Background and Context for Developing a Gender Responsive National Resilience Programme in Bangladesh

Report for UN WomenMaureen Fordham and Nizamuddin Al-Hussainy

For UN Women BangladeshSeptember 2016

The Big Question - Why Integrate Gender Equality Across DRR and CCA?1

After many years of advocacy and some successes, it is perhaps now less important to ask ‘why’ and more important to ask ‘how’ and ‘when’ gender equality should be integrated across Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA). Yet, there remain individuals, groups or institutions which do not yet understand what decades of research and observation have told us: “Disasters don’t discriminate, but people do… disasters reinforce, perpetuate and increase gender inequality, making bad situations worse for women”2. Some social groups experience greater impacts or are at greater risk than others; and some have a greater voice in decision making before, during or after disasters. At the most extreme end particular social groups die in greater numbers in disasters.

Although the specific figures may be disputable, the general principle is widely supported; in most – but not all – of the cases of disasters, mortality amongst women is significantly higher than men. For example, 70% of fatalities in Banda Aceh after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami were women and as high as 91% in Bangladesh after Cyclone Gorky in 1991. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) uses a much quoted figure that women and children are 14 times more likely to die than men during natural disasters. Whatever the number, and this will vary according to context, Neumeyer and Pluemper’s (2007)3 statistical analysis on 141 countries found that women were more likely to die, or die sooner, than men in disasters. While the factors behind these figures may vary, the trend is avoidable if addressed upfront in disaster managementor climate change strategies. In Bangladesh for example, when Cyclone Sidr4 hit in 2007 the proportion of fatalities amongst women was significantly reduced compared to 1991 records, because some of the cultural sensitivities and practical barriers that had led women to be reluctant to use cyclone shelters had been addressed.

Needs and challenges of disaster vulnerable womenThe ability to reduce risk and vulnerability is formed based on a combination of many factors, among which are: social position, poverty level, gender, age group, ethnic background and many more. Existing gender relations between men and women in disaster risk reduction are closely linked to the role and responsibilities of both women and men at home and in society. These roles define different identities, social responsibilities, opportunities, barriers, attitudes and expectations. Such differences in most cases are not favourable to women and lead to gender inequality along the whole continuum of socio-economic development, including various

1 This is a combined report of the Summary of Desk Review with Focus on Addressing Gender Perspective of DRR/CCA by Nizamuddin Al-Hussainy, Consultant to UN Women-Bangladesh (August 2016) and the Technical Review of Documents by Maureen Fordham, Consultant to UN Women-Bangladesh, September 2016.2 UNISDR 2009 Making Disaster Risk Reduction gender sensitive: policy and practical guidelines, page 173Neumayer, Eric and Pluemper, Thomas (2007) The gendered nature of natural disasters: the impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981–2002. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 97 (3). pp. 551-5664 A catastrophic cyclone (Category-4) that ravaged central coastal areas of Bangladesh on 15 November 2007

types of vulnerability before, duringand after disasters;and differential ability to reduce the risk and respond effectively. This is often because women and girls have more limited access to information and knowledge which increases vulnerability to disasters for them and their families. This is not confined to Bangladesh but is a global phenomenon, albeit to different degrees.

In 2003 when there was a heatwave in Europe, the number of women which died was higher than that of men; in 2005 more African-American women were affected by Hurricane Katrina compared to men. As a result of Cyclone Nargiz, which struck Myanmar in 2008, the number of female fatalities was higher than men in the age group from 18 to 60 years old. Many more examples could be listed, including where more men died than women. However, in most countries women occupy subordinate positions in society, have less control over the means of production, more limited freedom of movement, less educational attainment, poor opportunities to participate in decision-making processes, and even unequal access to food as compared to men.

Health, especially reproductive health of women, is another impact from disasters on human life. A recent study5concludes that women in disaster prone areas often suffer more from sexual and reproductive health related problems during and after a disaster as opposed to normal times. Disasters (natural or human induced) affect social and economic development of the country, gradually eroding the assets of citizens, increasing social and economic inequity, and often diverting critical resources from development towards creating humanitarian goods and services for the affected people6.

A study on violence against women in disasters is one example of how issues of gender inequality can be one cause of the disproportionate effects of disaster and climate change on women. A pioneering study by Nasreen (2008)7 indicates that a large number (71.6%) of women studied were subject to more violence during disasters. Married women mentioned an increase in violence, specifically physical and psychological forms of violence. Sexual harassment including forced sex, rape at home and in shelters were also reported by women and girls. Many women and girls do not take refuge in shelters during disasters due to a lack of personal security. The effectiveness of state mechanisms to provide security for women in disaster shelters around the country is very limited and women and girls with a disability are the most vulnerable8. Although rights violations of women are not only limited to times of disaster, it is evident that violence against women during disasters is a common phenomenon. Yet there is no specific policy or social protection to combat violence against women during disasters910.

At the same time, women’s actual and potential contributions to disaster risk reduction, all over the world, are frequently not taken into consideration. Women’s vulnerability to disasters is frequently given special priority in policy but despite all this, their role in strengthening a sustainability culture and their active contribution to household and community stability during disasters often remains unnoticed and is not duly recognized. Women are generally absent from the development of DRR strategies and decision-making processes and, when they are present, their voice is not heard. We return to this below.

5Nasreen, M. et al. 2014. A Rapid Assessment on the situation of Sexual and Reproductive Health during Emergency, FPAB and SPRINT6Ahmed, A.U., 2013. Facing an Uncertain Future Under Global Environmental Change: How Bangladesh Will Address Vulnerabilities, Centre for Global Change (CGC), Dhaka7Nasreen, M., 2008. Violence against Women during Floods and Post Flood Situations in Bangladesh, ActionAid, Dhaka8Nasreen, M., 2012. Women and Girls: Vulnerable or Resilient, Dhaka University: Women and Girls: Vulnerable or Resilient Institute of Disaster Management and Vulnerability Studies, Dhaka. 9Nasreen, 2008 as above10Nasreen, 2012 as above

How inequality drives vulnerability and impacts negatively on growth (and conversely how equality contributes to economic growth)Strong evidence from disasters risk reduction practice considering gender aspects throughout the world show that both men and women benefit from gender balance within DRR approach. Equal and active participation of men and women in DRR leads to population’s resistance to disasters, which is the key to achieve sustainable socio-economic development.

Recent analyses11 have provided evidence of the important economic benefits that accrue from equal opportunities for women to participate in the global economy. One report estimates the contribution to be $28 trillion, or 26% of global growth by 202512. Related to this is the importance of, not just increasing the quantity of women in the economy but in increasing the quality of their contribution by having more women in leadership positions13 both of which would support Bangladesh’s aim in achieving middle-income country status.

While the discussion here is focused on Bangladesh, there is evidence internationally which points to the same conclusions. For example, UNDP’s Africa Development Report14 remarks: ‘As the economic status of women improves, so does the economic status of entire families – a major factor in reducing the blight of inter-generational poverty and low human development. There is a high economic cost when women are not more fully integrated into their respective national economies. Gender inequality in the labour market alone cost sub-Saharan Africa about USD 95 billion annually between 2010 and 2014, peaking at USD 105 billion in 2014. These results confirm that Africa is missing its full growth potential because a sizeable portion of its growth reserve – women – is not fully utilized’ (page 4).

Females are approximately 50% of the population in Bangladesh and could make an even greater contribution to the country’s growth than they already do. Currently, in Bangladesh as in most other parts of the world, women spend a greater amount of time in unpaid care and domestic work. Women’s childrearing work is vital to support the future workforce but opportunities must be available for women who want to work, as well or instead, on income earning enterprises outside the home (and this would mean support for men to take on more of the domestic role is necessary too).

We have seen that when women provide economic returns to the family, then they receive greater respect from both family members and the community at large. This respect builds women’s self-esteem and develops them to meet their potential as highly productive citizens.

DRR and gender are common multi-sector problems. Solutionsto these problems are possible through integrated approaches and coordinated joint actions in political, technical, social and humanitarian processes, as well as in the development process. Integration of gender and DRR provides an opportunity to review gender relations in society from different perspectives and, through the window of opportunity that disaster creates, increase gender equality in social and economic development more broadly.

Gender equality, gender rights and gender equity: beyond women as beneficiaries - doing something with women and not for women11Woetzel et al 2015; Noland et al 2016; UNU-EHS 201612 Jonathan Woetzel, AnuMadgavkar, Kweilin Ellingrud, Eric Labaye, Sandrine Devillard, Eric Kutcher, James Manyika, Richard Dobbs, Mekala Krishnan 2015 THE POWER OF PARITY: HOW ADVANCING WOMEN’S EQUALITY CAN ADD $12 TRILLION TO GLOBAL GROWTH, McKinsey Global Institute http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/employment-and-growth/how-advancing-womens-equality-can-add-12-trillion-to-global-growth13 Marcus Noland, Tyler Moran, and Barbara Kotschwar 2016 Is Gender Diversity Profitable? Evidence from a Global Survey, Working Paper 16-3 Peterson Institute for International Economics https://piie.com/publications/wp/wp16-3.pdf14 UNDP 2016 Africa Human Development Report: Accelerating Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Africa

Expanding women’s economic opportunities is central to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. More than two decades after the landmark 1995 United Nations (UN) Conference on Women in Beijing and with the unprecedented consensus on the 2030 Agenda, the global commitment to gender equality has never been stronger. For the first time in history, governments have set a concrete deadline for the elimination of gender inequality—the year 2030. And the potential gains for basic human rights, for human development and for economic growth have never been larger.15

The release of the UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic Empowerment - Leave No One Behind (2016) provides a wealth of evidence from around the world on inequality faced by women and girls. The report notes that the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offer a global framework for reaching gender equality and for holding accountable those who hinder it. Although Bangladesh has been developing a range of gender policies, it is still at the higher levels of discrimination globally (see Figure).

The report presents a number of examples from Bangladesh – both good and bad. For example, referring to access to digitized wage payments, women textile workers reported thatpreviously their husbands or mothers-in-law wouldconfiscate the cash they brought home—butthey now have a voice inhow the money is spent16. However, only 18 percent of digital finance users are women, with even fewer holding registered financial accounts17. In considering post disaster relief strategies, enabling this kind of strategic change in women’s lives would do more to address inequality issues than just providing women with sewing machines. This kind of initiative builds self-esteem and creates the environment for women to

15 Secretariat, UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic Empowerment 2016 LEAVE NO ONE BEHIND. A CALL TO ACTION FOR GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT. REPORT OF THE UN SECRETARY-GENERAL’S HIGH-LEVEL PANEL ON WOMEN’S ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT, www.WomensEconomicEmpowerment.org16 Secretariat, UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic Empowerment 2016: 7517Shrader, L. 2015. “Digital Finance in Bangladesh: Where are all the Women?” Consultative Group to Assist the Poor, 3 February. http://www.cgap.org/blog/digital-finance-bangladesh-where-are-all-women.

make a contribution to society’s economic growth. The alternative is to continue to treat women as beneficiaries of charity which does little to build self-confidence or personal growth.

The ‘Leave No One Behind’ report presents seven primary drivers of women’s economic empowerment which are linked to the relevant SDGs:

1. Breaking stereotypes: Tackling adversesocial norms and promoting positive rolemodels

2. Levelling the playing field for women:Ensuring legal protection and reformingdiscriminatory laws and regulations

3. Investing in care: Recognizing,reducing and redistributing unpaid workand care

4. Ensuring a fair share of assets: Buildingassets—Digital,financial and property

5. Businesses creating opportunities:Changing business culture and practice

6. Governments creating opportunities:Improving public sector practices inemployment and procurement

7. Enhancing women’s voices:Strengthening visibility, collective voiceand representation (pages 94-99 and see Figure below).

To these they add, improving sex-disaggregated data andgender analysis (page 99).

Source: As above, page 4

While many of these go beyond what a National Resilience Strategy might address, some are more easily incorporated (although they remain challenging to achieve). Sex, age and disability disaggregated data (as well as other cultural aspects) are included in the Sendai Framework

and is a relatively easy challenge to meet, although not without representing a considerable burden to member states to design and collect. For example, ‘Breaking stereotypes: Tackling adverse social norms and promoting positive role models’ is perhaps the most challenging of all even thoughaddressing discriminatory ideologies is recognised to be a persistent gap in interventions (see18). And yet there are initiatives attempting to address this through the inclusion of men and boys in gender violence reduction actions to change fundamentally discriminatory attitudes.

The Brave Men Campaign19 is an initiative to encourage men and boys, specifically young men and boys, and the society in general, to say no to Violence Against Women (VAW). Proposed and developed by Dr SaikhImtiaz the Brave Men Campaign is an initiative of the Bangladesh National Human Rights Commission Capacity Development Project (BNHRC-CDP) supported by UNDP, the Swiss Confederation, Sweden and DANIDA. Centre for Men and Masculinities Studies (CMMS) and United Nations Youth and Students Association of Bangladesh (UNYSAB) is implementing the campaign. This is a good model for inclusion also in DRR programmes to deal with the peaks in gender based violence post-disaster. A rationale for dealing with GBV – should one be needed – is evidenced in work by the NGO CARE which has costed gender based violence and found that domestic violence has many monetary costs to individuals, family members and society such as lost wages, medical bills, legal fees and relocation expenses. The study found that the cost of domesticviolence represents about 12.5% ofBangladesh’s national annual expenditure, orabout 2.1% of gross domestic product20.

We can see by the above discussion that dealing with gender inequality can be good for Bangladesh society as a whole but that it is a complex and cross cutting problem. Too often the response has been fragmentary and even though the individual interventions may be sound, they can only address a few of the symptoms and not the cause. The next section presents a selection of examples from Bangladesh in recent years, after setting out the background context.

The Current Context in Bangladesh – A Situation AnalysisBackgroundWith an area of less than 150,000 sq. km. and a growing population of over 160 million, Bangladesh has one of the highest population densities in the world and is ranked number five in the world risk index21. These events regularly wreak havoc on society and the economy, creating obstacles to development, food security, and poverty alleviation. However, due to the frequent occurrence of natural disasters in Bangladesh, the Government has established a well-developed structure for disaster risk management (DRM) although the prevalence of gender inequality during emergency response, risk reduction and throughout recurrent disasters has prompted policy makers to revisit the entire approach to DRM & DRR/CCA.

Policies and legal frameworks have been formulated in order to equip the GOB machinery to consider steps towards reducing risks of disasters and climate change. For example, the Disaster Management Act, National Plan for Disaster Management, and the Standing Orders on Disaster (SODs).

18 Alan Greig and ShamimaPervin 2013 Programme Document: Joint Programme on Gender-based Violence Prevention in Bangladesh, Prepared by for UNFPA August 20119https://www.facebook.com/BraveMenCampaign/ 20 CARE. 2013. “Bangladesh: Understanding the Cost of Gender-Based Violence and the Importance of Engaging Men and Boys.” Case Study. Atlanta, GA. http://www.care.org/sites/default/files/documents/2013%20COVAW%20Case%20Study.pdf.21http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/risk . See also UNU-EHS Global Risk Report 2016 http://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:5763/WorldRiskReport2016_small.pdf

Disaster Management ActThe Disaster Management Act forms the legal basis (i) for the protection of life and property (ii) to manage long term risks from the effects of natural as well as technological and human induced hazards, and (iii) to respond to and recover from a disaster. The DM Act prioritizes the most vulnerable hard core poor and disadvantaged disaster affected people including women and children, the elderly and people with disabilities as the primary target in protecting them with required safety net and risk reduction related assistance.

National Plan for Disaster Management The National Plan for Disaster Management provides the overall guideline for the relevant sectors and the disaster management committees at all levels to prepare and implement specific plans for their respective areas. The plan identifies the key sectoral policy agenda for disaster management.

The National Disaster Management Policy (2008) sets out to integrate a DRR approach and climate change adaptation in all development plans, programs and policies. The Policy highlights priorities for disaster risk reduction and adaptation through assessment of climate change risk, community based programs for risk reduction, public awareness, improving early warning and community alerting systems, integrates strategy of combining structural and non-structural measures, modern communication facilities, strengthening emergency response systems, and international cooperation for overall disaster management, etc.

Standing Orders on Disaster The Standing Orders on Disaster provide a detailed institutional framework for disaster risk reduction and emergency management. They outline detailed roles and responsibilities of Ministries, divisions, departments, various committees at different levels, and other organizations involved in disaster risk reduction and emergency management. A building code was enacted by Parliament in September 2006 and is now being enforced in Dhaka metropolitan area for the construction of any building. Bangladesh, as a signatory of the Bali Action Plan, has developed a pro-poor Climate Change Strategy and an Action Plan, which prioritize adaptation and risk reduction, but also addresses low carbon development, mitigation and technology transfer.

The Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has invested a large amount and deployed institutions to offer protection measures, early warning systems, during- and post-hazards relief and recovery over the past four decades. Although many of the above responses are gender neutral, the GOB is actively considering gender sensitive responses in its future activities in this regard. This is timely considering the global frameworks which were agreed in the post-2015 disaster and development policy forums, in particular the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, the Sustainable Development Goals, the UNFCCC Paris Agreement22 and the World Humanitarian Summit23. All of these frameworks have a significant gender focus which can lay the foundation for national initiatives.

22https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf 23 One humanity: shared responsibility | Report of the UN Secretary-General for the World Humanitarian Summit http://www.alnap.org/pool/files/secretary-general's-report-for-whs-2016.pdf

The gendered disaster risk contextUNICEF’s recent analysis of the situation of children and women in Bangladesh24presents the severe barriers to gender equality and women’s empowerment that currently exist. Bangladesh is ranked 107th in the Gender-related Development Index25, significantly lower than the global average, and 115th in the Gender Inequality Index. Overall, Bangladesh is classified as a country of “high inequity,” with a Gini coefficient of 0.31 (page 10). Nearly 1 in 3 of the country’s sub-districts, or Upazilas (29 per cent), are classified as “most deprived,” as are nearly 1 in 4 districts; and women’s overall labour force participation, while improving, remains low, at only 36 per cent ().

In recent years26, the GOB has produced a National Plan on Disaster Management, formulated a draft Policy on Disaster Management, revised its Standing Orders on Disaster, and enacted its legal framework for disaster risk reduction. It continues to seek to fulfil promises made through the Hyogo Framework of Action towards providing DRR services to its citizens. The Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan has been formulated, complemented by the establishment of a number of institutions and funds27to address both adaptation and low carbon development through the widespread stakeholder engagement. The GOB has received global praise for its disaster reduction actions and is generally accepted as amongst the best practices in the world. Yet, despite many successes, the GOB recognizes a number of challenges which need to be overcome in order to provide adequate services to all citizens towards reducing hazards and disaster risks and to steer the country’s economy on a low carbon and energy efficient pathway. The following are identified by Ahmed et al28as current limitations which require immediate attention:

Limited understanding, knowledge and capacity.

Inadequate management skills at all tiers.

Adaptation priorities are yet to be set out.

Inadequate integration of climate risk with development planning and budgeting.

Weakness in implementation, monitoring and shared learning.

Limited financing.

Weaknesses in institutional coordination

Women are faced with double barriers, fixing their unequal access to resources and protection of rights to the ownership and management of land and other assets.

Climate change has threatened to intensify poverty and diminish achievements and growth by affecting livelihoods, access to water and land degradation, women and the poorest are often affected the most. The climate change situation has impacted on women differently than men. Their lower status makes them more vulnerable to economic shocks. Women in affected areas may experience violence, displacement and hunger while facing additional burdens to carry out

24 UNICEF Analysis of the Situation of Children and Women in Bangladesh 201525GDI measures expectancy, schooling and standard of living26Ahmed, A.U., 2013. Facing an Uncertain Future Under Global Environmental Change: How Bangladesh Will Address Vulnerabilities, Centre for Global Change (CGC), Dhaka27 See source: Ahsan Uddin Ahmed, SaleemulHaq, MahbubaNasreen and Abu WaliRaghib Hassan 2015 Sectoral inputs towards the formulation of Seventh Five Year Plan (2016 – 2021). CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT. FINAL REPORT, January 2015.28 Ahmed et al 2015 as above

their roles as food producers and providers, care-givers, and income earners. The loss of assets diminishes their adaptive capacity and makes them even more vulnerable.29

‘Bangladesh is a victim of climate change, global emission and environmental pollution. There is only 13.20 percent of land in Bangladesh having tree cover with density of 30 percent. Access to fresh water is threatened by salinity, levels of arsenic and natural calamities hampers development and women are affected adversely. The National Climate Change Action Plan incorporates a multi-pronged approach and the country’s efforts for climate change mitigation and adaptation has resulted in higher resilience declining disaster losses. The vulnerability to climate change is different for women, as their access and control over resources and decision making is lower than those of men. Women being the majority amongst the poor are affected adversely by disasters and as household managers they bear additional burden to maintain livelihoods and human development aspects. The disaster risk reduction efforts of the Government and the civil society have substantially improved the knowledge, preparedness and recovery from disaster situation. Women demonstrated considerable strength in the face of adversity and played critical roles in both adaptation and mitigation of climate change. However, reducing climate change vulnerability needs substantial additional investment by the state and at the household level.’30

‘The GOB recognizes that the country is highly prone to a variety of hazards and her disaster risk reduction needs are amongst the highest in the world. Moreover, the country and its poor people are most likely to be severely affected by global climate change, which in turn will exacerbate hazard related adverse impacts. As per GOB decision, a paper on climate change and disaster risk reduction is perceived to provide insight into the GOB’s current state of preparation, delivery of services, gaps between needs and services being provided, and future directions to avoid major adverse implications of both climate change and disaster risk reduction. Traditions of men’s priority in regard to ownership and control over the major economic resources remain stable. Women are rarely the owners of land or immovable property, as in more than 80% of cases land or other kind of property is being registered to men, i.e. husband, father or son.’31

Inequality in the distribution of resources at the level of land ownership and property control restricts women’s opportunities in avoiding poverty, particularly through the use of different loans. Under the conditions of collateral system availability for the disbursement of average and considerable size loans, women usually rely on small size loans, which do not allow them to develop sustainable business forms, but meeting daily family needs instead. Irrespective of high adaptation potential to the new economic and social conditions, women however are limited by “economy survival” – street market, small business, as well as incur expenses of expanding production activity within the conditions of household naturalization.

UN Women Bangladesh Over the past four years, has led research and piloted interventions to increase evidence on how inequality drives vulnerability and determine ways in which a reduction in gender inequality can lead to a more resilient and empowered community through a project ‘Reducing Vulnerability of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options’ funded by Royal Norwegian Embassy. Through this gender focused climate change programme, UN Women has contributed to greater capacity for a gender and rights based

29 Gender equality and women’s empowerment: suggested strategies for the 7th five-year plan, 201430Gender equality and women’s empowerment: suggested strategies for the 7th five-year plan, 2014 page 0531 VII Five Year plan, climate change and disaster management, 2015 page 7

approach to climate change and DRR, including with research institutions, civil society, and government officials across 32 ministries and departments. Based on research findings, extensive stakeholder consultations and effectiveness of interventions in climate vulnerable zones, UN Women and partners have minimized gaps in current DRR knowledge and practice. UNDP and GOB have also identified gaps in the evidence base on (a) how to effectively address certain hazards and vulnerable groups (women and girls) and (b) capacity of relevant agencies. In order to fill these gaps, it is necessary to build human and institutional capacity to address gendered aspects of vulnerability, improve humanitarian response and support resilience of women, men and communities.32

At the national level MOWCA should take the lead on gender mainstreaming in CCA/DRR agenda and actions33.Institutional structure for women’s empowerment and gender equality had been in place since late nineties. MOWCA as the main ministry operates through its three agencies, Department of Women Affairs, JatiyaMohilaShagstha and Bangladesh Shishu Academy. The National Council for Women’s and Children’s Development (NCWCD, headed by the PM), several high level committees and WID focal Point mechanism had been in place for guiding and monitoring women’s advancement. There are limitations of capacity and effectiveness of these mechanisms. The NCWCD, the highest guiding body has not met regularly to provide necessary guidance. MOWCA, the nodal ministry for integrating and coordinating women’s advancement issues has been weak in terms of both technical capacity and resources. MOWCA could not effectively in provide technical support to other ministries as well as lacked authority and expertise to coordinate or supervise other ministries. MOWCA has focused more on project implementation and not been given adequate authority to perform the oversight function of gender mainstreaming. Resources allocated for MOWCA is at times even less compared to a project in other ministries. The field officers of the Department of Women Affairs (DWA) are also constrained by low status, capacity and logistics to support women. The terms of reference (ToR) of the WID Focal Points is not integrated within the ToRs of the concerned officials. The Committees have neither been able to sit regularly nor have effectively monitored progress of mainstreaming gender in the sectoral performance. The role of IMED has been minimal in monitoring gender aspects of development programmes and need strengthening.34

There is widespread lack of understanding of the concept of gender mainstreaming at the operational level. Often support for women’s practical benefits without addressing gender inequality is considered as women’s development. Lack of human resources with technical knowledge, particularly on sectoral gender issues is a great limitation often hampering implementation of the strategies and plans. Also it is evident that gender mainstreaming at the beneficiary level is accepted faster than bringing in changes at the institution levels or in reforms.

On the other hand, Disasters, crisis somewhat slowed down due to stress owing to some natural calamities. Though the Government’s policies have helped efficiently in overcoming the situation, still in some areas women could not recover their loss.

Issues with inadequate attention: Globalization has created new avenues for employment in the export oriented enterprises and as migrants creating new needs for services and has made women susceptible to new types of VAW. An assessment of global labour market combined with skills development and measures for protection from VAW are to be considered for 32 Extracted from TOR of National consultant33Final Evaluation “Reducing Vulnerability of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options”UN Women, BD, page 4634UN Women, Assessing the Effectiveness of Gender Responsive Budgeting in Bangladesh, Draft Report, October 2014.

planning. The advantage of the rapid change in the landscape of information technology to women’s benefits is yet to be realized. Also the need for managing violence related to ICT without curtailing rights to information and opinion has to be considered. Due to male migration abroad and in other sectors women’s participation in farm based activities and as unpaid family labour is increasing. Preparing women for this new responsibility with technology and other support to help them in becoming paid workers, self-employed or reaching to higher levels of value chain is important. Women’s vulnerability to climate change has been considered in DRR activities, but initiatives to build their economic and social resilience are inadequate.35

The National Women Development Policy, 2011 that includes disaster-related issues and based on this, the latest Action Plan was developed in 2013 with the support of UN Women Bangladesh office. The action plan had a separate chapter on “Safety of women and children at pre-disaster, during disaster and post-disaster phases” having detailed matrix aimed at attaining goals related to safety of women and children at different phases in light of national women development policy 2011 where detailed probable future program and time frame has been elaborated, those could be incorporated in future programmes to be undertaken by MOWCA/Ministry of disaster management & relief.

“The lack of enforcement of laws and policies is a grave concern in Bangladesh. Information and understanding of the legal and policy provisions amongst common women and men is limited. The complicated and lengthy legal procedures make justice costly and inaccessible for women and the poor. Social norms also influence the application of legal provisions and at times hinder fair outcomes. The law enforcers need to be more accountable in timely enforcing laws related to human rights.”36

As per the Women Development policy of Bangladesh, it is the Department of Women Affairs and Ministry of Women and Children Affairs’(DWA/MOWCA) responsibility to advocate gender incorporation in disasters risk reduction where necessary. MOWCA/DWA has to maintain coordination with other concerned Ministries and departments. Gender sensitive integrated disaster management plan should concern research based sex disaggregated data in all levels like preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation. WID (Women in Development) Focal Point implementation committee and WID Focal Point coordination committee work on gender-related issues with other ministries and departments. Vulnerable Analysis Model (VAM) is used to allocate resources for women. To further increase gender capacity in disaster response, a better option would be to involve school/college level female students to do volunteer work in disaster response management. In the 7 divisions of Bangladesh, 529 adolescent clubs exist, developed by the DWA; each club consists of 30 members of which 20 are girls and 10 are boys. The fact that a National Helpline Centre to protect women from violence is open for 24 hours need to be shared with women at all levels. Apart from MOWCA/DWA, there are no other gender experts or female members of other organizations/NGOs represented at the national level committees/platforms. The DWA has huge national network of offices in all 64 districts and 490 upazillas which ‘s workforce is underutilized for disaster related works.

DWA’s involvement in district and Upazilla level disaster management committees need to be strengthened to make it more functional and meaningful. DWA and other district and Upazilla level organizations need to coordinate to more efficiently to reduce risk caused by disasters. However, the environment is not conducive for women to make decisions or raise concerns. This is because women may not be prioritized for all types of planning/projects, and therefore the women themselves step back or hesitate from raising their voices. More importantly, there is no disaster management budget allocation to women alone. Budget may be allocated/re-35 VII FYP policy paper 2014 for planning commission, page 26 36Gender equality and women’s empowerment: suggested strategies for the 7th five-year plan, 2014 page 08

allocated to separately to meet women’s needs at grass-root level, during and after disasters at least in identified disaster hotspots or vulnerable districts. The DWA and DDM can strengthen their collaboration to ensure gender integration at district and Upazilla level DRR mechanism and implementation of the projects. This might help the local governance system to ensure that the vulnerable women have access to all social safety net programmes and projects.

‘Lack of family support, women’s lack of political experience, traditional gender roles are barriers. Elected women representatives of public offices need capability, institutional support and resources in order to function effectively. Capacity building and mentoring programmes for women candidates and women elected to public offices as well as programmes on leadership and negotiation skills for current and future women leaders should be institutionalized. The proportion of women elected in regular seats has not progressed as desired. Strong awareness-raising activities for the society as a whole about the importance of gender equality and women’s participation in political decision-making, is necessary. Although the numbers of women in local government is increasing, there are issues around their effectiveness and capacity. Lack of political apprenticeship and work experience, and social norms make women’s capacity weaker. The authority of women elected to reserved seats and resources available to them are not equal to those of the members holding the general seats. Their constituency is three times larger than that of their male counterparts. As a result, they cannot fully meet the expectations of their constituencies.’37

Worth mentioning that, DWA worked with the Department of Disaster Management to make it mandatory for any government sponsor development program/project to write on “women” and “environment” two different columns with information regarding damage, benefits, etc. However, these are not filled up with sincerity. A Multi-Hazards Contingency Plan has been drafted by DWA in collaboration with DDM. It included differentiated roles and responsibilities of women and DWA. In the meantime, the Standing Order on Disasters (SOD) should be actively followed.

Government of Bangladesh through a development project “Comprehensive disaster management project, phases I and II “has done a lot towards Professionalization of disaster management. CDMP has laid the foundations for spread of knowledge about DRR/CCA through courses and knowledge management systems. Further efforts are needed to standardize and institutionalize these forms of knowledge transfer. A strategy for reaching the sub-national level has yet to be devised. After CDMP closed in Dec. 2015, the role of the National Disaster Management Research and Training Institute (NDMRTI) being established within the Directorate of Disaster Management (DDM) will be crucial in taking forward initiatives of CDMP.38 One of the main contributions of CDMP II has been in sensitizing urban authorities on DRR using a multi-hazard lens focusing on earthquakes, floods, landslides and urban waterlogging. Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre to increase the advance warning of floods from three to five-eight days using satellite images. Successful advocacy to get the Ansar and village defence party (VDP) volunteers to address floods is also a very significant achievement based on the existence of a well-organized system. The Bangladesh Ansar and VDP volunteers have a special role in flood-prone areas. Commonly the men go away to find work leaving women and others with little protection. The volunteers act on behalf of the police to protect vulnerable people and enjoy strong support from local people. CDMP played a useful role in extending the coverage of volunteers under the government-supported Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) to areas that had been previously missed out. In urban areas, the volunteers 37Gender equality and women’s empowerment: suggested strategies for the 7th five-year plan, 2014 page 1738 Final evaluation report of CDMP-II, Dec 2015

who are being trained could play a role similar to CPP volunteers in the event of urban disasters, including earthquakes which remain a major hazard for cities like Dhaka and Chittagong. This will require investment developing an institutional framework to support the volunteers. Further improvements are needed to ensure that flood warning reach the people specially women affected.

Integration of DRR and CCA in all aspects of DM has largely been achieved in policy terms. There is greater awareness about DRR and climate change in the country and communities are aware of the need for DRR and how climate change affects their lives, but significant changes in practices and capacity are yet to take place. Effort has been directed almost entirely at national level and there has been little focus or impact at sub-national level. For example, DMCs exist on paper and become active when there are disasters, are under-resourced, and operate on ad hoc basis. Risk-informed planning at district or local level still remains a distant aim.

What Has Gone BeforeProgrammes and policies in Bangladesh promoting or hindering gender and DRRBangladesh has had many programmes to reduce disaster impacts and risks over the decades. A few of these will be referred to below in summary form to discuss aspects that were successful in attaining gendered outcomes and those which were less so. This is the basis of learning from the past and identifying promising routes to developing truly gender responsive resilience (GRR). Because of its significance, in Bangladesh and globally, the section begins with a discussion of the Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme for which there are many evaluations to draw upon.

CDMPBangladesh’s flagship Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (Phase I 2004-2009 and Phase II January 2010 – December 2014), has been the stimulus for much change over a decade or more. The Programme has been evaluated a number of times and many important successes have emerged. However, gaps remain and gender in particular has had a lower priority in the Programme than would be hoped.

As we have seen above, disasters in Bangladesh, as in other countries, often kill more women than men.39 Due to their lack of access to formal employment, the predominance of their activities in the agriculture sector, and limited access to productive resources, women’s vulnerability to disaster is particularly high and their coping strategies reduced. Despite women’s high vulnerability and the fact that SOD lays specific emphasis on gender-sensitive risk-assessment, CDMP’s project document does not include a section on gender-sensitivity, nor does the log-frame include specific indicators to measure women’s participation, progress or achievements as a result of interventions. Accordingly, although there is information about women as beneficiaries, there is little analysis of how women’s involvement has been promoted. There are quotas for women’s representation in CRAs, DMCs etc. but these do not necessarily mean that women’s voices are being heard or that their interests are being reflected in the course of project activities. CDMP did not apply a gender-responsive approach from the start, neither did it focus on involving women in decision-making processes around DRR and CCA nor push forward on ways in which women could achieve leadership roles or at the least make their voices heard in decision-making, as acknowledged in the Project Completion Report.40

39 Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, Disaster Risk Reduction Action Plan (Dhaka, 2013).40 Final evaluation report of CDMP-II, Dec 2015 page 08

The Eminence impact assessment (a study of public perceptions)41 gives a strong indication of problems relating to the participation of women in decision-making. The assessment recommends strengthening women’s leadership and enhancing their participation in future programming. However, there is no record of strategic actions to address these issues. The Project Completion Report belatedly acknowledges (as the last in a list of 14 ‘critical issues’) that ‘while CDMP undoubtedly benefitted women and girls, it did not incorporate gender as a driver in planning, implementation and reporting.’42

At the level of meeting women’s practical needs, CDMP has benefitted women through various initiatives as shown below.

The gender friendly cyclone shelter guideline: CDMP-II has successfully advocated for the incorporation of issues in the Cyclone Shelter Construction, Maintenance and Management Policy 2011 published by the Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief. All the cyclone shelter construction is expected to include a specific space and toilets for women.

Women benefitted from the rural and urban LDRRF: Total of 37,658 small scale rural risk reduction interventions directly benefitted 1.38 million men and 1.19 million women (totally 3.48 million people of which direct beneficiaries 2.57 million, indirect beneficiaries 0.91 million). LDRRF schemes also provided employment for 30,000 female casual workers.43

Gender focused initiative of Department of Women Affairs: as part of the mainstreaming initiative, training was provided to district and upazila level officers of the Department of Women Affairs (DWA) on how to address the vulnerabilities of women and ensure equal opportunities in pre- and post-disaster situations. DWA has prepared a contingency plan to cope with earthquake hazards, developed a Disaster Risk Reduction action plan, a Gender Toolkit to incorporate gender sensitivity in its policies, projects, programs and documents. IEC materials like posters and leaflets have been developed to raise awareness on the need for gender sensitivity in disaster response.44

Urban and FFP Volunteers : with regards to the FFP volunteers, every coastal village has a team of 15 volunteers, including 5 women, responsible for dissemination of early warning, evacuation to shelters, rescue operations, provision of first aid and implementation of post disaster relief and rehabilitation operations. In relation to the urban volunteers, out of the 30,000 volunteers trained, 6,970 are women4. Aside from ensuring women are recruited within the volunteers, CDMP has not worked on unequal power relationships between men and women. None of the women the evaluation team met in the FFP or urban volunteer groups were part of the leadership team of their group.

Thus, although CDMP initiatives did benefit women, the project did not apply a consistent gender-responsive approach and missed significant opportunities to promote women’s role in decision-making processes. The specific needs and capacities of women and girls has not informed disaster management activities. Monitoring and evaluation indicators have not applied

41Eminence Associates for Social Development, Impact Assessment of Comprehensive Disaster Management Program I and II, UNDP (Dhaka, 2013). 42 Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (2010–2015), Final Project Report (Dhaka, 2015). This says 23 percent of the trained volunteers are women.43 Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (2010–2015), Final Project Report (Dhaka, 2015).44 Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction & Climate Change Adaptation – Response & Resilience: A Story of Partnership and Participation (Dhaka, 2015).

a gender lens so learning on the impact of disasters on women and girls and their potential contribution to preparedness, response and recovery is not well understood.”45

Recent focus group research by BCAS with communities in Siraigani46underscores the variability of outcomes of CDMP and related programmes. For example, BCAS points to the Department of Women Affairs which has established a Women Training Centre (WTC) and the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) has employed 850 women on their damaged and risky road repairing project. This points to some willingness to improve gender responsiveness but a much more structured and systematic approach is needed here. They also refer to local NGO staff who support warning message dissemination through courtyard meetings after which women understand the early warning messages and take necessary measures (page 4).

Less positively, they discovered examples where there are no special measures to ensure warning messages reach women on time (page 2); women do not receive early warning messages or disaster-related information because ‘it is not a practice for women to go out to the markets or roads where the messages are usually spread’; there is no local or NGO female member in DDMC; and there is no development or DRR plan to incorporate gender elements. Clearly there is much work still to be done.

We now turn to a selection of some of the more significant gaps regarding gender responsiveness in DRR and/or CCA in Bangladesh with reference to other programmes, projects and documentation.This section is organized thematically rather than by publication. Seven common threads emerge as necessary to, or problematic for, a gender responsive, risk informed national resilience strategy: 1) Delinked Programmes and Lack of Collaboration/ Partnership; 2) Sex, Gender and Age Disaggregated Data; 3) Underlying Inequalities or Root Causes of Vulnerability; 4) Position Women and Women’s Organisations as Active Stakeholders and Decision Makers; 5) Leadership; 6) Monitoring of National and Local CCA and DRR Efforts; 7) Pervasive Nature of Gender-Based Violence.

1) DELINKED PROGRAMMES AND LACK OF COLLABORATION/PARTNERSHIPThere is a widespread problem of delinked programmes operating (as their parent organisations or departments do) in silos. UN Women’s 2015 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS remarks upon ‘the lack of effective communication and strategic collaboration between institutions… While gender mainstreaming technical expertise exists in other parts of government machineries, they are often delinked and not always included’. Far better to mainstream gender perspectives into national, sub-national and community CCA/DRR plans and strategies rather than creating stand-alone gender policies (page 7).

Establishing regular, joint meetings across Ministries to share inter-ministerial inputs and advice for upcoming and ongoing projects and activities is one way to support more partnership working. This would need to establish participatory decision-making and oversight mechanisms (ensuring the inclusion of MoWCA/DWA) into planning and development mechanisms.

45 Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Bangladesh’s Disaster Management Lessons Learned, Reviewing disasters over 10 years: 2005–2015 (2015).46 BCAS 2016a Capacity Building Need Assessment for Gender Mainstreaming in DRR/Resilience Action. (District Level-Draft Report) District: Sirajganj, BCAS August 2016; BCAS 2016b Capacity Building Need Assessment for Gender Mainstreaming in DRR/Resilience Action. (Draft Report on Vulnerable Women: Sirajganj) BCAS August 2016

But collaboration and partnerships is often missing across the whole machinery of gender/women’s empowerment: not just within government but between women’s and grassroots organizations, and between them and gender equality champions and national and DRR institutions in the development, management, implementation (UN Women 2015). Multi-sectoral, comprehensive programming is notable by its absence although some programmes have laid foundations for such a response (JP-VAW page 8).

UN Women’s Humanitarian Strategy 2014-2017 makes similar calls in regard to the humanitarian sector so that their efforts could be well coordinated, target oriented and systematic.

UNISDR’s background paper on gender inclusion in what was to become the Sendai Framework47 identifies the shortcomings of both the Hyogo Framework for Action (the forerunner to Sendai) and gender integration in development which promoted and relied upon dedicated institutions, focal points, policies and legislation. However, this approach resulted in DRR and gender issues being isolated from mainstream development and becoming the responsibility of a specialized parallel set of institutions. ‘The notable disconnect between the institutional mechanisms for DRR and the existing mainstream policy and institutional mechanisms for addressing gender issues, such as women’s development and welfare, livelihood development, security and protection from violence exemplifies this isolation’ (page 6).

UNICEF remark upon the complex challenges facing Bangladesh but argue that they warrant ‘comprehensive policies and robust implementation over a sustained period of time. This suggests that an integrated approach to Bangladesh’s development needs among children and women would best serve the country in many cases’ (page 31).

2) SEX, GENDER AND AGE DISAGGREGATED DATA

Nowhere is the lack of joined up or systematic working clearer than in the failure to collect or disseminate sex or gender disaggregated data. Most documentation now calls for this or remarks upon its absence48. Availability of sex-disaggregated data is the basis of baseline and assessment of disaster and development results for gender equality and women’s empowerment. It has been a constant concern that sex disaggregated data for all areas is not available. Even though data area collected from men and women and can be presented in a disaggregated manner, often data are presented in general terms. It is critical that all agencies, field offices and local government institutions, collect and present data in a sex disaggregated manner, which eventually supports the Government and all to conduct gender analysis and use them for planning and evaluation Setting up of benchmark and progress review both are critical. As the Government has recognized a third gender(hjiras), all data should also reflect that category also. This is why the term gender disaggregated data is preferred over sex

47 Towards the Post-2105 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (HFA2). Women as a force in resilience building, gender equality in disaster risk reduction, April 2014. A Background Paper on gender inclusion in HFA2 http://www.preventionweb.net/documents/posthfa/background_paper_gender_inclusion_in_hfa2.pdf 48 (Summary Asia-Pacific; Gender Equality: Key to Climate Change Adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction and Humanitarian Action (G&CCA/DRR/HA); Government of the Peoples' Republic of Bangladesh, National Women Development Policy 2011, Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, March 2011; Government of Bangladesh and United Nations Development Programme. NATIONAL DISASTER RESILIENCE PROGRAMME 2016-2022. Building Resilience for Sustainable Human Development, Draft V6 12/03/2016; Report on Draft Disaster Risk Reduction Action Plan for Department of Women Affairs. Final Draft. Dr. ShamimMahabubulHaque; GENDER, CLIMATECHANGE AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND RECOVERY STRATEGY-ASIA PACIFIC 2015-2018; Towards the Post-2105 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (HFA2). Women as a force in resilience building, gender equality in disaster risk reduction, April 2014. A Background Paper on gender inclusion in HFA2; UNICEF 2015)

disaggregated data because many people do not identify with the sex they were born into and choose to be different even though their biological sex remains the same. If analysed by income group, ethnicity, physical ability or geographical location will provide better information of the differential needs of women from different groups and locations49

“Adaptation capacity against climate change impacts need [sic] to be augmented amongst community including women by investing in DRR and building resilience. Women equally with men should be oriented in dealing with hazards, including forest conservation to reduce probabilities of landslides and flooding; land use planning to minimize exposure to hazards; early warning systems and livelihood diversification into more resilient and empowering occupations. Resources should be allocated for full implementation of the Climate Change Gender Action Plan of the Government. Women’s capacity to play effective role in DRR related committees should be strengthened. Women’s livelihood services should continue to ensure food security (e.g. low gestation and less water intensive crops, food storage and preservation technology, food preservation during calamities) amongst vulnerable groups, including climate induced migrants to urban areas. Providing women with greater access to employment guarantee schemes, skills development, technology, entrepreneurship support and training would also help”.50

The 2015 UN Women report: ‘Summary of Research Findings: Addressing Gender Equality Through Climate Change Action and Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia and The Pacific – Moving Beyond the Rhetoric’51 presents summary findings of two UN Women-funded gender, climate change (CC) and disaster risk reduction (DRR) researches in the Asia and the Pacific region. The purpose of the studies was to provide evidence-based information on the gender impacts of climate change and disasters, how gender equality is addressed (or not) in climate change and DRR, and to identify ways of strengthening gender equality and women’s empowerment through CCA/DRR. It includes a table of disaster fatalities across Asia-Pacific over a number of years52 which show how presenting disaster data in disaggregated form can raise important questions:

Female Fatalities in a Range of Asia-Pacific Disaster Events

1991 Cyclone 0B2- Bangladesh 90%

2004 Tsunami- Aceh-Indonesia 77%

2004 Tsunami- Tamil Nadu India 73%

2008 Cyclone Nargis - Myanmar 61%

2009 Tsunami – Tonga and Samoa 70%

2014 Solomon Island Floods 96% women & children

2015 Nepal Earthquake 55%

For many countries around the world, the differential impact of disasters is unknown; at least in a quantifiable form. However, as disaggregated data is now a key element in both the SDGs and the Sendai Framework then it is to be expected that there will be movement on this important area. 49Gender equality and women’s empowerment: suggested strategies for the 7th five-year plan, 2014 page 4550Gender equality and women’s empowerment: suggested strategies for the 7th five-year plan, 2014 page 4651 2015 UN Women report: ‘Summary of Research Findings: Addressing Gender Equality Through Climate Change Action and Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia and The Pacific – Moving Beyond The Rhetoric’52This is based on anecdotal evidence from partners working in humanitarian response.

3) UNDERLYING INEQUALITIES OR ROOT CAUSES OF VULNERABILITYTaking into account the underlying inequalities that make women more vulnerable (addressing strategic interests rather than simply practical needs) is an important point picked up by most documents reviewed53. Greig and Pervin54 highlight the structural conditions of gender-based violence rooted in a:

‘nexus of socio-economic factors structuring the vulnerability of women and girls to gender-based violence [which] should be understood within the context of a patriarchal social system, based on patrilocal and patrilineal kinship relations, which entrenches women’s subordination to men, irrespective of other determinants of social hierarchy, such as class or ethnicity’ (Page 3).

In its Theory of Change statement, UN Women (no date)55 notes that ifspecific inequities that increase women’s vulnerabilities are reduced (amongst other things) then women’s disaster risks will be reduced and poor women will have enhanced resilience to climate change impacts and disasters, because gender inequality … is a root cause of vulnerability (page 5). UN Women puts equality front and centre of its mission. While getting acceptance of the logic of that proposition is the first step, the56 next challenge is to operationalise it. In its National Social Protection Strategy, the Government of Bangladesh Planning Commission has expressed strong commitment to reducing inequality alongside reducing poverty and improving human development. This commitment is reflected in various ways including: Vision 2021, the Perspective Plan 2010-2021 and in the Sixth Five Year Plan FY11-FY15 amongst others. However, arguably without dealing with the first common thread above (DELINKED PROGRAMMES) then thiscommitment will not bear fruit.Strategic guidance is needed to ensure plans, policies, programmes and project interventions are transformative in their impact, i.e., go beyond simply meeting women’s practical needs (which are unlikely to make any significant changes in women’s lives) and address women’s and girls’ strategic long-term interests.

The difference between a girl’s or woman’s practical needs and their strategic interests is an important distinction to be ingrained in policy and practice. The IASC IASC 2006 Women, Girls Boys & Men Different Needs – Equal Opportunities’ sets out a clear explanation and some simple examples:

Women, girls, boys and men have immediate, “practical” survival needs particularly in humanitarian crises. They also have longer-term “strategic” needs linked to changing the circumstances of their lives and realizing their human rights. Practical needs of women may include needs associated with their roles as caretakers, needs for food, shelter, water and safety. Strategic needs, however, are needs for more control over their lives, needs for property rights, for political participation to help shape public decisions and for a safe space for women outside the household, for example women’s shelters offering protection from domestic violence. Practical needs focus on the immediate condition of women and men. Strategic needs concern their relative position in relation to each other; in effect strategic needs are about resolving gender-based inequalities. A girl’s practical

53 (Summary Asia-Pacific; Nielsen 2015 Final Report On Final Project Evaluation - Reducing Vulnerability of Women Affected by Climate Change through Viable Livelihood Options Submitted by The Nielsen Company (Bangladesh) December 31, 2015; Final Evaluation: Reducing Vulnerability Of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options; Final Evaluation: Reducing Vulnerability Of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options; Programme Document: Joint Programme on Gender-based Violence Prevention in Bangladesh.54Greig and Pervin (2013)55 Gender Equality: Key to Climate Change Adaptation, Disaster Risk Reduction and Humanitarian Action (G&CCA/DRR/HA)56National Social Protection Strategy Bangladesh. (NSPS) Third Draft, January 26, 2014. General Economics Division, Planning Commission Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh

need for an education can be addressed in a strategic way if that education includes a rights-based curriculum that expands her horizons and enables her to consider a life different from one that is predetermined by her gender. A woman’s practical need for health care can be addressed in a strategic way if it includes access to services giving her greater control over her reproductive decisions. In the context of radical changes in people’s lives, loss of livelihoods and changed social roles (when, for instance, women take sole charge of families), humanitarian interventions can either address people’s needs in ways that can confirm traditional gender roles or can contribute to greater gender equality by, wherever possible, addressing strategic needs for changes in gender relations (page 3).

Returning to the 2015 UN Women report: ‘Summary of Research Findings: Addressing Gender Equality Through Climate Change Action and Disaster Risk Reduction in Asia and The Pacific – Moving Beyond the Rhetoric’ report indicates how many of these important points have been raised before but not actioned; either at all or inadequately.

“Groups that are denied rights to education, food, land, information, among others have less capacity to cope with climatic changes or recover from disasters. Groups with unequal access to resources are less able to build assets and resilience. When people are excluded from decision-making their needs and priorities become invisible.”

This is perhaps a perfect example of a ‘Theory Of No Change’ (TONC) and identifies the key limiting areas which need to be addressed to reduce disaster vulnerability and build resilience. However, many lie outside the remit of disaster management agencies. The challenge is to use disaster events and disaster planning linked to development operations to create opportunities for change in the root causes of vulnerability and marginalization.

4) POSITION WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANISATIONS AS ACTIVE STAKEHOLDERS AND DECISION MAKERS

Women’s unequal position in society encourages a stereotypical view of them as subordinate and passively vulnerable, in need of ‘saving’ rather than as equal partners, actively engaged in decision making before, during and after disaster events and in the every day. UN Women57, refers to this demeaning characterisation in terms of ‘the stigma of inequalities’ which must be removedif transformational change is to be achieved. This must be accompanied by the increased participation of women (in UDMCs and elsewhere) and the confirmation of their active role (pages 46-47).

When people are excluded from decision-making their needs and priorities become invisible58 and yet there are examples where this situation has been turned around through appropriate interventions59; where women’s decisions have been valued by their husbands and families; where they have gained the strength to raise their voice against injustices done to them and fight for their rights and dignity (page 33). This increased decision making power (page 34) has led to an important reduction in dependency (page 35). Ultimately this should help to save lives in disasters as women trust their judgement and ability to act. It is hoped a new national resilience strategy would develop gender equity in decision-making at all levels and remove

57 Women/Nielsen 2015 Final Evaluation: Reducing Vulnerability Of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options58 UN Women 2015 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS: ADDRESSING GENDER EQUALITY THROUGH CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION AND DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC – MOVING BEYOND THE RHETORIC59Women/Nielsen 2015 as above

barriers to women's participation60. UNDP61has argued that ‘empowering women is not only an ethical duty in its own right, but is also a rational economic decision’ (page 73). Furthermore, ensuring women’s full and effective participation ... at all levels of decisionmaking in political, economic and public life is one of the targets of Goal 5 of the SDGs. While increasing women’s decision making and stakeholder roles is recognized in most documents, there is a risk that a simple quota system will ensure their presence but not their voice. Distinguishing mere presence from attainment of leadership positions is key to advancing women’s social position.

5) LEADERSHIPLeadership is highlighted in both the SDGs and the Sendai Framework62 and thus there are already mechanisms through which to advance this agenda.

Examples of where women’s leadership has been facilitated and/or recognized are important opportunities to provide role models. For example, UN Women/Nielsen’s evaluation of the programme focused on reducing vulnerability of climate change affected women notes how within the target groups, one woman was provided with leadership skills training and then trained the remaining women of their group (page 18). UNDP63 report on evaluations showing that women in leadership positions, facilitated by the programme, have gained economic freedoms and high levels of empowerment.

It is important to ensure appropriate levels and forms of capacity building and support to encourage women to successfully adopt leadership positions without which the risk is that programmes may set women up to fail. Women leaders are not the norm in many communities and there are many social barriers to overcome to ensure success. One of which, highlighted in an early draft document on a new National Disaster Resilience Programme in Bangladesh64, is to ensure their improved access to information to enhance their resilience and leadership in disaster management

6) MONITORING OF NATIONAL AND LOCAL CC AND DRR EFFORTS. How do we know that policies, programmes and projects are doing what they say they will do? Establishing appropriately rigorous monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems is vital for accountability, transparency and effectiveness. However, monitoring for gender inclusion, gender awareness or gender responsiveness (increasingly active going down this list) is rarely done effectively or even at all.The UNISDR Global Assessment Report 201165 reports little progress on gender and that gap partly contributed to the (slightly) higher priority given to gender in the Sendai Framework66. However, unless there is evidence-based reporting by

60 Government of Bangladesh and United Nations Development Programme. NATIONAL DISASTER RESILIENCE PROGRAMME 2016-2022. Building Resilience for Sustainable Human Development, Draft V6 12/03/201661 UNDP 2016 Africa Human Development Report: Accelerating Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Africa62 Towards the Post-2105 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (HFA2). Women as a force in resilience building, gender equality in disaster risk reduction, April 2014. A Background Paper on gender inclusion in HFA2http://www.preventionweb.net/documents/posthfa/background_paper_gender_inclusion_in_hfa2.pdf63 Re-writing the Future: Celebrating women leadership in the urban slums of Bangladesh http://www.bd.undp.org/content/bangladesh/en/home/ourperspective/ourperspectivearticles/2016/Re-writing_the_Future_Celebrating_women_leadership_in_the_urban_slums_of_Bangladesh.html64 Government of Bangladesh and United Nations Development Programme. NATIONAL DISASTER RESILIENCE PROGRAMME 2016-2022. Building Resilience for Sustainable Human Development, Draft V6 12/03/2016, page 665 UNISDR Global Assessment Report 2011 http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2011/en/home/gar09.html66 Towards the Post-2105 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (HFA2). Women as a force in resilience building, gender equality in disaster risk reduction, April 2014. A Background Paper on gender inclusion in HFA2

member states then it will be very difficult to establish whether progress has indeed been made. In an analysis of 68 Global Environment Facility (GEF) projects, worth over $4.8 billion, in South East Asia and Pacific, gender issues were found to be poorly considered. Ninety-three percent of the GEF projects do not do more than mention gender equality and do not implement activities that can be monitored and measured67.

UNICEF’s68analysis of the women’sand children’s situationin Bangladesh in 2015 listed embedding effective planning and monitoring (at the local level) as one if its six key crosscutting and interlinked development themes which emerged as priorities in realising children’s and women’s rights in Bangladesh during a projected 2017-2021 period.To achieve this outcome, it is important to establish a rigorous gender M&E system to be applied across ministries, departments, policies, programmes and projects. Development of standard checklists and monitoring protocols could begin without delay. Building in-house monitoring capacity (especially for MoWCA) is also vital because the ability to monitor effectively indicates a proper understanding of the relevant issues. This is particularly the case if the policy is to move beyond a focus on women’s (and girls’) practical needs towards meeting their strategic interests. Systems forgender screening to meet gender compliance standards would go a long way to closing the gender gaps that are so prevalent.

7) PERVASIVE NATURE OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE Perhaps the clearest indicator of gender inequality is the level of violence perpetrated towards women and girls across the world. UNICEF69reports that protection issues for girls and women in Bangladesh are acute, with safety issues in public spaces and violence against women in the home by their own husbands essentially help to imprison women in domestic spaces.

Greig and Pervin70 highlight the pervasive nature of gender-based violence in Bangladesh despite a number of interventions. For example, national level response to violence against women and girls (VAWG) is overseen by an inter-ministerial committee, supported by Violence Against Women committees at district, upazila and union levels, together with national-level cells within the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs (MoWCA) (page 7). This work is supported by the Multi-Sectoral Programme on Violence Against Women, based within MoWCA, which ‘works with other ministries to support an impressive infrastructure of survivor-centred services’ (page 7).

Nevertheless, ‘there continue to be significant problems in terms of ‘translating’ laws and policies into action ‘on the ground’’ (page 7). An important brake on progress is the unmet need to change the dominant ideology which passively condones such violence. Focusing on individual level attitude and behaviour change, while necessary, is insufficient. Rather a “fundamental transformation in the distribution of power, opportunities, and outcomes for both men and women" is needed. (page 16). Greig and Pervin recommend an inclusive framework to address this problem, the “4 I’s” framework, which emphasises the internal, interpersonal, institutional, and ideological levels at which change is required for the prevention of gender-based violence. 67 UN Women 2015 SUMMARY68 UNICEF Analysis of the Situation of Children and Women in Bangladesh 201569 UNICEF Analysis of the Situation of Children and Women in Bangladesh 201570 Programme Document: Joint Programme on Gender-based Violence Prevention in Bangladesh Prepared by Alan Greig andShamimaPervin for UNFPA August 2013

The “4 I’s” Framework• “Internal level: change is needed in the deeply held and internalised beliefs and values that fuel, normalise or tolerate gender violence. Changing these ‘internal’ conditions requires strategies that not only inform and educate but also move people, personally and collectively, to challenge entrenched values and beliefs.

• Interpersonal level: change is needed in the ways in which women and men relate to each other and the practices of male privilege that maintain gender inequalities within interpersonal relationships, and which fuel, normalise or tolerate gender violence. Changing these ‘interpersonal’ conditions requires strategies that support people in developing new skills for their interpersonal relationships, which can promote greater equality within such relationships.

• Institutional level: change is needed in the institutional policies, practices and cultures, from the workplace to the school, that fuel, normalise or tolerate gender violence. Changing these ‘institutional’ conditions requires strategies that not only support institutional leaders, agents and gatekeepers in processes of change but that also hold them accountable for their responsibility to change” (page 16).

The SDGs list ‘eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres’ as one of the targets of Goal 5 and there is currently a surge in advocacy to prevent violence against women and girls (VAWG). However, the daily reports of horrific abuse are evidence of the ongoing reality.

Bangladesh has begun to address this ‘deep rooted barrier for women’s engagement’71 and now has a Domestic Violence Act72 although there are many issues around the efficacy of such legislative solutions in the absence of assiduous enforcement and protection. Nevertheless, project and programme interventions have achieved some success; for example, the evaluation of the ‘Reducing Vulnerability Of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options’73 programme found domestic violence had been reduced by nearly 32% compared to the baseline value. Ongoing, longitudinal monitoring of such success stories would enable us to say that sustainable change had really occurred. As Greig and Pervin74report, the key is to create the social conditions necessary for the prevention of gender-based violence (page 14) and the same is true for the creation of gender equality.

General pointsFinally, it is worth extracting at length from the ‘Recommendations and Way Forward’ (pages 10-11) in UN Women’s 2015 Summary report75 which provides some useful examples that could be incorporated into any new strategies. For example:

Under ‘Knowledge Generation and Management’ it highlights:

71 Towards the Post-2105 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (HFA2). Women as a force in resilience building, gender equality in disaster risk reduction, April 2014. A Background Paper on gender inclusion in HFA2http://www.preventionweb.net/documents/posthfa/background_paper_gender_inclusion_in_hfa2.pdf 72 National Social Protection Strategy Bangladesh. (NSPS) Third Draft, January 26, 2014. General Economics Division, Planning Commission Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh73 UN Women 2015 Final Evaluation: Reducing Vulnerability Of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options74Programme Document: Joint Programme on Gender-based Violence Prevention in Bangladesh Prepared by Alan Greig andShamimaPervin for UNFPA August 201375UN Women 2015 Summary Of Research Findings: Addressing Gender Equality Through Climate Change Action And Disaster Risk Reduction In Asia And The Pacific – Moving Beyond The Rhetoric

The need for investment in the collection, analysis, application, and management of sex and age disaggregated data at regional, national and community levels in order to make visible differential impacts of climate change and disasters;

More holistic understandingof hazard analysis, disaster risk assessments, social and vulnerability assessments and gender analyses;

Closure of specific knowledge gaps and on changing social dynamics (eg between climate change and rural-urban migration, child marriage and SGBV);

Improvement in the collation, dissemination and sharing of information, best practice and lessons learned on gender, climate change and DRR among governments, donors, CSOs, gender experts and researchers through south-south exchange.

In addressing policy, legislation, implementation and practice it demands:

Continued technical support in mainstreaming gender equality into CCDRR policy-making but also actioninggender equality priorities;

Mainstreaming gender perspectives into national, sub-national and community CCDRR plans and strategies rather than creating stand-alone CCDRR-gender policies;

Gender responsive budgeting ; Green economyopportunities for women in private and public sectors ; Equal access to information , including early warning;

Taking into account the underlying inequalities that make women more vulnerable.

Under ‘Climate Change and DRR Institutional Arrangements’ itlists:

Sustainedcapacity development of national women’s machineries to bring about transformation;

Mechanisms for holding decision-makers accountable that are gender-responsive.

Finally, under ‘Women’s Participation and Leadership in Climate Change and DRR’, it refers to:

The need to position women and women’s organisations as active stakeholders and decision makers;

With participatory decision-making and oversight mechanisms;

Collaboration and partnerships between women’s and grassroots organizations, gender equality champions and national and DRR institutions in the development, management, implementation

Monitoring of national and local CC and DRR efforts.

Just a handful of these recommendations, if implemented, would make a significant change in the gender equality landscape in Bangladesh.

One project with some notable successes, some of which have already been referred to, was the project, “Reducing Vulnerability of Women Affected by Climate Change through Livelihood Options”76 which was launched by UN Women in December 2011. This initiative was supported by the Royal Norwegian Embassy in Dhaka and its two implementing partners were BRAC and Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS). The goal of the project was to ensure that

76 Nielsen 2015 Final Report On Final Project Evaluation - Reducing Vulnerability of Women Affected by Climate Change through Viable Livelihood Options

women in communities vulnerable to the impact of climate change have access to sustainable livelihoods and are agents of change in climate change risk mitigation policy.

The project was successful in many important ways including:

Climate vulnerable women have made some positive changes in their livelihoods through generating and increasing income, acquiring more knowledge and preparing for future disasters.

The women are more mobile than before and have gained in confidence after engaging in income earning activities.

The annual average income of households has increased significantly after the programme intervention.

They have learned to raise their voice against injustices done to them, such as violence against women, and are able to fight for their rights and dignity.

There was an important reduction in dependency whereby fewer women now depend on the help of the male members of the family but instead look after themselves and their family during disaster.

Less successful were:

Inadequate amelioration regarding the issue of women’s empowerment and gender discrimination.

The lack of any drastic change in women’s decision making roles on major issues.

The evaluation makes a number of suggestions for improvements amongst which is:

Government should be encouraged to incorporate gender perspectives into their national policies, action plans and other measures on sustainable development and climate change, through systematic gender analyses; sex and age disaggregated data; establishing gender-sensitive benchmarks and indicators; and developing practical tools to support increased attention to gender perspectives.

Which provide a useful list to begin any strategy. While the project was regarded by the evaluators as exemplary for other government and private organizations to take similar initiatives, the report says: “the sustainability of the project depends on how efficiently target women utilize their knowledge, skills and livelihood support received through this project”. This conclusion will effectively blame the women if they do not achieve sustainability when it is the context in which they attempt this that must be considered. For example, if there has not been a change in women’s decision making role (as mentioned above) then this indicates there must still be resistance; even the possibility of backlash and these must be acknowledged and acted upon.

ConclusionsThe foregoing discussion illustrates why gender issues must be integrated into all disaster risk management policies, plans and decision-making processes, risk assessments, early warning, information management and education and training. Budgetary allocations also need to be increased to achieve the objective of gender equality in DRR and the everyday77. Further work needs to be done to explore and document how women cope and adapt as a result of climate change and disasters and identify how this unpaid work contributes to community resilience

77 PC 2015

across Bangladesh78. As governments and donors increasingly target women in their programs on community based climate change adaptation79, more attention needs to be brought to the gender dimensions of climate change and disaster in Bangladesh, in order to identify and reduce gender based inequalities and build a resilient population80.

Ensuring InclusivityTypically, reports, policies and other documentation uses the neutral sounding word ‘people’ in an attempt to be inclusive of everyone without having to list them, or simply because they have not thought through any gendered implications and are therefore ‘gender blind’. If particular social groups are not mentioned, then it is easy to forget their needs or interests. Although it may sound clumsy or even tiresome to keep listing groups, at the earliest stages of changing attitudes it is important to include the reminders.

Social GroupFurthermore, while mentioning ‘women’, ‘girls’ or ‘people with disabilities’ as examples of particular social groups often invisible in disaster planning and response, it is important to recognise that each group is in itself very diverse. Not all women are the same and what works for one group of women may not work for another. For example, just saying ‘women’ might lead to the production of inappropriate documents that are not accessible to women who are illiterate or those who are blind.

Men and BoysAdditionally, although women are inevitably the major focus of gender responsive initiatives because of their consistent and longstanding marginalisation and inequality (globally), men and boys must be included in gender policies and actions for a number of reasons: because, in some contexts, they are more at risk than are women and girls; because their exclusion can stimulate a backlash against women and girls as identified beneficiaries; and because ‘gender’ refers to the social relations between men and women and it necessary to understand these dynamics as part of a successful all of society approach.

Key Aspects of a Gender-Responsive National Resilience StrategyNo single group or organization can address every aspect of DRR. DRR thinking sees disasters as complex problems demanding a collective response. Co-ordination even in conventional emergency management is difficult, for many organizations may converge on a disaster area to assist. Across the broader spectrum of DRR, the relationships between types of organization and between sectors (public, private and non-profit, as well as communities) become much more extensive and complex. DRR requires strong vertical and horizontal linkages (central-local relations become important). In terms of involving civil society organizations, it should mean thinking broadly about which types of organization to involve (i.e., conventional NGOs and such organizations as trades unions, religious institutions, amateur radio operators (as in the USA and India), universities and research institutions).

Traditionally, emergency management/civil defence thinking makes two misleading assumptions about communities. First, it sees other forms of social organization (voluntary and community-based organizations, informal social groupings and families) as irrelevant to emergency action. Spontaneous actions by affected communities or groups (e.g., search and rescue) are viewed as irrelevant or disruptive, because they are not controlled by the authorities. The second 78 (Nasreen, 2015)79 (UN Women, 2014)80 (PC, 2015).

assumption is that disasters produce passive ‘victims’ who are overwhelmed by crisis or dysfunctional behaviour (panic, looting, self-seeking activities). They therefore need to be told what to do, and their behaviour must be controlled — in extreme cases, through the imposition of martial law. There is plenty of sociological research to refute such 'myths'.

An alternative viewpoint, informed by a considerable volume of research, emphasizes the importance of communities and local organizations (many of which are led by or have significant numbers of, women) in disaster risk management. The rationale for community-based disaster risk management that it responds to local problems and needs, capitalizes on local knowledge and expertise, is cost-effective, improves the likelihood of sustainability through genuine ‘ownership’ of projects, strengthens community technical and organizational capacities, and empowers people by enabling them to tackle these and other challenges. Local people and organizations are the main actors in risk reduction and disaster response in any case. Women’s existing contributions in this field must be made more visible.

Bangladesh’s people are the engine of its future growth. If people’s opportunities for productive employment or their ability to gain financially rewarding skills are blocked, then the future growth of Bangladesh society will be blocked also. Females are around 50% of the population and could make an even greater contribution to the country’s growth than they already do (often in unpaid care and domestic work). Women’s childrearing work safeguards the future workforce but opportunities must be available for women who want to work as well or instead on income earning enterprises outside the home. Gender balance in parenting and domestic duties means support for men is necessary too. In order to achieve gender equality in Bangladesh, it is necessary to pass through a gender equity stage wherein targeted support is made available to meet existing shortfalls. Usually this differential support will be directed at women and girls but sometimes it will be necessary to support men and boys as well.

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