñ¤-§É¾¤ Ko nang xang Oak Radermachera ignea ©º¡ ìó® Dork Lieb Rhododendron simsii ©º¡ Á¹¸ Dork Wae Rhus chinensis ¦í´³ö© Som fot Rhus chinensis ¦í´²ö© Som pot Rhus rhetsoides (Toxicodendron rhetsoides) -À®ñ− Ben Salix tetrasperma -Ä£É Khai Sapindus rarak -¹´¾¡§ñ¡ Mak Sak Soap nut Schefflera octophylla ª¾¤ Dtang Schima wallichii Ï† Mi Schima, Needle wood Schima wallichii £¾¨§Ò Khai so Schima, Needle wood Schima wallichii ª¾Âì Thalo Schima, Needle wood Spondias axillaris (Choerospondias axillaris) -¹´¾¡-´õ Mak Meu Spondias lakonensis ¦í´ ¹ð Som Hor Spondias pinnata ¹´¾¡ ¡º¡ Mak Gork Styrax benzoides ¦½-¨¾− Á©¤ Sanyan deng Styrax tonkinensis (see S. benzoides) ¦½-¨¾− ¢¾¸ Sanyan kao Syzygium cinereum (Eugenia cinerea) ¹´¾¡ ¹¸É¾ Mak Wa Syzygium cumini (Eugenia cumini) ¦È¾ Sa Syzygium cumini (Eugenia cumini) ¦È¾Áì¤ / §½-Áì¤ Saleng Syzygium cumini (Eugenia cumini) ¹´¾¡ ¹¸É¾ Mak Wa Toona ciliata. ¨ö´ Nyom Toona ciliata. ¨ö´ ªø Nyom Dtou Toxicodendron succedanea (Rhus succedanea) À¡ñ©ì™− Ket lin Toxicodendron succedanea (Rhus succedanea) À®ñ−»º¡ Ben hok

Toxicodendron succedanea (Rhus succedanea) À®ñ−±É¾¨ Ben fai Trevesia palmata ª¾¤ Dtang Triadica cochinchinensis Àìò®-ì¾¤ Leub lang Tristania merguensis ©øÈ-«È¾− Dou than Vaccinium sprengelii ¦í´ £Ò Som khor Wendlandia tinctoria -¡¾¸ Gao Zanthoxylum rhetsa Ï¾¡Á£È− Mak Khaen

forests and trees of the central highlands of xieng … and trees of the central highlands of xieng...

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