Preface

It is the nature of all societies, cultures and specific groups, to create and perpetuate

myths and legends. These myths and legends play a large role in shaping societies and cultures,

histories, lineages, religious beliefs and teachings, due to the fact that they are steeped in or

based on myths and legends. Before I go any further let me define what a myth is and what a

legend is, for the purposes of this paper. Myths and legends are different; a myth usually is an

ancient story that deals with god-like figures1 such as Sun Wu Kong (the monkey king) or

Hercules. A legend is not always believed to be true but is based on some historical figure2 such

as Damo (Bodhidharma) or Robin Hood; this is the differentiation that will be used when

addressing a topic as either a myth or a legend.

We can all recall similar legends in some form or another, a group of monks, a lone sage

or some demi-god who summon all their martial might to defeat some evil and win the day. It

plays out in our modern society through portrayals in the movies and comic books; although the

names have changed the stories are the same. Such stories that have permeated through the ages,

have inspired rebellion, cults, and men and women everywhere to pursue the martial arts, these

stories bring smiles to the face’s of children and inspire awe in grown men. The first

legend’s/myths in contention are the more famous stories tied to the Shaolin monastery these

include; Damo, King Jinnalou and testaments to Shaolin’s martial prowess. Secondly I will

examine the legend of the sage Chang Sanfeng, said to have invented the soft style martial arts,

1 Rosenbaum page 20 “a myth is usually an ancient story that deals with god like figure” 2 Rosenbaum page 20 “ a legend is not always believed to be true but is based on a historical figure”

and be the root from which all internal or soft (taiji, xingyi, bagua) style martial arts sprang.

These stories dating from antiquity have so impacted the society that told them that they have

survived time, the greatest enemy to anything ancient, and continue to inspire generations of

people. It can be said that no two entities have so impacted the Chinese martial arts, and the

people that embrace them, as these. Whilst some of these tales are obviously exaggerated, and

some contain elements of the supernatural and deep profound religious beliefs, shreds of truth

are at the core of these tales. These myths/legends are at the foundation of martial arts teachings

and histories, whole schools of thought throughout China and the world are based, dedicated and

devoted to these tales. It is important to research and understand these tales so as to preserve and

permeate their teachings for future generations of students of Wu Dao (倵 道 the martial way). It

is my goal to examine these myths/legends in detail and find any shreds of historical truth

contained within them, with the objective to distinguish fact from fiction and fantasy from

reality.

Shaolin

When talking about Chinese martial arts lore, one must start with the most well known of

all the myths/legends, Shaolin. While evidence does exist of martial practice that pre-dates the

temple3, it seems that when discussing martial arts tales, all roads lead to Shaolin. Built between

the years 386-557 A.D.4, it has been a source of controversy and legend from its inception.

Purportedly built by Emperor Hsiao Wen, located in Henan province, it is situated at the base of

Song mountain and is one of the five holy peaks that the emperor was paid ritual homage to. The

first question usually posed by scholars is, where did the monks learn their skills? This question

has many answers and has fueled debate, but most known of these answers is the legend of

Damo.

Damo

Known by many names Damo, Putidamo, Daruma or Bodhidharma5(350-570 A.D?), he

is one of the most mysterious figures in Chinese Buddhism and is known to many martial arts

styles worldwide as the patron saint of the martial arts6. Believed to have been born in

Kanchipuram in southern India, he was the third son of King Sugandha of southern India, and a

member of the kshatriya7 or warrior caste (possibly where he developed the basis of his martial

3 Draeger and Smith, Page 18, 47. Stanely Henning states in many of his articles on the topic of Chinese boxing that the earliest accounts come from the warring states period, as well as from the grand historian Sima Qian who states that “both Jie of the Xia Dynasty (1763 B.C.) and Jiu of the Yin Dynasty (or Shang) (1098 B.C.) were as fleet footed as horses and able to fight wild animals barehanded.” Holcombe states in Combat Ritual and Performance “illustrations on bronze vessels from as early as 1000 B.C. show figure engaging in what are apparently martial exercises” page 155.4 Lewis page 11, also mentioned by Draeger, Henning and Sharhar. 5 Maliszewski page 146 His legend is found in China, India, Japan and Korea. He is known in Japan and many styles of Gung fu as the “patron saint of the martial arts”7 Speissbach, page 13.

arts training). His Buddhist training came in the form of master Prajnatara who he is said to have

studied under for forty years8. On his masters deathbed Prajnatara asked Bodhidharma to go and

spread true Buddhism to China. Some scholars say he came by boat traveling 33,000 miles over

treacherous seas9, yet others say he followed the silk road. Whichever way he traveled, at 113

years old 10he ended his journey in Nanjing (426-550 A.D.), at the court of emperor Wu Di11.

Damo was invited to converse with the emperor (the emperor was a fervent Buddhist), but after a

short discourse12 Damo decided that the emperor could not “appreciate” his teachings, with that

he is said to have traveled to Wei by crossing the Yangtze river by standing on a reed13 from

there he is said to have traveled to Luoyang (a pulsing center for Buddhism at the time), but

found that he was not welcome there. From Luoyang he headed north towards Song Shan

Mountain and Shaolin.

8 Speissbach, page 13.9 Speissbach, page 1310 Speissbach indicates that Damo is 110 years old at the time of his masters death and that his trip took three years.11 Draeger and Smith, page 4412 Speissbach give a synopsis of this discourse on the bottom of page thirteen, in it Wu Di asked Damo how great are his deeds, he has built many temples and has been promulgating Buddhism. 13 Spiessbach, page 14 *see foot note 19

Picture of Damo Holding a Monks Spade.

Upon Damo’s arrival at the Shaolin monastery, he was not warmly welcome, and a few

accounts of his arrival state that he was thrown out of the monastery14. Understanding that the

monks at the monastery were jiao jia (scholastic monks), he realized that he would not be able to

convey his teachings through words. Damo purportedly meditated for nine years facing a wall (bi

guan, wall gazing), listening to ants scream15. Once while meditating it is said that he fell asleep

and cut off his eyelids in disgust, which sprouted into tea shrubs16. Once he left the cave he is

said to have returned to Shaolin, where he found the monks sickly, week and unable to stay

awake during meditation. To counter the monks sickly states Damo introduced a set of exercises,

these exercises became the basis of the Shaolin martial arts17. Three texts have been attributed to

14 Speissbach, page 15.15 Draeger and Smith, page 4416 Interestingly enough Draeger states that the monks used the tea to deter sleep, this statement is obviously fiction, as tea was not introduced to China until 700- 900 A.D.17 Speissbach, page 19.

Damo and his physical teachings, first is the Yi Jin Jing (sinew changing scripture), secondly the

Xi Sui Jing (marrow washing classic) and finally the Shi Ba Luo Han Shou (eighteen hand

movements of Louhan)18.

Many versions of Damo’s departure from shaolin and death exist. One account has him

traveling back to India through a place called “Onion Pass”, supposedly carrying one shoe. Yet

another version has him traveling to Japan at age 196; by standing on a reed he crossed the sea19.

Yet other versions have him dying in northern China (527-540 A.D.), after being poisoned20. The

biggest source of contention comes from the multiple accounts of his burial. He is said to be

buried in no less than six separate locations. It is said that he was buried in Luoyang, on the bank

of the Ko river, at the pagoda of the Bear’s ear at mount Yu Li, on Bear’s Ear mountain in Henan

province, at the Shaolin temple in its garden of pagoda’s and finally in Japan in the Nara

prefecture21.

Historical sources that provide actual evidence of Damo are sparse at best, however three

historical works have come down through the ages that attest to his existence. First and oldest of

these writings is the History of Monasteries in Luoyang authored by Yang Xuanzhi , in it the

author describes a trip to Yong Ning temple where he met a 150 year old “barbarian” (obvious

illusion to Damo’s foreignness) named Bodhidharma.22 Second of these writings comes from

Dao Xuan (645A.D.) who was the founder of the Vinaya sect of Buddhism. In his work

“Biographies of Eminent Tang Monks”23 he mentions that Damo wrote down his words, as to

18 Spiessbach, page 20. Maliszewski page 44. Daeger, page 44 ( Draeger only mention’s the first two texts in his book). Lohan means Buddhist disciple.19 Spiessbach, page 18. This is similar to one of the accounts of Damo traveling to Shaolin, in which he traversed the river on a reed. 20 Spiessbach states on page 18 that no less than six attempts were made on his life by jealous rivals.21 Spiessbach, page 18. 22 Spiessbach, page 11 Luoyang jia lan ji (The History of the Monasteries of Luoyang)23 Spiessbach, page 12. (Xu gao seng zhuan chin. Biographies of Eminent Tang Monks)

permeate his teaching, and the only reason he is mentioned is because he practiced Mahayana

Buddhism. Finally, the last and probably most reliable source on Damo comes from the writings

of a Ch’an (zen) monk named Dao Yuan. Dao Yuan compiled a book of some thirty volumes

(1004 A.D.) called “The Records of Transmission of the Lamp” 24one of which is dedicated

entirely to Damo. In his work Yuan states that Damo purportedly stayed at the Temple of Perfect

Peace, this is also mentioned in Xuanzhi’s “The History of the Monasteries in Luoyang” and is

the spot where he is to have stated that he was 150 years old. Yuan’s records also mention two

other very interesting facts first he tell’s of Damo’s “wall gazing” secondly that he was in

Luoyang at the time of the temples greatest prosperity25. Unfortunately this is about all the

accurate historical information we have on the man, other tales and stories abound but these

cannot be proven and are generally regarded as fiction, and attributed too much later sects of

Ch’an Buddhism, martial arts styles (who are trying to add legitimacy to their school or that may

have be birthed at shaolin) and secret societies26 that trace their lineage to Shaolin, and ultimately

Damo.

King Jinnalou and the Staff Wielding Buddha’s

King Jinnalou, is the protective god of the Shaolin temple and quite possibly the most

obscure legendary deity connected to Shaolin. Jinnalou has many incarnations; his origins are

shrouded in mystery, each one of his incarnations has a similar yet differing story. The most

popular and well known of the “actual” Jinnalou legend, comes from a stele dated 151727 . The 24 Spiessbach, page 12 (Jing de zhuan deng lu chin. The records of Transmission of the Lamp) 25 This information whilst originally stated in Yuan’s book, was taken from Spiessbach’s article.26 Many secret martial arts societies, such as the Triad Society or Hung League (Draeger and Smith page 45) tied themselves to the Southern Shaolin temple reported to be in Fukien province a claim that cannot be validated by physical evidence. 27 Henning, page 9 New Light on the Jinnalou legend.

account written on the stele follows as such; there was once an ordinary monk, who worked in

the kitchen of Shaolin. He was sloppy and unkempt, his hair was messy and long (unlike the

other monks who shaved their heads)! Monks at the monastery thought little of him as he kept to

himself and he constantly cultivated all the deeds of enlightenment28. One day the monastery was

threatened by a group of marauding Red Turban rebels. Upon the Red Turbans descent on the

monastery, the lowly cook threw himself into an oven, from which he burst forth and

transformed himself into a ferocious giant wielding his iron fire poker as a staff. He spanned two

mountains (Song and Shaoshi mountains) and scared the “barbarians” away, thereby saving the

monastery. After his transformation, King Jinnalou was said to have disappeared, the monks

searched in vain for him but no trace could be found. After their exhaustive search the monks

realized that they had just witnessed a Bodhisattva, at which time they honored him as the

guardian spirit of the Shaolin temple.

Origins of a Myth

Evidence for the origins of Jinnalou is hard to pin point, and lies shrouded in religious

tradition. There are many similar stories to the one of Jinnalou, in fact at the monastery itself

another name for this deity Naluoyan ,can be found on a much earlier stele (dated 1150 A.D.)

than the one that contains the Jinnalou myth (1575)29. It seems that whilst one cannot trace the

lineage of the Jinnalou myth, many examples from the Buddhist, Daoist and Hindu pantheon of

gods exist, as likely sources.

28 Sharhar, page 3529 Sharhar, page 73. Naluoyan’s appearance as the guardian deity predates, that of Jinnalou’s by many centuries, he is often portrayed holding a lightning bolt instead of a staff, interestingly his name in Chinese is very similar in spelling to that of Jinnalou.

Jinnalou (also known as Kimnara in Sanskrit) has his origins in the Buddho-Hindu

tradition. He is described in Indian tradition as being semi-divine, and human like. Jinnalou is

also known sometimes as a “heavenly musician”30. In Buddhist tradition he is one of the eight

heavenly beings, who make up the Buddha’s retinue31. Before 1575 A.D. there is no mention of

Jinnalou at the monastery. Naluoyan (also know in Sanskrit as Narayana or by his Hindu name

Visrapani)

Picture of Narayana, interestingly pictured with a staff.

comes from the same pantheon of gods as Jinnalou, and while not portrayed holding a staff as is

Jinnalou, but he does wield a lightning bolt and was a deity patronized by the monks of Shaolin.

Another possible source for Jinnalou lies at a different Ch’an monastery, Nanhua.

Nanhua monastery houses a ming period bronze figure known as “The Mess Overseeing

30 Sharhar, page 37.31 Sharhar, page 38. Sharhar also states that there are sometimes four representations of King Jinnalou, known as the four “Kimnara kings” each the king of something specific, fine dharma, great dharma, dharma holder and dharma.

Bodhisattva”(Jianzhai Pusa)32. This bronze statuary does not wield a staff as does Jinnalou but an

axe, and has its roots in either the Daoist or Buddhist pantheon (as it is a member of both). In the

Daoist realm he is known as the “Sacred general of the Fasting Alter”33. Interestingly enough

there is another Ch’an story, which may have influenced the Jinnalou myth, the story of the sixth

patriarch of the Ch’an school. The story of Huineng the sixth patriarch of the Ch’an sect of

Buddhism has many similarities to that of the Jinnalou myth. Huineng is said to have reached

enlightenment while working as a lowly cook in the kitchen of a Ch’an monastery and was

transferred the dharma by the fifth patriarch34 .

Yet another possible genesis for King Jinnalou, is the story of Sun Wu Kong. Sun Wu

Kong known more popularly in the west as the monkey king and hero of the classic Journey to

the West, is also a member of the Buddho-Hindu pantheon of gods, his story while first recorded

in the 1500’s may have been part of earlier stories or oral traditions. He is often compared to a

very similar Buddhist deity named Na Cha35 (one account has Na Cha claiming to be the son of

Visrapani), he could be yet another possibility for the birth of the Jinnalou myth.

32 Henning, page 11. New Light on the Jinnalou Legend.33 Henning, page 12. New Light on the Jinnalou Legend.34 De Bary, page 217. The story of the transmission of the Dharma form the 5th to the 6th patriarch. 35 Interesting note, In the Ma Cha staff manual a story telling of the “mess overseeing Bodhisattva” is found, Ma Cha and Na Cha could have easily be mistaken as they sound so similar, this may be yet another clue to the origin of this myth.

Statuary of Na Cha Wielding a staff

Whilst all of these mythological beings have slight variances in their stories there are

many constants and similarities, the a fore mentioned beings share all similar, humble origins,

powers, weapons, names, and journey’s. Stories of these deities births are the first common link

between them, both Sun Wu Kong and Na Cha are miraculously conceived. Sun Wu Kong was

born from a stone egg, forced out of a mountain; Na Cha was immaculately conceived by his

mother who was told “to receive the child of a unicorn”36 and emerged from a ball of flesh (this

ball could possibly represent an egg). Na Cha and Sun Wu Kong both were fully grown and

bathed in a brilliant halo of light when they sprung forth. While we have no stories to tell of the

births of Jinnalou, Jianzhai Pusa, Naluoyan and Huineng we do have other striking similarities to

connect these deities.

Huineng, Jinnalou and Jianzhai Pusa are all connected to cooking, while Jianzhai Pusa is

considered the “mess overseeing Bodhisattva” or Bodhisattva of the kitchen, Jinnalou and

Huineng are both said to have been “scullion working in the kitchen of a monastery”37 when their

call came. A undeniable similarity between the Jinnalou myth and the Sun Wu Kong myth, may

36 Chamberlain, page 12737 Sharhar, page 39

also show a source of genesis for this story, while Sun Wu Kong is not connected with cooking,

both Jinnalou and Kong’s stories contain identical events; both Sun Wu Kong and Jinnalou are

said to have burst forth from and oven transformed and ready for battle38.

Classic Chinese depiction of Sun Wu Kong

Still more similarities in the abilities of these persons abound, Sun Wu Kong, Na Cha,

Jianzhai Pusa and Jinnalou are all said to wield a staff, and have the power to grow to immense

size. Another coincidence, if you can call it that is the accompaniment of the Bodhisattva Guan

Yin, often depicted behind Jinnalou in pictures39, one account of the Jinnalou legend sates that

she takes or projects the form of Jinnalou. Guan Yin is the same person who trapped Sun Wu

Kong under a mountain, after he lost a bet with her. Guan Yin’s story also distinctly resembles,

38 The Shaolin myth has Jinnalou diving into the hearth and then bursting out, while the Sun Wu Kong myth has him put there by Lao Tzu, for the purposes of refining him as he was a trouble maker. The hearth may take the place of birth in the case of JInnalou and may be a symbol of rebirth for Sun Wu Kong.39 Sharhar, page 39-40

and parallels that of Na Cha’s40 and she is supposedly imbibed with the power to change her

form as needed41. Still more parallels can be drawn between Jinnalou, Sun Wu Kong and Na

Cha, as all three were considered rebellious42, either because of their actions or in the case of

Jinnalou because of his appearance. Unfortunately it is impossible to know which myths

spawned which, or if any myth influenced the Jinnalou story at all.

Reason’s for the existence of Jinnalou

Historically, the Jinnalou myth does have some basis. It is known that the Red Turbans

did in fact lay waste to the monastery in 1356 A.D. (one of many times the temple was

destroyed) during the fall of the Yuan dynasty, and were not deterred by the monks or any other

force. Jinnalou, may have been created to cover up for the monks inability to defend the

monastery, he may also serve as a reminder to never let this happen again43. King Jinnalou may

also represent as a monastic apology or validation for bearing weapons and resorting to violence,

two actions that are greatly abhorred upon by Buddhism. It seems that if a Buddhist god could

defend the monastery with a staff then so could the monks who cultivate themselves in his

image44. Evidence of this fact is contained in a Buddhist hymn that states “protection of the

Buddhist faith even if it involves violence is still an act of compassion”45 and that “mercy is

cultivated through heroism”46.

40 Chamberlain, page 133. 41 Walters, page 95.42 While Sun Wu Kong and Na Cha were considered rebels against heaven, Jinnalou was considered a rebel against Buddhist conformity (walking around shirtless, shoeless and with messy unkempt hair) as Sharhar states on page 39.43 Henning, page 10. New Light on the King Jinnalou Legend.44 Sharhar, page 48. Sharhar goes on to say that many of the Buddhist deities portrayed in painting and statuary at the monastery depict the arhats holding cudgel or staff, and posses’ foreign and martial qualities to them.45 Sharha page, 48-4946 See foot note 45

Whether Jinnalou is based on a previous story, or is one of Shaolin origin is unknown,

but it would seem that most likely this myth was adapted from another story and molded to fit

the needs of the monks as there are too many similarities to other Buddhist deities (that pre-date

the Jinnalou myth) to be ignored.

Evidence of Shaolin’s Martial Practice and Prowess

Tales of the prowess of Shaolin’s martial skills abound, but not much of it can be

historically verified. In order to fully understand how Shaolin achieved notoriety for its boxing

and staff, we must first understand the context in which the monks lived daily. As stated earlier

in this paper the monastery is located in the Henan province, this province of China has been a

hot bed for martial arts (spawning both, Shaolin and Taiji as well as Bagua) that continues to this

day. Henan was also known to be a place of constant turmoil and violence47, home to the city of

Luoyang, this city is one of the oldest48 and richest in China, being that it was close to the

frontier it was also a prime target for “barbarian” hoards. In this context it seems understandable

why the monks there would in fact practice martial skills. It is also interesting to note that both of

the fighting arts Shaolin is most noted for i.e. boxing and staff, have a divine progenitor and

genesis story 49(Damo as the father of boxing skills and Jinnalou as the father of the staff method,

would serve as justification for use of violence whilst defending themselves and the temple).

Interestingly enough, legends of Shaolin’s prowess have taken root in Japanese traditions.

Shorinji kempo (shorinji literally meaning Shaolin and kempo meaning fist in Japanese) claims

its origins at the Shaolin monastery50.

47 Sharhar, page 5048 The city has evidence of being inhabited since the stone age.49 As noted earlier tying their martial practice to essential Buddhist figures may serve as justification for their practice.50 Spiessbach states that a man named Doshin-so traveled from Japan to the Shaolin monastery, and after studying brought back with him what is known as Shorinji Kempo, this style combines religion, martial arts and zen

Many records and accounts attest to Shaolin’s use of staff, stave and cudgel during the

Ming period observations made at the monastery state that various styles of boxing and weapons

training were performed by the monks. Dating the birth of martial arts at Shaolin is impossible

because of the layers of myth, legend and religious tradition which shroud it.

One of Many Murals housed at Shaolin Depicting Martial training

The earliest of the accounts of fighting monks at the monastery dates to 618 A.D. (end of

the Sui Dynasty and beginning of the Tang), when they are said to have fought off a group of

marauders51. Our next account comes in the form of documents from the Tang dynasty, It seems

that in 621 A.D. thirteen monks aided the Tang emperor in overthrowing a usurper, and rescuing

his son. We have Tang documents dated 621, 625, 632 and 724, that bestow land and privileges’

to the Shaolin temple52. A stele inscription dated to 728 A.D. confirms that the monks took part

in the Tang emperor’s campaign and a letter from the emperor inscribed on the stele thanks and

meditation and is considered an officially registered religion named Kongo-zen. 51 Henning, page 11. Chinese Boxing’s Ironic Odessy (Henning makes no note of the primary source for this information, but in the previous paragraph refers to a number of authors and their writings) 52 Sharhar, page 52.

praises the thirteen monks53. After 728 A.D. there is a large gap in evidence, we again see

references to Shaolins capabilities in the 1500’s.

Martial Monks in Literature

In 1553 A.D. an account of the monks being mobilized for military action, again springs

up, the reason for this mobilization was for defense of coastal cities against Japanese pirates.

there are at least four specific accounts of a unknown sized group of martial monks led by

general’s Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang, taking up arms and participating in battles in which they

defeated the Japanese pirates. First of these accounts was during the spring of 1553 A.D. on

Mount Zhe, the other three battles took place in the canals of the Huangpu river delta54. The

monk’s most decisive win came when one hundred and twenty monks faced more than a hundred

pirates, disposing of them all and suffering only four casualties of their own55. Zheng Ruoceng

who recorded the feats of these monks during the pirate incursions stated “In today’s martial arts

there is no one who does not yield to Shaolin”.

Written evidence presents itself in later texts as well, the Ma Cha Staff Manual (1679

A.D.), Cheng Chongdou’s Elucidation of Shaolin Staff (1621 A.D.), The New Book of effective

discipline authored by Qi Jiguang and Wu Shu’s Record of Arms56, all present what is said to be

Shaolin staff technique. Still later works such as Liu Tieyun’s Travels of Lo Tsen (1907), talks of

53 Sharhar, page 51.54 Sharhar, page 25. Sharher quotes three sixteenth-century gazetteers that allude to the participation of "monastic troops" (seng- bing f1.) in this battle, even though neither specifies to which monastery they belonged; see the 1561 Zhejiang tongzhi ffjI,ji (chap. 60); the Jiajing-period (1522-1566) Ningbofu zhi * ffJ,, (chap. 22); and the 1579 Hangzhoufu zhi flj, qf , (chap. 7). 55 Sharhar, page 26. Subsequently, not all the monks that formed this conscript force came from Shaolin, one account has eighteen Hangzhou monks, who were challenging Shaolins authority, being bested by one monk by the name of Tianyuan, who used an iron bar to defeat the opposing monks, who immediately after being beaten prostrated themselves and asked for forgiveness. 56 Henning, page 13. New Light on the Jinnalou Myth.

boxing skills taught at Shaolin that have evolved from Damo’s teachings57. Historically, these

texts are among the few that can be validated, but volumes of unverified text do exist, such as the

1915 A.D. treatise entitled Secrets of Shaolin Boxing58, the legitimacy of which is debatable, and

may have been more propaganda then facts or myths.

Today film, television and media continue to promote the legendary skills of Shaolin, it

seems that Hong Kong filmmakers churn out a dozen movies a year since the mid 1960’s that

either refer to or contain Shaolin in the title, further spreading the fame of the Shaolin’s martial

monks to the masses, and continuing to permeate a myth that has echoed through the ages and

has influenced so many.

Part II

Wu Dang and the Sage

The legend of Wu Dang and the immortal sage Chang Sanfeng is encased in a befuddling

maze of fact and fiction. One must peel back layers of resentment, religion, daoist alchemy,

philosophy, hearsay, deception (to establish lineage) and discursive practice in order to begin to

understand the origins of this legend. Chang Sanfeng is credited with the creation of the internal

or soft martial arts also known as Wu Dang style (as the soft style was birthed at Wu Dang

mountain) from which taiji chuan (great ultimate fist), xingyi chuan (mind form boxing), bagua

chuan (eight diagrams palm) and liuhobafa chuan (six harmonies and eight methods boxing) are

said to have been born from.

57 Henning, page 12. Chinese Boxing’s Ironic Odyssey.58 Henning page 12. Chinese Boxing’s Ironic Odyssey.

Depiction of Chang Sanfeng

Chang Sanfeng’s Legend

A variable array of versions of taiji chuan’s origins have been accepted and propagated as

fact59, but there are scant few references to Chang’s origins, or his life before taiji. I will attempt

to piece together, a biography of Chang up to his creation for the internal arts, as to further

understand this legend. What is widely accepted is that Chang lived during the Song Dynasty

(960 -1279 A.D.)60. He was a native of Hsien province61, born to Nee Lin following a dream of a

great stork coming from the sea62. Another legend claims that he was born at midnight on April

9th, 1247 A.D., too a government official. In his youth he was supposed to have studied Shaolin

59 Douglas Wile, page 13.60 Demarco, page 10. Wile, page 13. Taken from Xu Yushengs “Illustrated introduction to taiji” While the song dynasty is the most accepted time for his birth he was also placed in the later Ming period (1368 -1644 A.D.) *Demarco makes no illusions as to where this information was gathered from, further more his article while coming from a reputable journal has no foot or end notes.61 Werner, page 37.62 Wile, page

martial arts63. Disheartened by Shaolin’s hard and offensive characteristics64, he modified it into

a soft truly defensive martial art65 by applying Daoist philosophy, and internal alchemy to the

system. A different version has Chang witnessing a snake successfully defend itself against the

attacks of a bird66 and then incorporating the snake’s movements into his style.

Yet another version of this tale has Chang led by a display of heavenly lights to a mysterious

cave, once inside he encounters two golden snakes and two miraculous spears. Nearby he also

discovers a manual called Taiji Sticky Thirteen Spear from whose principles he distills the

techniques that would form Taiji67. Most popular of these versions of the Chang Sanfeng legend

actually has the Daoist hermit/sage being instructed in a dream68 by Guan Gong69 the Buddhist

63 These two accounts are just about the only references to his childhood.64 According to Henning, page 16 Internal vs. External one account has Chang learning boxing from a teacher named Lao Sun Shisan or Old Sun Thirteen a possible allusion to Sun Tzu and the Art of War.65 Draeger and Smith, page 17.66 Wile, page 15.67 Wile, page 14. 68 Henning, page 11. Internal vs. External. This same account is found in Wile’s work on page 1169 Also known respectively as Guan yu, Guan ti, his name may also be spelled with a K in place of the G, depending on whether the author is using pinyin or wade giles Romanization.

god of war. Upon waking the next day he is said to have single handedly killed over 500 Khitan

bandits70. Chang Sanfeng was said to have died in the 1390’s and was canonized in 1459 by the

emperor Ying-tsung71.

Still a far more detailed and specific account can be found in the taiji classics I have

reproduced the story as follows72:

“Chang the Immortal was not always known as so. No, when he was young, he was

known as Chun Pao, being so named by his family. Chang was born into a clan rich in a tradition

of wisdom and devotion to Taoism. It is of small ponderance than that Chang, no less, would also

be found to possess Taoist virtue and wisdom. Even in his youth, Chang was bright of eye and

keen of mind, early on proving himself to have a splendid ability of concentration, thought and

capable studiousness of Chinese Classics. Having accomplished himself so, Chang found favor

with the Government of the Yuan Emperor and therefore secured a fine position. Yet...Chang felt

emptiness inside for all of his prosperity. Finding no joy in his own competency, Chang was

drawn away from the world and its affairs to seek out his own understanding of the Universe and

of spiritual truth. Giving up all his possession, Chang set forth upon the land in quest of

knowledge and roamed far and wide upon the country. After a time of travel, Chang came upon

the famed Shaolin Temple and settled for a time there, studying and learning from the monks.

Nine years passed (coincidently this is the same amount of time Damo spent wall gazing) as he

plied himself to mastering monastic life and understanding the mysteries of Buddhism. While at

Shaolin monastery, Chang also studied and mastered the famous Shaolin boxing which was

comprised of five forms imitating the beasts of nature: the tiger, the crane, the leopard, the snake

and the dragon. Chang also studied and practiced the meditation of the Chan sect, as was the

method of the Shaolin. Yet, again...something pulled at Chang. A perturbance vexed his nature

denying him contentment, and he knew he had not yet found the harmonious state of being he was

seeking. So...taking his leave of his friends the pious monks of Shaolin, Chang gathered his simple

needs and bidding the monastery farewell, set upon the Road again wandering the land. During

his excursions, Chang ventured too many holy places of Taoist lore. It was upon the misty slopes

of one such place that Chang met Ho Lung, The Fire Dragon. Many people say he was not really

a dragon, but just a man, a hermit and sage. But those that are wise know he truly was a Fire 70 Wile, page 13. Henning also talks of a similar version of the same story in Internal vs. External, but in this version Chang kills over a hundred bandits.71 DeMarco page 10.72 I have replicated this story from the book “Art of taijiquan” written (circa. 1925) by a student of Yang Chengfu named Chen Weiming and translated by Davis, as it is the most detailed and complete version of the Chang Sanfeng legend,

Dragon...a fairy in his own right. The Fire Dragon liked Chang and made him his disciple. For

nine long years sojourned and walked the precipices of the mountains with the Fire Dragon while

learning the Taoist Alchemist Craft and the secrets of immortality.

The Fire Dragon gave to Chang the secret to conjure the Eternal Elixir, which can turn lead into

gold and a man into an immortal. Thus done, Ho Lung sent Chang away on his own to master his

lessons and perfect his alchemy. Then Ho Lung transmogrified himself back from man into

dragon and, upon wings and celestial balls of fire, returned to the Heavens once more. Chang

traveled far and wide again, finally settling upon Wu Dang mountain. Upon these clouded peaks,

Chang set about to master the formula of the eternal elixir, which combined the powers of special

exercises of the body, mind and spirit, and the mysteries of Taoist alchemy. Chang became

harmonious with nature and achieved oneness with the Great Tao, culminating in his own

transmogrification, and thus, Chang became an Immortal. Now, while upon the steppes of San

Feng Shan, the "Three Peaks Mountain", Master Chang practiced his Five Pleasures. These

were: Sword Dancing in Moonlight, which accumulates energy; playing Taiji chuan on Dark

Nights, which invigorates the chi; climbing mountains on blustery Nights, which elongates the

breath; studying classics on rainy nights, which cleanses the mind; and meditating at midnight,

which makes one's nature brilliant. Aside from being a wise sage, Chang is also known as the

Father of the 'Grand Supreme Fist', Tai Chi Chuan. Chang discovered that most martial form’s,

were too vigorous and relied too heavily upon the physical strength. It is told that Chang, ever

observant of nature, once witnessed a combat between a snake and a bird. The noise of this

contest had disturbed Chang’s devotions, and venturing forth from his modest hut, he witnessed

the bird to attack the snake. At each pass, the bird fiercely pecked and clawed at the snake,

however, the reptile through suppleness and coiling of his form, was able to avoid the attacks and

launch strikes of his own. The bird in his turn circled and used his wings beat the snake aside

when he struck. Master Chang contemplated upon this experience. That night, as the sage slept,

Yu Huang, the Glorious Jade Emperor (in most versions of this story Chang is visited by the God

of War and not the Jade Emperor), visited Chang in his dreams and instructed him, teaching him

the secrets of the Tao that the bird and the snake innately knew. The next day, Chang sprang up

from his sleep wide awake and inspired by his celestial visitor, immediately set about the creation

of a new martial art form that relied upon internal power, or chi, at its root. This art held as its

foundation the truth that 'yielding overcomes aggression' and 'softness overpowers hardness'. In

honor of his divine influences, Chang called his art Taiji chuan, the 'Grand Supreme Fist'.

For this, Chang is known as the progenitor of the Wu Dang (schools), so named because they

come from Wu Dang mountain. These are the internal arts, which are juxtaposed to the external

arts, such as Shaolin, which relies upon the physical mastery of the body and development of great

strengths. Because of Chang's skill and also because of his abode upon San Feng Shan, Chang

became known as Chang Sanfeng, which means 'Chang of Three Peaks' or 'Three Hand Chang'.

Many people differ as to why he is so called. Some say because of where he lives the mountain

appears to be three great hands reaching into Heaven. Others say because Chang's skill is so

great in Taijii chuan that he defends himself as if he has three hands. And yet, others say because

he was a Master of three skills: knowledge of Chinese Classics, Taiji chuan, and Daoism. Master

Chang possessed many skills and virtues.

Once when he was not yet a god, and yet more than just a man, he was wandering upon the Wu

Dang mountainside searching for herbs. At this same time, there was a Mongolian Prince and his

retainers riding upon the mountain hunting game. By chance, their paths crossed. The Prince

and his archers treated Chang most rudely. While Chang knew the Mongolians had excellent

kung fu with their bows and arrows, he was not afraid. The soldiers ordered Chang to move away

and not disturb the Prince's hunt. The sage saw that the plush palace lives had made them full of

themselves and thus they could benefit from a lesson in humility. With bright eyes and a calm

spirit, Chang smiled at the haughty Prince and spoke, "Your skill with the Bow & Arrow is great

and artful indeed, and I'm sure it serves you most well in having an excellent hunt. However," he

continued with just the slightest twinkling of eye, "I need no such tools and use only my bare

hands to accomplish these same tasks." The soldiers were aghast by his impertinence and became

quite angry. But before anyone could move or say another word Chang leaped straight up into

the air and with each hand snatched from the ether a pair of hawks which were flying overhead.

Landing almost soundlessly before the astonished group, the sage placed a bird upon each of his

palms. The birds of prey much desired to be free again to soar the heavens, but no matter how

they flapped, they could not find perch to launch themselves from the Master's hands; such was

the skill of Chang Sanfeng that he could feel and harmonize to their efforts, yielding just so to

each push and in order preventing the birds from gaining the necessary leap to take flight. He

then turned and spoke to the Mongols before him saying, "I am a man of the Dao, and as such,

have no desire to bring harm to the creatures of nature. Therefore, I have mercy upon these

creatures and set them free." So said, the birds suddenly were able to leap and the Chang

withdrew his palms as the hawks flew away. Now, one soldier became angry because he felt it was

unfitting for Chang to presume to give a humbling lesson to his Prince and fellow soldiers. So he

drew his Mongolian Bow and notching an arrow let it fly at the sage. However, Chang Sanfeng's

skill was mighty, and turning his head just slightly, snatched the arrow from the air with his teeth.

Taking the arrow from his mouth, Chang flicked it between his fingers throwing it away. The

arrow flew straight and true as if shot from the string of a Bow and struck a nearby tree,

imbedding deeply within its trunk. Chang smiled at the soldier and his eye sparkled with

amusement, as he said, “No thank you, I have no need for such crude and violent instruments."

The sage gazed at the Mongols with his brilliant and piercing eyes, and they suddenly became

very afraid. Turning their mounts, they rode away quickly. Without another thought, Chang

turned and began again to rummage the forest floor in search of his elusive herbs.

It is said that as he made the change from man to immortal, nature was drawn unto him. Those

things in nature that are purest found in him an ally and benefactor. Cranes, would often sit

watch over the sage, lest a serpent attempt to sneak up on him, however unlikely that might be, as

Chang Sanfeng was always aware of the goings on about him. Apes of the mountain became his

friends and his followers. One bright ape became his disciple. As Chang was a pure Daoist, he

would eat neither meat, nor any cooked vegetables lest he hamper his transmogrification to Spirit.

This disciple ape would go into the mountain and pick wild fruit for his sustenance. So clever was

this ape that Chang taught him his Taiji chuan and instructed him in his Daoist ways. Ever the

protector of his ape friends, the sage would kill tigers who attached the troupe, using only his bare

hands. As the big cats would leap, Chang Sanfeng would apply his Taiji chuan turning away the

feline's strike. Then, gripping the great cat's paws from behind, he would tear its body in two.

Once, a surreptitious python attempted to sneak up on Chang and his friends, the apes and the

cranes as they rested upon the mountainside contemplating the beauty and wonder of the celestial

like view. But the watchful eye of the crane spied the slithering creature and trumpeted his alarm

alerting all to the serpents presence. The apes chattered and howled and ran about in their

excitement. Chang quickly seized the serpent upon his middle, utilizing the technique of diagonal

flying, ran his palms the length of the snake's body. The serpent was made straight...straight as a

staff and stiff as iron. Chang Sanfeng then tossed the python against the ground, striking flat as

one would use the spear. The big snake shattered into ten thousand pieces. After this, no more

snakes bothered them again and hid themselves whenever Chang was near, lest the cranes

discover them and give away their presence. Chang Sanfeng named his ape disciple Hsao Ting,

which means, "possessing stability". This was because as apes are prone, his nature was fickle

and easily given to distraction and jovial exploits. So, in order that his disciple might find

discipline and to give him a steady nature, he named him Hsao Ting. Together, Chang Sanfeng

and Hsao Ting would wander the slopes of Wu Dang mountain, practice Taiji chuan, and gather

herbs and firewood. Chang used his skill to snap branches for trees or would rip the bark from

their sides with his bare hands. Hsao Ting would gather up the sticks and bark and carry them for

his Master. It is told; Chang Sanfeng never used any axe or tool to cut firewood. Instead, he

would split the logs with his spirit and a single stroke of his hand alone73. Master Chang taught

few disciples, but those he did teach learned well.

73 Draeger, page 45. This same style of splitting logs was said to have been used by the monks of the Shaolin temple in Fukien province ( as Buddhist monasteries were forbidden by their faith to use axes or knives, it is reported that the abbot there once said “ We may not have knives, so make every finger a dagger; without spears, every arm ust be a spear, and every open hand a sword”

When the Ming emperor established his new dynasty, he sent his men to search for the sage Chang

Sanfeng. They returned empty handed, but with stories of the hermit's greatness as a sage. Chang

Sanfeng had no desire for government service nor high position, and would use his Daoist

kung(skill) to hide within the mountains. Whenever the Ming soldiers came near, he made

himself invisible and eluded them. The Ming emperor was so impressed with Chang's fame that he

ordered a temple be built upon Wu Dang mountain in his honor. Once the temple was completed,

from time to time Chang would take respite there among its monks. One night, a storm came up

while he was at the temple. Lightning flashed and wind blew. As the thunderous rain fell, a

bolder high above the temple was swept loose and had come tumbling down the mountainside. As

it rolled down the mountain it tore out trees and then struck another bolder that sat upon a cliff

just above the temple. The monks became alarmed and feared that the tumultuous weight above

them would surely give way and come crashing down upon them and the temple. Chang spoke to

the monks telling them to not be afraid and calm their minds. Then he climbed the mountainside

and gripped the large stones in each hand, tossing them into a nearby creek74. After having

disposed of the debris, he returned to the temple as if he had done nothing at all and resumed his

meditation. During the winter months, the beauteous snow fell making a heavenly blanket of white

to cover the trees and ground of Wu Dang mountain. Chang thought the purity of this blank scene

very enchanting and he liked to walk out from the temple into the powdery landscape. Sometimes,

the sage would walk about the grounds, but when the monks went to follow or look for him, they

could not, for he left neither footprint nor mark upon the cottony surface. Chang Sanfeng has

mastered the lightness kung and could make himself without weight; therefore, he could walk upon

the snow without leaving blemish upon it. Other times Chang would walk out from the temple to

sit upon the snow and meditate. At these times, wherever the Master stepped, the snow melted

away, and where he sat, the ground thawed and became like springtime, such was the force of his

chi. It is said at these times, from his pores he emitted yang, or positive energy, and the vital life

force emanated from him like a warm spring breeze. The monks of Wu Dang were privy to witness

many extraordinary phenomena surrounding Chang. On one occasion, as the Master meditated

inside an enclosed room, his robes began to flutter as if a strong wind rushed through them from

within. This was the effect of Chang Sanfeng's chi reaching a critical mass and erupting forth

from his body. At other times he would float above the floor. And still at other times the walls of

his meditation chamber shook from the rhythm of his vital essence breathing.

Possible origins and evidence of Chang Sanfeng

74 In this episode Chang save’s a temple that worships him, not unlike the actions of king Jinnalou.

Earliest references to a Daoist by the name of Chang Sanfeng can be found in the Epitaph

where Song emperor Huizong (1101-1125) is unable to contact a person named Chang Sanfeng,

this closely parallels a story in the Ming History where Ming emperor Taizu fails to contact a

man named Chang pronounced the same as the Daoist sage Chang Sanfeng but is spelled

differently75.

75 Henning, page 13. Internal vs External. Henning state that the only differentiation in the names comes in the form of the character for “feng”.

An epitaph dedicated to Wang Zhengnam from 1669 A.D. and written by Huang Zongxi,

states that Chang Sanfeng was the originator of the Internal School of martial arts76 called neijia,

Huang goes on to say that Chang invented the style by reversing the principles of Shaolin’s

reliance on hardness and emphasizing the advantages of defense and softness77. This epitaph is

most likely written in resistance and defiance of Manchu rule, and may be more politically

motivated than an actual testament to Chang Sanfeng.

Another possible source of the Chang Sanfeng genesis, that has not been touched on by

other authors lies in the Daoist pantheon of gods and dates from centuries before any mention of

a person named Chang Sanfeng. This possible origin is based on a Daoist deity named Chang

Taoling. Taoling dates from 35-157 A.D. Certain parallels can be drawn from their stories, first

is that both Sanfeng and Taoling traveled throughout their early years and visited many sacred

(Daoist) mountains78. The second connection between the two is the fact that both studied

“magical” Daoism79. Thirdly both Sanfeng and Taoling cultivated an elixir (we do not know the

nature of the elixir be it internal or external) of immortality80. Lastly both Sanfeng and Taoling

turned down multiple invitations to the court of the emperor81.

Chang Sanfeng and modern martial culture

76 Internal most likely is reference to the fact that Taiji was heavily based on Daoist philosophy and indigenous religion whilst the external refers to Shaolins Buddhist origins for their style of martial arts.77 Wile, page 11. 78 Werner, page 37.79 Walters, page 29.80 Walters, page 29. Both Sanfeng and Taoling start their lives as human, and through their efforts reach immortality.81 Walters, page 29. Walters states “He remained studying alchemy for several years (possibly nine just as Sanfeng did) and refused all invitations to visit the capital.

Most of the sources that mention Chang Sanfeng are products of fiction, and while our

first records of his contributions to the martial arts come in the form of an epitaph from 1669

A.D. nothing else before this time connects him to the martial arts. It seems that all the stories

associating him with fantastic feats and supernatural ability, come from exponents of Taiji from

the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hundreds of years after he is said to have lived and therefore

are based on nothing more than fantasy and oral tradition, and are perpetuated by neo-

immortality cults like those tied to the boxer rebellion of 1900 A.D. Furthermore it seems highly

unlikely if not completely impossible that details from his life and his story in general would be

passed down in secret, through generations of soft style practitioners’.

Part III

Wu Dang and Shaolin: Two halves of a whole

Within both the Wu Dang and Shaolin styles of martial arts, the idea’s of soft and hard,

expanding and contracting, yin and yang, accepting and redirecting are ever so present. It is this

duality or idea of complete opposites that creates the base on which the Chinese martial arts

firmly sits. It seems only fitting that both the schools of thought be contradictory to each other,

and that both should have contrasting divine genesis stories (with a mythical deity as its

founder)82. Within the legends of Damo and Chang they both embark on similar but contrasting

stories. Damo left home to teach, Chang left home to learn, both went to the court of the emperor

and were not impressed (of course this depends on which Chang legend you believe) so they

promptly left. Both Damo and Chang cultivated themselves within a cave living as hermits.

Damo believed that the monks did not exert themselves enough and used this as the reasoning for

82 Damo was and outside, foreign or external source for martial skills, whilst Chang was a domestic or internal source.

creating his martial art, Chang thought that the Shaolin method was to aggressive and contained

to much movement, thus his reason for creating his martial art was the polar opposite of

Damo’s, interestingly enough Chang started his “martial” journey at shaolin with hard and then

became soft, in the case of Shaolin, Damo ended his “martial” journey at Shaolin and observed

that the monks were too soft and made them hard. Both Damo and Chang Sanfeng are said to

have left or disappeared in a mysterious fashion to whereabouts unknown (although theories do

exist as were stated earlier in this paper). It seems that for each step of Damo’s journey a similar

step, with an opposite purpose was taken by Chang. One could feasibly argue that Chang

Sanfeng’s mere existence was for no other reason than to contradict the Damo legend83 (which

by the time of the epitaph to Wang Zhengnan in 1669 A.D., would have been a readily known

story), It is my belief that the creation process of Chang may have been a way to build the same

respect and legitimacy enjoyed by Shaolin exponents, and a wonderful way to do this is to

present Chang as a purely Chinese figure where as Damo is repeatedly called a barbarian, hence

his fighting methods would in turn be barbaric compared to the indigenous Taiji. As much as one

would like to believe that Damo and Chang were the divine progenitors of the martial arts, it

seems their association with the martial arts is just spurious at best.

Conclusion

Whether Damo and Chang rightfully deserve their titles as divine creators of Shaolin and

Wu Dang, is debatable. Furthermore the historical accuracy of their existence is really not

important to the martial arts community at large. What they represent, their lessons and legends

83 During this period of Chinese history there was a large resentment towards anything foreign, by contrast during the creation of the Damo legend, the Chinese were clamoring for anything foreign and new, as Buddhism and Indian sutras were in vogue during this period.

are what students of the martial arts hold dear, and this may in fact be their greatest contribution

to the martial arts.

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Shaolin and Wu Dang: The Antithesis of Myth and Legend in the Chinese Martial Arts

By James Montana