ClaudeLorrain(1648)‘SeaportwiththeembarkationoftheQueenofSheba’

‘WhentheQueenofShebaheardaboutthefameofSolomon,andhisrelationtothenameoftheLord,shecametotesthimwithhardquestions.ArrivingatJerusalemwithaverygreatcaravan–withcamelscarryingspices,largequantitiesofgold,andpreciousstones–shecametoSolomonandtalkedwithhimaboutallthatshehadonhermind.Solomonansweredallherquestions;...Andshegavethekingonehundredandtwentytalentsofgold,largequantitiesofspices,andpreciousstones.NeveragainweresomanyspicesbroughtinasthosetheQueenofShebagavetoKingSolomon.KingSolomongavetheQueenofShebaallshedesired,whatsoeversheasked,besideswhathehadgivenheroutofhisroyalbounty;thensheleftandreturnedwithallherretinuetoherowncountry’

(IKings10)

FoodfortheGods

NewLightontheAncientIncenseTrade

D.P.S.Peacock

A.C.S.Peacock

PublishedbyOxbowBooks,ParkEndPlace,OxfordOX11HN

©OxbowBooksandtheauthors,2007

9781782974451

ACIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary

Thisbookisavailabledirectfrom

OxbowBooks,ParkEndPlace,OxfordOX11HN(Phone:01865-241249;Fax:01865-794449)

and

TheDavidBrownBooksCompanyPOBox511,Oakville,CT06779,USA(Phone:860-945-9329;Fax:860-945-9468)

orfromourwebsite

www.oxbowbooks.com

CoverdesignbyAndyHague:afrankincensetreeinDhofar,southernOman.

PrintedbyShortRunPress,Exeter

TableofContents

TitlePageCopyrightPage

ListofIllustrationsContributorsPrefaceChapter1:IntroductionChapter2:TheIncenseKingdomsofYemen:-AnOutlineHistoryoftheSouthArabianIncenseTradeChapter3:BasaltasShips’BallastandtheRomanIncenseTradeChapter4:ThePortofQana’andtheIncenseTradeChapter5:Frankincenseinthe‘Triangular’Indo-Arabian-RomanAromaticsTradeChapter6:IncenseinMithraicRitual:TheEvidenceoftheFindsChapter7:IncenseandthePortofAdulisChapter8:FrankincenseandMyrrhToday

ListofIllustrations

Fig.2.1 Thesouthernsluice-gateoftheMāribDam.AnirrigationsystematMāribisthoughttohavebeeninoperationfromc.3000BC.

Fig.2.2 AfrankincensetreegrowingintheNejdregionofDhofar,southernOman.

Fig.2.3 AwomanfromtheHawjeriregionofeasternDhofarharvestingfrankincenseinthetraditionalmanner.

Fig.2.4 FrankincensetreesflourishintherockylimestoneterrainofWadiDo’an,Hadramawt.

Fig.2.5 TheruinsoftheShaqirpalaceatShabwa.

Fig.2.6 Mapofmainplacesmentionedinthetext.

Fig.2.7 RemainsofthetempleofSynatShabwa.

Fig.2.8 ThesouthgateatTimna’,withalengthyinscriptioninQatabanian.

Fig.2.9 AsteleinthemarketplaceatTimna’.Therulesofthemarketwereinscribedonallfoursides.

Fig.2.10

PillarsofthesocalledMahramBilqisinMārib.

Fig.2.11

Ottomanandpre-IslamicruinsatthesiteoftheMinaeancityofYathil,nowknownasBaraqish.

Fig.2.12

OneoftheninespeciesofBoswelliatreegrowingontheislandofSocotra.

Fig.2.13

ADragon’sbloodtreeontheislandofSocotra.

Fig.2.14

TheY-shapedharbourandsouthernwallsofSumhuram.

Fig.2.15

ThesettlementofSumhuram.ThesquarewellintheforegroundisthoughttobepartoftheIlumtemple.

Fig.2.16

Theflat-toppedvolcanicrockatQana’,knowntodayasHuṣnal-Ghurāb,wasusedasalook-outpointandlandmark.

Fig.3.1 DistributionofballastatQuseiral-Qadim.

Fig.3.2 TheRedSeaandnorthernIndianOceanshowingcoastaloutcropsofvolcanicrocks.

Fig.3.3 TheRedSeaandnorthernIndianOceanshowingancientsitesmentionedinthetext.

Fig.3.4 TheHadramawtcoastshowingvolcanicoutcrops.

Fig.3.5 AcomparisonofballastsamplesandrocksfromAlBirk,basedonpublishedsources.BaandNi.

Fig.3.6 AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromtheRedSeaislandsofZubair,HanīshZukurandPerim,basedonpublishedsources.ZrandSr.

Fig.3.7 AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromKharaz,SouthernYemen,basedonpublishedsources.BaandNb.

Fig.3.8 AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromKharaz,SouthernYemen,basedonpublishedsources.BaandSr.

Fig.3.9 AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromShuqrā,SouthernYemen,basedonpublishedsources.ZrandRb.

Fig.3.10

AcomparisonofballastandsamplespurchasedinOman,believedtobefromHormuz.CeandSr.

Fig.3.11

Acomparisonofselectedareaswhichwerepotentialsourcesfortheballast.RbandZn.

Fig.3.12

AcomparisonoftherocksofAden,Adulis,EddandAssab.LiandTiO2.

Fig.3.13

AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromDjibouti.RbandZn.

Fig.3.14

AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromQana’.RbandZn.

Fig.3.15

AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromAdulis.RbandZn.

Fig.3.16

AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromAden.RbandZn.

Fig.3.17

AcomparisonofballastwithrocksfromAdulisandtheHad ramawt.ZrandSr.

Fig.3.18

IntermediateandacidballastcomparedwithrocksfromAdulis,Kharaz,Aden,LittleAdenandPerim,basedpartlyonpublishedsources.ZnandSr.

Fig.3.19

ObsidianfromQuseiral-Qadim,AdulisandDhalakKebircomparedwithsourcerocksfromGela’elo,Bera’esoli,MersaFatmaandAliko.BaandZr.

Fig.3.20

ObsidiansamplesandsourcerocksasinFig.3.19.NbandZr.

Fig.3.21

RoutesacrosstheIndianoceanaccordingtoPlinyandthePeriplus.

Fig.4.1 1.Huṣnal-Ghurāb,viewfromtheHalaniyaisland;2.Bi’r‘AliSettlement(ancientQana’),ruinsofstructures(viewfromtheslopeofHuṣnal-Ghurāb).

Fig.4.2 Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).Sketchplan:AreasI-VII;1BurialStructure.

BurialStructure.

Fig.4.3 1.Huṣnal-Gurab,ruinsofalighthouseonthesummit;2.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’),templeoflocaldeity(AreaVII).

Fig.4.4 Huṣnal-Ghurāb.Structureonthesummit(lighthouse),plan(afterS.S.Shirinskiy).

Fig.4.5 Huṣnal-Ghurāb.Structureonthesummit(lighthouse),variantofreconstruction.

Fig.4.6 Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,‘lower’(BA-I)period,planofexcavatedstructures.

Fig.4.7 Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.8 Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.9 Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.10

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.11

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.12

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaII,planofexcavatedstructure.

Fig.4.13

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaIV,planofexcavatedstructure.

Fig.4.14

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,planofexcavatedstructuresofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Fig.4.15

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaIII,‘latesynagogue’,planofexcavatedstructure.

Fig.4.16

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Fig.4.17

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Fig.4.18

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaII,potteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Fig.4.19

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaI,planofexcavatedstructures.

Fig.4.20

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaV,planofexcavatedstructure.

Fig.4.21

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaI,potteryofthe‘upper’(BA-III)period.

Fig.4.22

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreasIandIV,potteryofthe‘upper’(BA-III)period.

Fig.4.23

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaI,potteryofthe‘upper’(BA-III)period.

Fig.4.24

Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaIII,‘earlysynagogue’,Greekgraffito(tracing).

Fig.5.1 MapoftheArabianSeashowingthe‘triangular’trade.

Fig.5.2 IndiancookingwaresfromKamrej,KhorRori.

Fig.5.3 ThesiteofKamrej.

Fig.5.4 RicefromKamrejexcavations.

Fig.5.5 ClothremainsfromKamrej.

Fig.5.6 AksumitesherdfromKamrej.

Fig.5.7 Dressel2–4amphoraefromNevasa.

Fig.6.1 1:handledtazzafromFriedberg(afterHorn1994).2:pierced-rimvesselfromZeughausstrasse,Köln(afterBinsfeld1960–61).3:pierced-rimvesselfromKölnmithraeumI(afterBehrens1952).4:pierced-rimvesselfromMainz(aftervonPfeffer1960andHuld-Zetsche1984).5:pierced-rimvesselfromStockstadtmithraeumII(afterSchleiermacher1928andaphotographcourtesyofM.Marquart,MuseenderStadtAschaffenburg).

Fig.6.2 DetailofthevesselshownonFig.1:2,withSol-Mithrasofferingincense;thealtarislargelymissing(afterRistow1974).

Fig.6.3 A:snakeandcraterwithwhatmaybeamemberoftheLiongradeplacinganofferingonanaltar,fromtheLadenburg/Mannheimtauroctony(afterSchwertheim1974).B:lion,snakeandcraterfromtheHeddernheimIIItauroctony(afterHuld-Zetsche1986;1994).C:lion,snakeandcraterfromtheHeidelberg-Neuenheim,tauroctony(afterSchwertheim1974).D:lion,snakeandcraterfromasamianbeaker,Mühlthal(afterGarbsch1985).1:2.

Fig.6.4 A:Cautesholdingapine-cone,fromtheTîrgşortauroctony(afterVermaseren1960).B:maskedLionwithpine-cones,fromRusicade(afterVermaseren1956).

Fig.7.1 Adulis:locationmap.

Fig.7.2 CosmasIndicopleustes’mapoftheAdulisarea.FromWolska-Conus1968.

Fig.8.1 Ancientfrankincenseroutes.

Fig.8.2 Modernfrankincensetouristroutes.

Contributors

JoannaBird

JoannaBirdisafreelancearchaeologistspecialisinginceramicarchaeology.SheisbestknownforherextensiveworkonRomanfinewares,butherediscussespotterytypeswhichhaveabearingontheuseofincenseinMithraism.

DrLucyBlue

DrBlueislecturerinmaritimearchaeologyintheUniversityofSouthampton.Shespecialisesinancientportsandiscurrentlyco-directoroftheEritro-BritishprojectatAdulis.

DrSunilGupta

DrGuptaisAssistantKeeper(EducationandResearch)attheAllahabadMuseum,Indiaandco-editoroftheJournalofIndianOceanArchaeology.HeisawidelypublishedexpertonthearchaeologyofEarlyHistoricIndiaandtheearlyIndianOceanworld.HeiscurrentlywritingabookonIndo-Romanseatrade,thesubjectofhisdoctoralthesis.

DrSarahJames

DrJamesisananalyticalgeochemistfromtheDepartmentofMineralogy,NaturalHistoryMuseum,Londonandhasalongexperienceoftheanalysisofgeologicalmaterials.ShespecialisesinInductivelyCouplePlasmaSpectrometry,andishereconcernedwiththewholerockanalysisofbasalt.Heresheexplainshermethodsintermscomprehensibletothelayman.

ProfessorDavidPeacock

ProfessorEmeritus,DepartmentofArchaeology,UniversityofSouthampton.HeisaspecialistonRomanEgypt,andhasexcavatedatMonsClaudianus,MonsPorphyritiesandmorerecentlyattheRomanportofMyosHormos(Quseiral-Qadim).Heisalsointerestedintheapplicationofgeologytoarchaeology.

ProfessorAlexanderSedov

ProfessorSedovwasformerlyheadoftheDepartmentofAncientNearEasternStudiesinMoscow.HeisnowDirectoroftheOrientalMuseumandhasworkedformanyyearsatQana’andKhorRori.

TheRevdProfessorMyraShackley

MyraShackleyisProfessorofCultureResourceManagementatNottinghamTrentUniversityandPriest-VicaratthecathedralofSouthwellMinster.ShehasaparticularinterestinthemanagementofvisitorstoWorldHeritagesites,andinissuesrelatedtotourismandculturalheritage.HermostrecentbooksincludeVisitorManagement;CasestudiesfromWorldHeritageSites(1998)andManagingSacredSites;serviceprovisionandvisitorexperience(2001).HerinterestinfrankincensestemspartlyfromfieldworkonfrankincensetourismintheMiddleEastandpartlyfromafondnessforitsuseinliturgyaspartofherroleasanAnglicanpriest.

CarolineSinger

CarolineSingerisafreelancewriterwithanIslamicarthistoricalbackground,specialisinginYemenandOman.ArecentbookisYemen:ThelandoftheQueenofSheba,anhistoricalaccountofYemenpublishedinconjunctionwiththeBritishMuseumQueenofShebaexhibition.

DrDavidWilliams

SeniorResearchFellowinceramicsandlithics,DepartmentofArchaeology,

UniversityofSouthampton.DrWilliamshaswideinterestsinceramicpetrologyandlithicidentification.HehasanalysedpotteryfromQana’andhasmadeaspecialstudyofRomanamphorae.Hereheisprincipallyconcernedwithbasaltballast.

Preface

ItisnowaquarterofacenturysinceNigelGroomwrotehisseminalworkontheancientincensetrade.Sincethentherehasbeengrowinginterestinthesubjectandmuchnewresearch,particularlyintheproducinglands.Incensewasaluxury,butonewhichwasconsumedinprodigiousquantitiesbytheancientworld,intemplesandfunerals,butalsoinprivatehomes.Inparticular,itwasthestuffofemperors.

Itwasoncethought,ontheevidenceofclassicalsources,thatincense,particularlyfrankincenseandmyrrh,grownalongthesouthernArabiancoast,wascollectedintheportofQana’inYemenandthentransportednorthwardsbycaravanacrossArabiatoGaza,whenceitwouldbeshippedtotheMediterraneanconsumers.Recentscientificworkonbasaltships’ballastfromthecoastalsitesofRomanEgypthasshownthatthebulkoriginatedinQana’.ItispostulatedthatthiswasaresultofshipsfromQana’ladenwiththerelativelylightincense,dumpingtheirballastwhentheyarrivedinEgypttotakeonheaviercommoditiesforthereturnleg.Itissuggestedthatthisworkemphasisesanalternativerouteforthemovementofincense.Itmayhavebeenasimportant(ormoreso)thantheoverlandroutenotedbyPliny(possiblybecauseofitscuriosityvalue).

Thisworkfromanunconventionalangle,ledtheeditorstoinvestigatethecurrentstateofresearchintoincenseanditwasatonceapparentthatthereissomuchnewevidence,anoverviewwouldbetimely.Itseemedthatabookreviewingthestateoftheartwouldmeetaveryrealneed.Itwouldnowbeimprudenttocovertheentirechronologicalfieldaswaspossible25yearsagoandwethereforeproposedtoconcentrate,althoughnotexclusively,ontheRomanperiod,whichhasuntilnowbeenleaststudied.Certainkeyspecialistswereapproachedandallagreedwillinglytocontribute.Duetotheirenthusiasmandefficiencyithasbeenpossibletocreatethisbookrelativelyquickly.ThecontributorscoveratrulyinternationalspectrumwithpapersfromworkersinBritain,Russia,andIndia.Webelievethatthesepapersblendhappilytogethertoproduceacoherentandinterestingvolume.TheworkisintendedtocomplementNigelGroom’sbookFrankincenseandMyrrh:AStudyofArabianIncense

Traderecentlyreprintedafter25years.MentionshouldalsobemadeoftheItalianconferenceproceedingsProfumid’Arabia,publishedbyL’ErmadiBretschneiderin1997andeditedbyAlessandraAvanzini.Wetrytobuildonthefirmfoundationlaidintheseworks,atthesametimeexploringnewdirectionsandmethodology.

Inthiswork,anumberofauthorslookatthesamematerialfromdifferentangles.Webelievethereisagreatbenefitinthisandthuswehavenottriedtoeliminatereiterationofthesamethemesindifferentpapers.Theystandastheywereintended–theviewsoftheindividualauthors.OntheotherhandArabictransliterationsareaproblem.WherepossiblewehavetriedtomaketheseaccordwiththeusageinthesecondeditionoftheEncyclopediaofIslamasusuallyadoptedbyBritishArabists.AnexceptionisMeccaforMakka,andsometimeslocalcolloquialusageshavebeenpreferred.WearegratefultoDrA.C.S.Peacockforhisadvice.

WearegreatlyindebtedtoProfessorValerieMaxfieldforrefereeingthisworkandforherhelpfulcommentswhichhaveenabledustomakeimprovements.WearealsoindebtedtoCarlPhillipsfordrawingourattentiontotheClaudepaintingusedasfrontispieceandtotheNationalGallery,Londonforpermissiontoreproduceit.

DavidPeacockandDavidWilliamsSouthampton,January2006

Chapter1:Introduction

DavidPeacockandDavidWilliams

Thestoryofincenseisoneofthemostintriguinginbotheasternandwesternculture.FromthefirstmillenniumBCtothepresentdayithasbeensoughtafterandvaluedonaparwithpreciousmetalsorgems.WhiletherewasundoubtedlysymbolisminthechoiceofthethreeSages’giftstotheinfantChrist,itisinterestingtonotethatfrankincenseandmyrrh,aswellasgold,werethoughtworthymarkersofthisepochmakingevent.ThehistoryoftheexploitationoftheresinsofBoswelliaandCommiphoratreesisoutlinedbyCarolineSingerwhorelateshowtheseunprepossessingplantsproducedasubstancesoughtbyemperors,priests,apothecariesandthecommonmanalike.Throughoutitslonghistoryitwasaluxuryassociatedwithprestigeandreligion:thestoryisalmoststrangerthanfiction.Shegivesacomprehensiveaccountofthehistoryofincensediscussingthedemand,theproductionandthegrowingareasaswellasthemeansofdistribution.AsMyraShackleyshows,inthefinalchapter,itsimportanceinreligionpersiststothisdayanditisusedbyperfumers,aromatherapistsandintheproductionofmedicines.Finallysheassessesthepotentialforincensedriventourism.ItsproductionisasignificantelementintheeconomyofthesouthernArabianpeninsularandmodernfrankincenseroutesbearanuncannyresemblancetotheancient.

Thus,whilesomeofthepapersinthisvolumeattempttopaintabroadpicture,emulatingandupdatingNigelGroom’sseminalworkFrankincenseandMyrrh:AStudyoftheArabianIncenseTrade,ourmain,butnotsole,focusisontheRomanperiodandthearchaeologyofincense.Whilethetextsareinformativetheytellbutpartofthestoryandifthestudyistoprogressweneedthesupplementaryinformationthatonlyarchaeologycanfurnish.Herethereisaproblembecause,unlikemanyluxuryitems–finepottery,metalsoreventextiles,itisseldompreservedinthearchaeologicalrecord.Asmallfragmentoffrankincense,probablyIslamicratherthanRomanindate,wasfoundintherecentexcavationsatQuseiral-Qadim,butitisinanycaseasinglesmallfragmentfromanextensiveexcavationconductedover5years.Incensecanbe

preservedinarchaeologicalquantities,butitwassovaluablethatitwasconservedandconsumedratherthanbeingdiscardedasrubbish.Thechancesoffindingincenseareconsiderablylessthanthoseoffindinggold.Goldisastableenduringmaterial,incenserequiressuitableconditionsofaridityorwetnesstoensureitssurvival.Ifwearetostudytheuseanddistributionofincensethismustusuallybedoneindirectly,bylookingforcluesinmoredurablemedia.Fortunately,incenserequiresspecialapparatusforburningandthedisseminationofaromasothatincenseburnersarewithoutdoubtamajormeansofgettingtogripswiththeproblem.Unfortunately,therehavebeenfewstudies,partlybecauseitishardtobecertainthatanartefactwouldhavebeenusedforthispurpose.TheworkofHallet(1990)onSaudiArabiansteatiteindustriesisamodelfortheIslamicperiod,andextractionmayalsohavebeenpractisedintheEasterndesertofEgypt(HarrellandBrown2000).Unfortunately,theuseofsteatiteseemstoberestrictedtotheIslamicperiodintheNearEastandnoRomanvesselshavebeenfoundinthisoranyotherlithicmaterial.Itseemsthatpotteryvesselsmayhavebeenused,ortheincenseburnedinthespeciallymadedepressiononthetopofRomanaltars.Theremustbeorganicmaterialpreservedintheporesofsuchlociandaprogrammeoforganicanalysismightbehelpfulinbothidentifyingthepracticeandthetypeofincenseburned.However,intheabsenceofsuchworkmuchcanbedonebypurelyarchaeologicalmethods.ThechapterbyJoannaBirdisanexemplarylessononwhatcanbeachievedandweareprivilegedtorepublishthisimportantwork,withafewminorupdates.CeramicvesselswithMithraicmotifsattest,forcefully,itsroleinMithraicceremonies.

Ourchapteronballastalsoillustratesanewapproachtotheproblemoftheincensetrade.WhenwebeganourgeochemicalstudyweimaginedthatthepicturewouldbeacomplexonewithmanydifferentsourcesreflectingwhatwebelievedmighthavebeencabotagealongthecoastsoftheRedSeaandtheIndianOcean.WewereastoundedtofindthattheballastdumpsalongtheEgyptiancoastweremadeupofmaterialfrombuttwosources:70%Qana’,30%Aden.AsQana’wasaboveallthemajorportforincense,towhichitwastaken‘astoawarehouse’,weconcludethattheballastwastheresultofshipsladenwithlightincensewhichwouldrequiringbalancing.TheconcentrationofYemeniballastinEgyptsuggestsamaritimerouteforincense.ItwouldhavetravelleduptheRedSea,acrossthedeserttotheNilethencetoAlexandriafromwhereitwouldtraveltothemajorcitiesoftheMediterranean.TheseawayswouldhavebeenconsiderablyeasierandmoreecomomicthantheoverlandcaravanroutealongthelengthoftheArabianpeninsulartoGazadiscussedby

Pliny(NaturalHistory,12,32).Thequestionnowremainswhichwasthemoreimportant.Andthisissomethingonlyarchaeologycanattempttoanswer,whichmustbeasubjectforfutureresearch.

Ofcoursetheincensetradecannotbestudiedinisolation.SunilGuptaarguespartlyfromthelittleknownancientIndianeconomictreatise,theArthasastra,andfromhisownworkatKamrej,thatfrankincenseexportsfromtheHadramawtstimulatedneedforreciprocalsuppliesinaburgeoningeconomy.NotingsignificantquantitiesofIndianwaresfoundonsitessuchasKhorRori,Qana’and,tosomeextent,Egypt,heconcludesthatthebalanceofpaymentproblemmayhavebeenpartlymetbyanincreasedexporttoArabiaofIndiangoodssuchascereals,sesameoil,clothandiron.HeseesthesituationasanalogoustotheBritishsubstitutionofopiumforgold,inthepurchaseofChinateaduringthe19thCentury.TheportsofsouthernYemenwerepivotalinthiseconomicactivity.AtthecentreoftheincensetradeliesQana’andweareprivilegedtoincludeachapterbyAlexanderSedovcontributinganimportantnewsynthesisofthetradingactivitiesoftheportbasedlargelyonhisownanalysisoftheceramicfindsfromrecentexcavations.Hegivesafullydocumentedaccountofthesite:structures,stratigraphy,potteryandcoinsfollowedbyanevaluationoftheirsignificanceinthestudyofincense.ParticularlystrikingisthediscoveryofincensewarehousesatQana’,somewiththepreciouscommoditystillinthem.HealsogivesavaluableaccountoftheYemeniislandofSocotrawhichwasasourceofaloe,frankincenseandcinnabar.FinallyhediscussestheroleofKhorRoriinOman.Ineachcasethestartingpointishisownoriginalresearch,givingavaluableresuméofthefindingsofthemostrecentarchaeologicalresearchintheseregions.IncenseisnotseeninisolationbutaspartofafarreachingtradenetworkevidencedbypotteryandparticularlyamphoraefromItaly,RhodesandlaterAqabainJordan.Theincensetradecannowbeseeninitsbroaderperspective.

SomalilandwasalsoanimportantproductionareaasCarolineSingeremphasises.InChapter7weexaminethisinrelationtoAksumiteAdulis,nowinEritrea.Itissuggestedonthebasisofliterarysourcesbackedbysometentativearchaeologicalevidence,thatAduliscouldhavebeenanintermediary,shippingaromaticsnorthwardstoAlexandriaandAyla(Aqaba).RecentfieldworkhasresolvedthequestionofthewhereaboutsoftheAksumiteharbourofAdulisandofAdulisofthePeriplusoftheErythreanSea.WeincludeabriefresuméofthemainfindingsofthisrecentEritro-Britishproject.

Onepointtoemergeforciblyfromthiscollectionofpapersistheimportance

ofsouthernYemeninRome’sconnectionwithIndiaandtheeast.Salles(1993)hasalreadyclaimeditisunlikelythatacargoofwesternproductsshippedatMyosHormoswouldhavereachedMuzirisonthesameboatattheendofastraightvoyage,andvice-versa–directshipmentsdidcertainlyexist,buttheargumenthereisthattheywerenotarule.InhisreadingofthePeriplusheseesaclearsegmentationofthejourney.ThePeriplus(26:.31–2)clearlystatesbeforethesackofAden(soonbeforethebookwaswritteninthemidfirstcenturyAD)vesselsfromIndiaandEgyptmetatthisportasneitherdaredtomakethefullvoyage.ThenewevidenceinthisbooksupportstheviewthatYemenwasthetradehub,butitappearsthatafterthedemiseofAdenthisrolewasassumedbyQana’.WedonotdenythatthedirectroutefromEgypttoIndiawouldhavebeenfeasible,albeitwithwateringandprovisionstops,butthereisnoevidencefromarchaeology,orfromtheliterature,tosuggestitwasthenorm.

Thisbookanswerssomequestionsbutraisesmanymore.Ifitstimulatesmoreresearchinthisimportant,butneglected,areaofsocialandeconomicarchaeology,itwillhaveservedausefulpurpose.

Bibliography

Hallet,J.,1990.TheearlyIslamicsoftstoneindustry.UnpublishedM.Phil.UniversityofOxford.

Harrell,J.A.andMaxBrown,V.,2000.DiscoveryofasteatitebaramindustryofthemedievalIslamicperiodinEgypt’sEasterndesert.AbstractofpaperdeliveredtoAmericanResearchCenterEgypt,Berkeley.

Salles,J.-F.,1993.ThePeriplusoftheErythreanSeaandtheArab-PersianGulf.Topoi,3(2),493–523.

Chapter2:TheIncenseKingdomsofYemen:

AnOutlineHistoryoftheSouthArabianIncenseTrade

CarolineSinger

TheoverlandtradeinaromaticsbetweenSouthArabia–thatis,principally,thekingdomsofpre-IslamicYemen–andthecivilizationsofMesopotamia,Assyria,theLevant,theMediterraneanandEgypt,beganinearnestatthestartofthe1stmillenniumBC,andhadanincalculableeffectontheeconomic,culturalandlinguisticlifeoftheMiddleEast.However,evenacursorysearchamongthesacredliteratureofancientEgyptandSumeria,OldTestamenttextsorthecuneiformrecordsofMesopotamia,revealstheimportanceofincenseforreligiousandroyalceremonieslongbeforethefrankincensemerchantsstartedtoarrivewiththeircamel-trainsfromsouthernArabia,inc.10thto8thcenturyBC.TheveryearlyuseofincenseinEgypt,Greece,MesopotamiaandtheFertileCrescent,atleastfromthethirdmillenniumonwards,reliedonsourcesmuchclosertohome.The‘incense’mentionedsoofteninthePentateuch1forexample,waslikelytohaveconsistedofbalsams,scentedwoodsandherbsfromtheLevant,ratherthanfrankincensefromSouthArabia.InMycenaeanGreeceduringthe14thand13thcenturiesBC,scentedoils,fragrantgumsandincenseswereusedinfuneralsandworship,andwereeitherprocuredfromPhoeniciantraders,ormanufacturedfromlocally-producedoilsandaromaticplantsinpalacessuchasKnossos,PylosandZakro.

InancientEgypt,theelaborateritualsprescribedintheBookoftheDeadfrequentlystipulatedtheuseofincense.2TheEgyptiansatthisearlystageobtainedtheirsuppliesoffrankincenseandmyrrhfromthe‘LandofPunt’,amysteriousregionintheHornofAfrica,whichhasstillnotbeensatisfactorilyidentified:scholarshavelocateditanywherefromUgandatoEthiopia.3Fromapproximately2500to1150BCthePharaohsimportedgold,aromaticsand

otherluxuriesfromPunt,sailingshipsalongtheRedSeacoastdowntoEritreaandSomalia.ThemostfruitfulareaseemstohavebeeninnorthernSomalia,wherefrankincenseandmyrrhtreesstillgrowabundantly.InthefunerarytempleofQueenHatshepsut,c.1480BCatDeirel-BahariinLuxor,textsandwallpaintingstellofanexpeditiontotheLandofPunttofetch‘freshincense’and‘livingincensetrees’fromthe‘incenseterracesofPunt’.Theaimofthisundertakingwastotransportlivefrankincenseandmyrrhtrees,andre-planttheminEgypt,thussecuringalocalsupplyoffragrantresinforreligiousrituals,withouthavingtopaythehighpriceschargedbytheAfricanmerchants.Themissionultimatelyfailed,becausefrankincenseandmyrrhtreesrequirespecificconditionsinordertogrow(seep.8),noneofwhichEgyptcouldprovide.

ThetradebetweenEgyptandPuntseemstohavegoneintodeclinefromc.12thcenturyBC.Theriseofcontrolled,regularcommercialexchangebetweenSouthArabiaandthecivilisationsofthenorth,includingEgypt,beganbetweenthe10thand8thcenturiesBC.Thiswasmadepossiblebyseveralconvergingfactors–social,technologicalandeconomic–whichtogethercreatedtherightconditionsforanorganisedsystemoflong-distancetrade.

Fig.2.1.Thesouthernsluice-gateoftheMāribDam.AnirrigationsystematMāribisthoughttohavebeeninoperationfromc.3000BC.

BythefirstmillenniumBC,thesettledpeopleofinlandSouthArabiahadestablishedasuccessfulwayoflifebasedontheskilfulmanagementofhighlyspecialisedirrigationsystems,andtheprosperityandgrowthoftheseagriculturalsettlementsgaverisetopolitical,economicandsocialintegration(Fig.2.1).ItwasonlywhentheSouthArabianshadtheeconomicandsocialstructuresinplacetoprovideasecuresystemofmaintainedroads,withwell-stockedoasesandsheltersalongtheroute,plusaregularsupplyofpack-animals,thattheyturnedtocommerceasameansoffurtherenrichment.Donkeyshadlongbeenusedtotransportgoodsfromonesettlementtoanother,butthelarge-scale,highlyorganisedexchangeofcommercialquantitiesofgoodsoverlongdistanceswouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutoneofthegreatesttechnologicaladvancesinhistory:thedomesticationofthecamel.Opinionsdifferastotheexactdateofthecamel’sdomestication,butithasbeensuggestedthatitbeganinsouthernArabiaduringthesecondmillenniumBC.4Thisprocess,bywhichthecamelbecameharnessedfirstasapackanimalandthenasaridinganimal,allowedtheinhabitantsofsettlementsandcivilisationsthathadpreviouslybeenseparatedbydesertsandlongdistances,tomeet,exchangegoods,anddeveloparichculturalandcommercialinterchange.

ThetwomostimportantandmostvaluablecommoditiesthattheSouthArabianscarriedtothecitiesofthenorth,camefromthegeneraofbalsamtreesbelongingtotheBurseraceaefamily,knownasBoswellia(frankincense)andCommiphora(myrrh).Bothtreesproducefragrantresin,whichoozesfromductsbeneaththebark.Thiswasgatheredannuallybyharvestersduringthelatespringandsummermonths,whentheresinwasmostabundant.Oncedried,thelumpsoffrankincenseburnedslowlyonhotcoalstoreleaseapurewhitesmokeandheady,astringentaromathatwasgreatlyprizedthroughouttheancientworld.Myrrh,adarker,oilierresinwithabitter-sweetaroma,wasalsovalued,althoughitwasusedfordifferentpurposes,mainlymedicinal,andwasneverpurchasedinsuchquantitiesasfrankincense.

TheSouthArabianmerchantsalsotradedgoodsfromabroad,suchascinnamonandpepper,silk,cardamomandturmeric,sandalwood,Dragon’sbloodresinandaloeswood.ThesegoodsarrivedintradingshipswhichlandedatSouthArabianportsfromSocotra,India,SriLankaandsouth-eastAsia.SouthArabianmerchantspurchasedtheseexotic,highlyprizedgoodsandloadedthemontotheircamelsinordertoselltheminthedistantmarketsoftheMediterranean,togetherwiththeirsuppliesoffrankincenseandmyrrh.Themerchantspassedalltheseluxurygoodsoffastheirownproduceand,havingtransportedthematgreatcost,pricedthematapremiuminthemarketsofthe

north.

Fromaroundthe8thcenturyBConwards,frankincenseandmyrrhbecameavailabletoallwhocouldaffordit,andthefashionforburningfragrantresinspreadthroughoutthecivilizedworld.By500BC,PythagorashaddeclaredthatGreekworshippersshouldburnfrankincenseinsteadofsacrificinganimalstotheirdeities.Sack-loadswereburnedonthegoldenaltarofthetempleofBelinBabylon,andathousandBabyloniantalents(almost25tons)weregivenasatributepaymentbytheArabsofGazatothePersiankingDariusinc.496BC,inexchangeforautonomywithintheAchaemenidempire.AstheMediterraneanterminusfortheincensetraderoutes,Gazawasstrategicallyveryimportant,andwasoneofonlythreeprovincesintheempiretobegrantedindependentstatus.WhenAlexandertheGreatcapturedGaza,hesenthisoldtutorLeonidasfivehundredtalentsoffrankincenseandahundredtalentsofmyrrh.Plutarch5recountedthatasayoungboy,Alexanderhadheapedfrankincenseontothefireasasacrificetothegods,andLeonidashadadmonishedhim;‘whenthouhastconqueredthecountrywherethesesweetthingsgrow,thenbeliberalofthyperfume;butnow,sparethatlittlethouhastatthispresent.’AlexanderreportedlysentamessageaccompanyinghisgifttoLeonidas:‘Wedosendtheeplentyoffrankincenseandmyrrh,becausethoushouldestnomorebeaniggarduntothegods.’6

Frankincenseandmyrrhwerehighlysought-afterthroughoutEgypt,Greece,Persia,Assyria,BabylonandRome,tobeburnedopulentlyforguestsinthehome;assacrificialgiftsmostpleasingtothegods,andasawayofhonouringboththedeadandtheliving.Herodotus,writinginthe5thcenturyBC,describedthehabitsofwealthyBabylonians,whowouldsitoverincensetofumigatethemselvesbeforemakinglove,andofScythianwomen,whocrushedcypress,cedarandfrankincenseintoanaromaticpasteandcoatedtheirskinwithitasabeautytreatment.7Frankincenseandmyrrharealsofoundincountlessrecipesformedication:groundup,burnedormelteddowntotreateverythingfromdepressiontoinfertility,frommouth-ulcerstohaemorrhoids.

Fromthebeginningofthe2ndcenturyBC,theRomansbegantousefrankincenseandmyrrhinever-greaterquantities,andthefourhundred-yearperiodfromthe2ndcenturyBCtothe2ndcenturyADcanberegardedasthezenithofthearomaticstrade,withtheterritoriesruledbyRomeasthecentreofconsumption.FrankincensewasconsideredbytheRomanstobethefinest,purestandmosteffectiveincenseforpropitiatingthegods,andwasburnedintemples,atfunerals,andondomesticaltarsthroughouttheempire.Itsincreased

priceduringthistimereflecteditshighdemand,anditslimitedsupply.AlthoughmyrrhwasmoreexpensiveinRomanmarkets,demandwassubstantiallyless.Itwasusedinperfumesandunguents,andtoflavourwine,and,likefrankincense,asaningredientinmedicine.

SouthArabianmerchantsandtheirexotic,expensivecargoesexcitedgreatinterestamongscholarsinthecivilizationsofGreece,Persia,EgyptandRome.GreekgeographerswereparticularlyinterestedintheregiontheynamedEudaimônArabia,or‘ArabiatheBlessed’(inLatin,‘ArabiaFelix’),andbegantocompilehistoricalandgeographicalinformationaboutthedistantland.TheearliestaccountwehaveofsouthernArabiacomesfromHerodotus,whowrotethatthewholecountry‘exhalesanodourmarvellouslysweet’,andgaveavividaccountoftheflyingsnakesthatcircledaroundthefrankincensetrees.8Theophrastus,writinginaround295BC,devotesawholesectionofhisEnquiryintoPlantstofrankincenseandmyrrh,andforthefirsttimementions,albeitinaccurately,thenamesoftheSouthArabiantribeswhocultivatedandtradedinthearomatics:‘thetreesoffrankincenseandmyrrhgrowpartlyinthemountains,partlyonprivateestatesatthefootofthemountains…thewholerange,theysaid,belongstotheportionoftheSabaeans.’9FurtherinformationabouttheincenselandswassuppliedbyAgatharchidesofCnidusinthe2ndcenturyBC,andbyDiodorusSiculusinthe1stcenturyBC.StraboofPontus(c.64BC–c.AD25)addedtothesumofknowledgeabouttheSouthArabians,quotinginlargepartfromastudymadebyEratosthenesofCyrene(276–196BC).Hementionsthefourlargesttribes;theMinaeans,theSabaeans,theQatabaniansandtheHadramites,andtheircapitalcities,andwrote:‘allthesecitiesareruledbymonarchsandareprosperous,beingbeautifullyadornedwithbothtemplesandroyalpalaces.’10However,byfarthemostimportantsourceofinformationabouttheincensetradeatitsheight,comesfromPlinytheElder(AD23–79).HisNaturalHistory,11avastcompendiumofgeographical,ethnographical,botanical,agriculturalandmedicalinformation,containscommentsonthelandinwhichthefrankincenseandmyrrhtreesgrew;theharvestingtechniques;thecustoms,languagesandcitiesoftheSouthArabians;theincensetradeitself—thelengthandrouteofthejourney,theamountoftaxesthemerchantspaidateachstation,andadetaileddescriptionoftheprice,usesandpopularityoffrankincenseandmyrrhoncethemerchantshadreachedtheMediterranean.

Thereareover25differentspeciesoffrankincensetrees.Theygrowinthe

DhofarregionofsouthernOman;theHadramawtandMahraregionsofYemen;theislandofSocotra;EthiopiaandSomalia,andinpartsofRajasthanandMadhyaPradeshinIndia.Everyspeciesproducesadifferentqualityofresin,fromdarkbrownlumpsyieldingabittersmoke,topaletearswhichmeltslowlyandemitafine,cleanscent.Thephysicalattributesofthetreesdifferaccordingtothespecies,butadescriptionoftheBoswelliatreewrittenbythetravellerandpoliticalofficerBertramThomasduringhisjourneythroughDhofarin1930givesagoodimpression:‘Inappearanceitislikeayoungsapling,havingalmostnocentraltrunk,butfromneartothegroundtherespringsoutaclumpofbrancheswhichgrowtoacamel’sheightandmore,withash-colouredbarkandtinycrumpledleaves.’12Theverypurestfrankincense,bothduringtheheightoftheancienttradeandtoday,comesfromBoswelliasacratreesthatflourishinthelimestonehills,plainsandvalleysofDhofar(Fig.2.2).MyrrhtreesgrowinsouthernOmanandYemen,inthe‘AsirregionandinEthiopiaandSomalia:myrrhcomesfromanumberofdifferentspeciesofthegenusCommiphora,butprincipallyfromCommiphoramyrrha.

Fig.2.2.AfrankincensetreegrowingintheNejdregionofDhofar,southernOman.

InsouthernArabia,theharvestingoffrankincenseandmyrrhwasconcentratedprimarilyintheHadramawtregionandlatterlyinDhofar,althoughmyrrhwasalsofoundinabundanceintheareaaroundBeihan.TheBoswelliaspeciesisextremelysensitivetolocationandenvironment,andfrankincensetreesflourishintheseareasbecauseofseveralvitalfactors.Firstly,thetreesrequirealimestonesoil,whichbothDhofarandtheHadramawtregionprovideinabundance.Secondly,theyrequiremoistureratherthanrain.ThisisoneofthemainreasonswhytheclimatesofEthiopia,Somalia,southernYemenandparticularlyDhofar,aresowellsuitedtothegrowthoffrankincense.FromtheendofMaytothebeginningofSeptember,theregionisvisitedbythekhareef,themonsoonwindthatblowsacrossEastAfricafromthesouth-west,clippingthesouthofYemenandtheislandofSocotra.Itbringsdampnessanddrizzle,andinmanyareas,torrentialrainandflashfloods,forclosetofourmonths.AfinemisthoversoverthecoastalplainandcentralmountainrangeofDhofarallsummerlong,turningthelandarichemeraldgreen.ThefrankincensetreesthatgrowintheNejdregionofDhofar–alimestoneescarpmentbeyondthemountains,ataheightof2,000to2,500feet–havetheadvantageofbeingbeyondthereachofthemonsoon.Coolwindsladenwithwatervapoursweepupfromthecoasttothemountains,creatingdensecloudswhich,whenevaporated,providethetreesoftheNejdplateauwithenoughmoisturetoflourish,withoutbeingdrenchedwithrain.Thosetreesthatgrowalongthecoastalplain,wheredrizzlyrainfallsalmostconstantlyforthreeorfourmonths,produceafarinferiortypeoffrankincense;thetreesareknowninthelocalJibbalidialectasirhiz,or‘washed’andtheirdark,lumpyresinisthecheapestgradesoldinthesouq.Nejdifrankincense,fromtheNejdplateauincentralDhofar,isofamuchfinerquality,goldenincolourandwithagood,cleansmoke.Thefinestqualityofallisknownashawjeri,andcomesfromtheeastofDhofar.Thetreeshereseemtoenjoyoptimumconditionsforgrowth,andtheresintheyproducecomesinperfecttearformationswithapalegreentinge,andburnswithasinglewhitecolumnofsmoke,producingapotentfragrance.

Fig.2.3.AwomanfromthehawjeriregionofeasternDhofarharvestingfrankincenseinthetraditionalmanner.

Fig.2.4.FrankincensetreesflourishintherockylimestoneterrainofWadiDo’an,Hadramawt.

Frankincenseandmyrrhtreescannotbecultivatedingreatnumbers;theygrowwildingullies,onlimestoneplainsandalongwadis.Clumpsoftreesgrowingclosetogether,orinaparticularwadi,areknownasamanzilahor‘grove’.Forcenturies,anduntilveryrecently,everymanzilahwasownedbyacertainfamily,whohadtherighttoharvestthetrees.AccordingtoPliny,‘therearenotmorethan3,000familieswhoretaintherightoftradingfrankincenseasahereditaryproperty,andconsequentlythemembersofthesefamiliesarecalledsacred.’Plinygoesontodescribethemethodofharvesting;atechniquethathadchangedlittle,itseems,fromthedaysofTheophrastuswritinginthe3rdcenturyBC,andwhichremainsremarkablysimilartotheharvestingtechniquesstillinusetoday(Fig.2.3).Plinywrites:‘Theymakeanincisionwherethebarkappearstobefullestofjuiceanddistendedtoitsthinnest;andthebarkisloosenedwithablowbutnotremoved.Fromtheincision,agreasyfoamspurtsout,whichcoagulatesandthickens,beingreceivedonamatofpalmleaves…theresidueadheringtothetreeisscrapedoffwithanirontool,andconsequentlycontainsfragmentsofbark.’13

TherewerefourmainkingdomsintheterritoryofSouthArabia,knownbytheGreeksandRomansasEudaimônArabiaorArabiaFelix.Theywereconcentratedaroundthedesertregionofpre-IslamicYemen,anareaknownintheMiddleAgesastheSayhad,andnowadaysasRamlatal-Sab’atayn.Eachkingdomhaditsownlanguage,itsownstyleofartandarchitecture,itsowndeities,rulersandlaws.TheprincipalSayhadickingdomsweretheKingdomofHadramawt,withitscapitalatShabwa;theKingdomofSaba’,withitscapitalatMārib;theKingdomofQataban,whosecapitalwasTimna’,andthesmallKingdomofMa’ininthenorth,whosecapitalwasQarnaw.MyrrhtreesflourishedalongthewadisoftheQatabanianempire,whilefrankincensegrewandwasharvestedwithintheboundariesoftheHadramawtkingdom.WadiHadramawtitselfisavastdried-upriver-bedapproximately160kmlongand300metersdeep,inthesouth-eastofYemen.FrankincensetreesflourishedinthelimestoneplateauoftheJol,inthegulliesandriver-bedsoffthemaintributariesoftheHadramawt,suchasWadiHagr,Wadial-Masilah,WadiAmaqinandWadiDo’an,andintheMahraregiontotheeast.Alloftheseareas

werepartoftheHadramawtkingdom,andcameunderthecontroloftheruleratShabwa(Fig.2.4).

AlthoughonlytwoofthesefourSayhadickingdomsactuallyproducedfragrantresin,allwere,toagreaterorlesserextent,involvedintheoverlandtradeinaromatics.Eachofthefourcapitalcitiesactedasanimportantstopping-offpointforthemerchants,whowerechargedhightaxesonentry,andwhopaidsubstantialfeesforservicessuchasfood,shelter,water,freshcamelsandlocalguides.Thelucrativetaxesandhealthyprofitsofinternationalcommerceenrichedpre-IslamicYemen,anditwasduringtheheightofthearomaticstradethatSayhadicculture–itsart,architecture,scriptandlanguage–reacheditsapogee.

Ashasbeenindicatedabove,internationalcommercealonecouldnotsustainanentirepopulation,andthebasisoflifeforallfourSouthArabiankingdomswasagriculture.Eachkingdomwasestablishedinagreatalluvialvalley,inwhathasbeendescribedasan‘ecologicalpocket’;shelteredfromtheseabymountains;protectedfromoverlandinvasionsbythedesert,andeachclosetoitsownlargewadi,whichchannelledfloodwaterduringthebiannualmonsoons.Theseagriculturalsettlementsreliedforsurvivaloncomplexandwell-maintainedsystemsofirrigation.Anetworkofdamsandsluice-gates,channels,tunnels,canalsandreservoirs,carriedfloodwateracrossvaststretchesoflandwhichwascarefullyplantedwithcropssuchasmilletandbarley,grapes,flaxandsesame.

Fig.2.5.TheruinsoftheShaqirpalaceatShabwa.

Consequently,thepoliticalstructureoflifeintheSayhadickingdomswas

basedlargelyupontheorganisationoftheland.UnlikethenomadicpastoralismofthenorthernpartofthePeninsula,theirswasasedentarylifecentredupontownsandcities,fieldsandcrops.Themajorityofpeoplewerefarmers.Societywasdividedintovillagecommunitieswhichweremadeupofoneormorefamilygroups,knownasbayts.Severalvillagecommunities,madeupofbaytsandclans,formedasha’b.Thesha’bwasatribalgroup,boundbygenealogicalties,andcouldbeanythingfromasmallgrouptoanentirenation.Therulerofeachkingdomwasresponsibleformilitaryoperationsandtheexpansionofterritory,forbuildingtowers,templesanddefensivewalls,andcrucially,forthemaintenanceoftheirrigationsystems.InthekingdomofSaba’,whichwasforcenturiesthestrongestandmostpowerfuloftheSayhadickingdoms,thesystemofirrigationreacheditszenithwiththegreatMāribDam,whoseextensivenetworkofchannels,canalsandtunnelscarriedfloodwateracross9,600hectaresoffarmland.IntheterritoryaroundShabwa,thecapitaloftheHadramawtkingdom,some12,000acreswereundercultivation,withasimilaramountinthelandsurroundingtheQatabaniancityofTimna’.Reportsofverdantgardens,lushfieldsofcrops,treesyieldingshadeandabundantfruitseemhardtobelievewhenonestandsamongstthedesiccatedruinsofthecitiestoday(Fig.2.5).

Anetworkoftraderouteshadbeenestablishedbetweenthekingdomsformanycenturies,carryinggoodssuchassaltandwheat,wine,weapons,datesandanimalskinsfromonefortifiedsettlementtothenext.ThesepathswerethebasisofthefrankincensetraderoutesbetweenthekingdomsofsouthernArabia,andformedthestarting-pointoftheroutenorth(Fig.2.6).AlthoughPlinytalkedabout‘thehighroad’leadingnorth,therewasneversimplyonegreat‘FrankincenseRoute’asispopularlyimagined,butratheracomplexsystemofpaths,withsubsidiarytracksleadingfromthemainroadstovariousstopping-offpoints,wheregoodscouldbeboughtandsold,andshelterandfoodobtained.

Fig.2.6.Mapofmainplacesmentionedinthetext.

Ashasbeennoted,theHadramawtkingdomwastheepicentreoftheSouthArabianfrankincensetradeformanycenturies.TheterritoryruledbytheHadramitekingscontainedanabundanceoffrankincensetrees,whileitscapitalcity,Shabwa,wasthemandatorypointoftaxationforallthecaravanstakingaromaticsuptothecivilisationsofthenorth;aplacewhicheverymerchantwouldhavehadtoenterbylaw,andonpainofdeath,duringhisjourney.Crucially,therulerofHadramawtcontrolledanetworkofwadisandfortifiedstaging-postswhichlinkedShabwatotheportofQana’ontheArabiansea.Fromc.1stcenturyAD,Qana’wasoneofthekeypointsfortheancientaromaticstrade,bothontheoverlandandthemaritimeroutes.

Attheendoftheharvest,inJuneorJulyeachyear,frankincensewascarrieddownfromthewadiswhereithadbeengatheredanddried;ajourneywhich,accordingtoPliny,tookeightdays.ItwastakenthroughthevastlimestonegatesthatmarkedtheentrancetoShabwa,andupthemainroadthatledfromthepalaceofShaqirtothegreattemple,homeoftheHadramites’principaldeity,Syn(Fig.2.7).Thebasket-loadsofresinwentfirsttothepriestsinthetemple,

whoweighedthegoodsandextractedtheirshareintaxes.14Thenthemerchantspurchasedtheirsupplies,andtheoverlandjourneynorthcouldbegin.

ThemerchantsthemselveswouldprobablynothavebeennativesofShabwa:thereisnoevidenceforeitherHadramitesorSabaeansactingasincensedealers.ItappearsinsteadthattherewasaveryspecificgroupofSouthArabianswhoactedaslong-distancetraders,andwhocamefromthekingdomofMa’in.AccordingtoPliny,theMinaeanswerethebest-knownSouthArabiansintheRomanworld.TheytookconsignmentsofincensetoSyria,EgyptandAssyria,aswellastotheGreekandRomanworld,andtheyestablishedadynamicnetworkoftraders,eachunderthesupervisionofamagistrate,invariouskeypointsalongtheroute.TherewasasettlementofMinaeantradersintheQatabaniancapitalofTimna’;intheHadramitecapitalShabwa;intheoasisofDedan,andinvariouscitiesinEgypt,includingAlexandria.

TheMinaeanssuppliedfrankincenseandmyrrhtotheholytemplesofacity.ThecoffinofaMinaeanfrankincensemerchantnamedZayd’il,forexample,datingtothe3rdcenturyBC,wasdiscoveredatMemphisinEgypt.15InscriptionsonthesideofthecoffinmakeitclearthathesuppliedaromaticstothetemplesofEgyptandwasaffordedadignifiedandcostlyEgyptian-styleburial.

Asprofessionallong-distancemerchants,theMinaeanswouldbewellacquaintedwithallthepreparationsforthearduousjourneynorth.Thecaravanleaderwouldhaveanintimateknowledgeofeverywaterstop,settlementandtaxationpointalongtheway,andhisjobwastooverseethepreparationandsafetransportationofallthetradegoods,andtoensurethattherewasenoughfoodandwaterforthecamelsandmerchants,especiallyalongthemostdifficultstretcheswheretherewerenosheltersorwellsformilesaround.Aloadedbaggagecamelcouldtravelaround2.5milesperhouroverlevelground,andanaverageday’sjourneylastedfor10hours,sothemerchantscouldcalculatequiteaccuratelyhowlongtheentirejourneywouldtakeandwherethecaravanwouldstopattheendofeachday.

Fig.2.7.RemainsofthetempleofSynatShabwa.

Fig.2.8.ThesouthgateatTimna’,withalengthyinscriptioninQatabanian.

Themaincaravanrouteswereusuallymaintainedandsecuredbyofficialsandsoldiersofthekingdomthroughwhichtheypassed,andtherewouldhavebeenmilitarysettlementsaswellastaxationpointsalongtheway.Fromaroundthe5thcenturyBC,mostcaravansconsistedofatleast200camels,togetherwiththemerchantsandtheirservants.Therewasalsousuallyanarmedguardoflocalnomadswhowouldtravelaheadofthegrouptodeflectattackfrombandits,plusalocalguide,toleadthemerchantsthroughdifficultterrain.Thepurposeoftravellinginsuchalargeconvoywastoensuremutualsecurityandprotection.Alonetraderleadingahandfulofcamelsacrossavastinhospitabledesertwouldnotfarewell.16

FromShabwa,themerchantsmayhavetravelledwestthroughWadiMarkha,whichwasthemainarterythatlinkedShabwatothecityofTimna’,thecapitaloftheQatabaniankingdom(Fig.2.8).17Myrrhtreesgrewthroughouttheregion,asdidindigo,oneoftheworld’soldestdyes.Timna’wasalsotheinlandterminusfortheIndianandfar-easternluxuriesthatweretransportedfromthecoastatAden.AdenwastheprincipalportoftheQatabaniankingdom,andoneofthemostimportantharboursontheinternationaltradenetwork.Shipsfromtheeast–mainlyfromIndia,SriLankaandsouth-eastAsia–arrivedatportsallalongtheSouthArabiancoast,butAden,whichtheGreekscalledArabiaEmporion,or‘Arabia’semporium’,wasforseveralcenturiesthemostimportantportforthetradeinluxurygoodsbetweenArabia,Africaandtheeast.

Fig.2.9.AsteleinthemarketplaceatTimna’.Therulesofthemarketwereinscribedonallfoursides.

FromAden,thearomaticsandluxurieswerecarriedoverlandtoTimna’inthenorth,wheretheyweretaxed,sortedanddisplayedinthemarket(Fig.2.9).Timna’wasanimportantcitywithinthegreateasterntradenetwork,andfragmentsofpotteryandglasswareunearthedbyarchaeologistsintheruinsofthecitymatchfindsinthesitesofArikamedu,anIndo-RomantradingstationonthewestcoastofIndia,andinSeleuciaontheRiverTigris.

FromTimna’,themerchantstravellednorthtowardsMārib.PlinyestimatedthatthejourneyfromheretotheMediterraneanspiceentrepôtofGazawas2,437,500steps–approximately65days’travelling.ThedirectroutefromTimna’toMāribisajourneyofaboutninetymilesacrossthedesert.Itislikelyhowever,thatmostofthecaravanswouldhaveavoidedthehighdunesandwaterlessconditionsofthisroute,andoptedforthelongerjourney,whichledthrougharangeofmountainsseparatingTimna’fromthekingdomofSaba’.Attheheightoftheincensetradetherewereseveralspecially-constructedpasses,includingtheMablaqahpassandNagdMarqad,builtandmaintainedbytheQatabanianauthorities,withlevelpavements,religiousshrinesandtaxationpointsalongtheway,whichchannelledthemerchantssingle-filethroughthemountains.

Fig.2.10.PillarsofthesocalledMahramBilqisinMārib.

Fig.2.11.Ottomanandpre-IslamicruinsatthesiteoftheMinaeancityofYathil,nowknownasBaraqish.

Afterajourneyoftendays,themerchantsarrivedinMārib,thecapitaloftheSabaeankingdom.AlthoughtheconnectionbetweentheprincipalcityofSaba’andthelegendaryQueenofShebaisunproved,Māribwascertainlyoneofthelargestofallthepre-IslamicYemenicities.Itwassurroundedbyanoasisofgreenfieldsandtrees,whichwereirrigatedbythevastMāribDam(Fig.2.1)andinhabitedbygrazingcattleandotherlivestock.Thefarmerswholivedhereproducedanabundanceofagriculturalproduceincludingfruit,vegetables,dates,grain,flaxandsesameoil,whichSabaeanmerchantstradedthroughouttheregion.Māribwasacentreofpower,andtheheartofagreatwarriornation.ManyinscriptionsrecountbattlesfoughtandwonbytheSabaeanarmy;citiesrazedtotheground,entiretribestakencaptive.Itwasalsoareligiouscentre,withmanytemplesandshrines,includingthevastovaltempletotheSabaeans’principaldeityAlmaqah,whichstoodoutsidethecitygates(Fig.2.10).

ThemerchantswouldhavespentseveraldaysinMārib,exchangingtheirgoodsandrestingtheircamels.ThentheywouldhaveheadednorththroughMārib’soutlyingfieldsandorchards,beforeenteringtheariddesertstretchofKharibatSa’ud,whichledtothesmallstateofMa’in–thehomeofthefrankincensemerchants.

ThekingdomofMa’inlayontheouterfringesoftheSayhad,andwasthefinalstopforthecaravansbeforetheyleftArabiaFelixandenteredwhattheRomanscalledArabiaDeserta,or‘desertArabia’,inpresent-daySaudiArabia

andJordan.ThecityofYathil,nowknownasBaraqish,wasathree-dayjourneyfromMārib.ItwasnottheMinaeancapital,butwastheregion’smostimportantfrankincense-tradingcentre,asmall,prosperouscityringedbyhigh,strongwallsandsurroundedbyfieldsandpalmgroves.Fromaroundthe1stcenturyBC,YathilwasunderthecontroloftheSabaeans,thekingdomofMa’inhavingeffectivelybeentakenoverbySaba’.However,itstillcontinuedtooperateasanimportantstopontheroutenorth(Fig.2.11).

AfterleavingYathil,themerchantswouldhavetravellednorthtotheMinaeancapital,Qarnaw,andonwardsintoArabiaDeserta.Forthefirstsixorsevendays,therewasonesinglerouteleadingnorth,takingthemerchantstotheoasisofNajrān,thefirstmainstop,wheretheywouldfindfood,shelterandwater.

AfterNajrān,someofthemerchantswouldbranchnorth-easttoQaryatal-Faw,headingfortheport-townofGerrhaonthePersianGulf.ThereisstillagooddealofdebateastotheexactlocationofGerrha;18StrabonotesthatitwasinhabitedbyChaldaeanexilesfromBabylon.TheGerrhaeanswereawealthypeople,andmadegreatprofitsfromtheirpositionasmiddlemen,buyingfrankincense,myrrhandotheraromaticsfromtheSouthArabianmerchants,andtheSeleucidkingdomtothenorth-east,towhichtheysoldfrankincense,myrrhandotheraromatics.InturntheSouthArabianmerchantsboughtgoodssuchaspurple-dyedwoolsfromPhoenicia,multicolouredtextilesfromPersiaandembroideriesfromsouthernAnatoliafromtheGerrhaeans.

ThenextstopontheroutenorthwasYathrib,akeytradingtownandathrivingoasisfamousforitsdates.InIslamictimesitbecameknownasal-Medina–shortformadinatan-nabi’,‘theProphet’scity’.ItwasherethattheProphetMohammedfoundsanctuaryinAD622,fleeingpersecutioninMecca.EvenbeforethedaysoftheProphet,Yathribwasanimportantstopfortheincensecaravans,andforpilgrims,whoflockedtotheholycityofMeccaseveraldays’journeytothesouth-west.

AfterYathrib,someofthemerchantswouldhavesplitofffromthemainrouteandheadedeithernorth-easttosouthernMesopotamia,orduenorthtoTaymā’onthesouth-westernedgeofthegreatNafudDesert,andthenontowesternBabyloniaorAssyria,wheretheyexchangedtheiraromaticsforsilver,preciousstonesandpurple-dyedcloaks.TheroutetotheMediterranean,DamascusandEgypt,however,continuednorth-westtothenextoasiscalledDedan,nowknownasal-’Ula,sevendays’journeyfromYathrib,whereapermanentcolonyofMinaeanmerchantsliveduntilprobablysometimeinthe1stcenturyBC.DedanwastheseatoftheNorthArabianLihyanitekingdom,andacommercial

hubwhereseveraltraderoutesmet.Fromhere,aroadledwesttotheRedSeacoast.

ItappearsthattheimportanceofLihyaniteDedanasapoliticalandeconomiccentresufferedadeclinefromc.1stcenturyBC,whilethesettlementofHegra–knowntodayasMada’inSalih–whichislessthan20kmnorthofDedan,becamethemaincentreintheDedanvalleyduringthelatterhalfofthesamecentury.Hegralayinasandyplainsurroundedbyruggedmountains.Fromthe1stcenturyBCuntilAD106,thisareawasunderthecontroloftheNabataeans,aformerlynomadicpeopleofobscureorigin,whosettledinsouthernJordanandexpandednorthtotheHawranandsouthtotheHejaz.TheNabataeansestablishedakingdomandaseriesofsettlementswhosesurvivalwasbaseduponasuccessfulsystemofirrigation,andwhoseeconomywasenrichedthroughcontrolofthisimportantsectionoftheoverlandtraderoutes.Atitsheight,theNabataeankingdomstretchedfromthesouthernoasisofHegra,northtothesouthernNegevandforashortwhileincludedDamascus.TheNabataeanswerealiteratepeople–Aramaicwastheofficialwrittenlanguage–andwereinvolvedintheasphalttradeoftheDeadSea.AccordingtoStrabo(Geog.16,4,26),theyimportedgoodssuchasbrassandiron,purplecloth,saffronandworksofart.

AfterHegrathemainroutecarriedonnorthwardstoTabuk,whichwasanotherimportanthuboftrade,andthencetoMa’an.MerchantstravellingnorthtoSyria,PhoeniciaandAnatoliawouldhavetravelledthroughPetra,theseatoftheNabataeankings.TheNabataeanportofLeukêKômê,the‘whitevillage’layontheRedSeacoast,tothesouthofPetra.Upuntilthelate1stcenturyBCitseemsthatLeukêKômêmainlydealtwithgoodstravellingtoandfromEgypt.WiththeriseofthemaritimetraderouteslinkingtheRoman-controlledRedSeaportsofEgyptwithsouthernArabiaandthecoastofIndiainthe1stcenturyAD,(aprocessdescribedinmoredetailbelow),cargoesfromEastAfricaandSouthArabiawouldalsohavearrivedhere.Allgoodsarrivingatthisportweresubjecttoa25percenttaxbyNabataeancustomsofficials,beforebeingtransportednorthtoPetra.

Formanymerchants,thefinalstoponthisnorthwardjourneywasGaza,themainspiceentrepôtoftheancientGraeco-Romanworld.ItlayatthesouthernedgeoftheMediterranean,midwaybetweenJerusalemandAlexandria,andactedastheterminusfortheoverlandincenseroutes,andaspringboardfortheonwardjourneystoEgypt,PalestineandMesopotamia.FromGaza,frankincensewasshippedtoAlexandria,whichfromthe1stcenturyADwasanimportant

sortingandprocessingcentreforfrankincensedestinedfortheRomanEmpire.Allgoodsarrivingattheharbourwerechargedwiththestandard‘Alexandriantariff’,animporttaxof25percent.Onceithadbeensortedandpackaged,thefrankincenseleftAlexandriaingreatcargo-shipswhichpliedtheMediterraneananddepositedsuppliesofincenseatallthemainportsalongthecoast.

Tothisdeeply-entrenchedpatternofoverlandtradewasadded,inthe1stcenturyBC,anewsetofroutes,andanewpatternofIndian-Arabian-Mediterraneantrade.InhisGeography,19Strabowritesthat,inaround120BC,ahalf-drownedIndiansailorwasfoundwashedupontheRedSeacoastofEgyptandtakentoAlexandria,wherehewaslookedafterandtaughtGreek.OncehecouldcommunicateheexplainedthathewasaTamilfromsouthernIndia,andhadbeenshipwreckedinavesselwhichhadsailedacrosstheIndianOceantoArabia,andthencenorthuptheRedSeatoEgypt.TheIndianpromisedhishoststhathewouldteachthemhowtonavigatetheRedSeasouthfromtheEgyptiancoastandacrosstoIndia,somethingtheyhadpreviouslybeenunabletodo.

Fromatleastthe2ndmillenniumBC,shipshadbeensailingbetweenMesopotamia,ArabiaandIndiainordertoconducttrade.TheArabsandIndianslearnedtoexploittheseasonalmonsoonwindsthatblowfromthesouth-westduringthesummerandfromthenorth-eastinwinter,speedingtheirjourneyacrosstheIndianOcean.However,forcenturies,GreekandEgyptiansailorshadbeenunabletomakethejourneydowntheRedSeaandacrosstoIndia,becausetheRedSeahasitsownstrongwindpatternswhichdonotalwayscorrespondtothemonsoonseasons.Traditionally,goodsfromIndianandArabianshipshadbeencarriedtoAden,whileshipsfromtheRedSeaportsofEgyptsailedthec.100nauticalmilessouthtoAdentopickthemup.

AGreekhelmsmannamedHippaloshadrecordedthesecretofthemonsoonwindsintheearly1stcenturyBC,realisingthattheystartedupanddieddownatcertainpredictablemomentseachseason.Inthespringof116BC,adiplomatandgeographernamedEudoxusofCyzicus,followingtheshipwreckedTamilsailor’sdirections,reportedlymadethepioneeringjourney,sailingfromtheEgyptianshoresoftheRedSeatoIndia,andreturningthefollowingyear‘withacargoofperfumesandpreciousstones.’20

AtfirstonlyafewshipsmadetheannualjourneyfromEgypttoIndiaeachsummer,atthestartofthemonsoonseason.However,in30BC,theRoman

EmperorAugustusbroughtEgyptunderRomanadministration,usheringinaperiodofgreatprosperityandpeace.WithEgyptanditsRedSeaportsnowpartoftheRomanempire,thevolumeofsea-trafficincreasedatanincrediblerate.VesselsladendownwithRomangoodssuchastextiles,grain,oil,wine,copperandtin,cosmetics,fragrantointments,horses,packmules,silverandgoldartefacts,expensiveclothingand–mostimportantly–sacksofcoins,departedfromtheportsofMyosHormosandBerenikeontheRedSeacoastofEgypt.TheystoppedoffatportsalongthecoastofsouthernArabia,principallyAden,theHadramiteportofQana’,andthegreatheadlandofSyagros(Ra’sFartak)inMahra,beforecrossingtheoceantotheMalabarcoast.Strabonotedthatinhisday120vesselssailedregularlyfromEgypttoIndia,whereaspreviouslyveryfewmadethejourney.21

Thereweretwomaintraderoutesthatopenedupwiththediscoveryofthemonsoonpassage.BothdepartedfromtheRedSeaportsofEgypteveryJuly,andbothjourneysspannedapproximately3,000nauticalmiles.Thefirst,theAfricanroute,travelleddowntheRedSeacoast,throughtheBabalMandabStraitandalongtheeasterncoastofAfricatotheportofRhapta,nearpresent-dayDares-Salaam.ShipsonthisroutedidnotventureovertotheArabiancoast.Theirjourneytookaroundtwoyears–twiceaslongastheroutetoIndia–butitwassafe,cheap,andinvolvedonlyshortcoastalhauls,soitwasgenerallyfavouredbytheownersofsmallercrafts.

Thesecondjourneywasaltogetheralarger-scaleoperation,andfarmorerisky.Itrequiredashipof500tonnesormore,strongenoughtowithstandoceanstormsandcurrents.MerchantswouldsetoffonthisjourneytotheeastfromoneoftheEgyptianportsontheRedSeacoast,passingthroughtheBabal-MandabStraittothesoutherncoastofArabia,wheretheywoulddockattheportsofAdenandQana’.FromtheretheywouldsetsailfortheopenwatersoftheIndianOcean,reachingthecoastofsouth-westIndiabySeptember.OntheirreturntheywouldstopatastringofportsalongtheRedSeacoastsofAfricaandArabia,wheretheycouldexchangetheireasterngoodsforlocalproduce.ThentheywouldheadbacktotheEgyptianportsofMyosHormosandBerenike.There,consignmentsofAfrican,IndianandArabiantreasuressuchasanimalsandspices,ivories,gold,frankincenseandmyrrh,weresentoverlandoncamelcaravans,viaachainoffortifiedwatering-stations,toCoptos,onthebanksoftheNile.FromCoptos,thegoodswereshippedup-rivertothecommercialhuboftheEgyptianRomanempire,thecityofAlexandria,wherefrankincensewassorted,22andgoodsweredistributedthroughouttheMediterraneanworld.

Ateveryharbouronboththeseroutes,thereweredifferentcommoditiesforsale,andlocaltradersdemandedavarietyofgoodsinexchange.Someportspreferredgoldandcoins,otherswerecontenttousebarter.Somewantedclothandsilverstatues,othersrequiredcerealsandoliveoil.ThejourneyfromtheRedSeatoIndiainvolvedstoppingatmanyportsalongtheway,andsoplanningavoyagewasadifficulttask,requiringmanyyears’experience.Ahandbookforsailors,writteninthemiddleyearsofthe1stcenturyAD,affordsinvaluableinsightsintothemaritimetradeatthistime.ThePeriplusMarisErythraei,or‘PeriplusoftheErythraean[Red]Sea’,23waswrittenbyananonymousGreekseacaptainlivinginEgypt.ItwasintendedasapracticalmanualforseafarerstradingbetweenRomanEgypt,EastAfrica,southernArabiaandIndia.ThePeriplusdescribedthepeopleandgeographyofthevariouslandsalongtheway,thelanguagesspoken,thefoodeatenandthelikesanddislikesofthelocalrulers.Itprovidedinformationaboutthetidesandanchoragesalongtheroute,andlistedinmeticulousdetailthecommoditiestobeboughtandsoldateachport.TheRomantraders,forexample,loadedtheirshipswithsuppliesofgoldandsilverbullion,Alexandrianglass,barley,wheat,sesameoil,winefromItalyandSyria,cloth,tinandiron.Atthe‘far-side’portofMalaô–modernBerberainSomalia–thelocaltraderswantedsourgrapejuice,glassvessels,cloth,wheat,wine,tin,drinkingcups,copper,iron,andgoldandsilvercoins.Inreturn,traderscouldbuymyrrh,frankincense,thehardercinnamon,Indiancopal,andmacir,atypeoffragrantbark.IntheRedSeaportofMuza,ontheotherhand,thelocalswantedpurplecloth,saffron,cloaks,blankets,sashesandhorsesinexchangeforfrankincense,myrrhandalabaster.

ItisclearfromthePeriplusthat,whilemostofthegoodsbarteredbytheRomantraderswerebroughtfromtheMediterranean,thesailorscouldalsopickupgoodsenrouteandexchangethematportsfurtheralongthejourney.FrankincensefromSouthArabiafoundareadymarketinIndia,forexample,andIndianmerchantswhodealtwithChinesetraderstravellingdownthroughBactriacouldtradeEastAfricanivoriesandSouthArabianaromaticsforChinesesilksandpelts,whichtheysoldontotheEgyptiansandRomans.

TheinformationcontainedinthePeriplusreflectsthearomaticstradeatitsveryheight.TheyearsfromthereignoftheEmperorAugustustothedeathofMarcusAureliusinAD180,theso-calledPaxRomana,wasatimeofgreatpeaceandprosperitythroughouttheRomanEmpire.Theopeningupofthemaritimeroute

betweentheRomanEmpireandArabiaandIndia,combinedwithaflourishingoverlandtrade,andTrajan’sannexationof‘ProvinciaArabia’–theNabataeankingdomthathadcontrolledmuchofthenorthernincenseroute–andhisestablishmentofaRomanfleetintheRedSeatoprotectshipsfrompiracy,meantthatthesupplyofluxurygoodsreachednewheights,andRomanshipspliedthewatersoftheRedSeaandIndianOceaninever-greaternumbers.

WealthyRomanslookedtotheeastfortheirfashions.Clotheswerebrighter,dyedwitharangeofcostlypigmentsandstitchedfromChinesebrocadesandtextilesimportedviaIndia.Houseswerefilledwithornamentalfurnituremadefromteak,tortoiseshell,ivoryandebony.Menageriesofunusualpetsbecamepopular;monkeys,tigersandleopardswereregularlyshippedfromAfrica,andplayedanimportantroleinpublicgamesandfestivals.PreciousgemsliketurquoiseandlapislazuliregularlyhungfromRomanwrists.Cosmeticsandperfumeswereconcoctedfromever-moreexoticingredients:Plinydescribedmanysuchperfumes,includingthe‘royalunguent’,originallyinventedforthekingsofParthia,whichbecamepopularamongthewealthiestRomans.Itwasmadefromsomeofthemostexpensiveingredientsmoneycouldbuy,includingcinnamon,myrrh,rosewood,saffronandspikenard.EvenRomancuisinebecameinfusedwithexoticflavours.Recipesforsaucesandmeatglazesroutinelylistedatleasttenforeigningredients:theRomancookbookApicius24forexample,recommendedmakingasaladdressingbymixingvinegarandfishsaucewithcuminfromEthiopiaorLibya,anounceofginger,somefreshrue,12dates,pepperandhoney.Indianpepperwasparticularlypopular,andextremelyexpensive.Itwasusedinfishandmeatsauces,inmedicinesandinstimulatingtonicswhichwerebelievedtocureimpotence.Romansalsomixedpepperandotheraromaticsintotheirwine:ingredientssuchasfrankincense,myrrh,cinnamonflowers,gingerandcardamomwereadded,andthewinewasheatedoveraslowfire.

Manyoftheingredientsusedinperfumesandwines,includingcinnamon,cassia,myrrhandnard,weremoreexpensivethanfrankincense.AccordingtoPliny(NaturalHistory12,32),writingatthestartofthe1stcenturyAD,therewerethreecommercialgradesoffrankincensesoldintheRomanmarkets,costingsix,fiveandthreedenariiapound.Thiscanbecomparedwiththecostofmyrrhat16denariiforapound;15denariiforapoundoflongpepper,andanastonishing1,500denariiforapoundofcinnamon.

Fig.2.12.OneoftheninespeciesofBoswelliatreegrowingontheislandofSocotra.

Fig.2.13.ADragon’sbloodtreeontheislandofSocotra.

Althoughfrankincensewas,relativelyspeaking,cheaper,demandforitwasfargreater,anditformedthebulkofthetradebetweenArabiaandtheRomanworld.Moremoneywasspentonbuyingfrankincensethanonanyoftheotherforeignresinsandspices.Unlikemyrrh,whichwasmainlyusedbyapothecaries

andperfumers,frankincensewaswidelyusedbyallsectionsofsociety.ThroughouttheRomanworld,statuesofemperorsadornedthestreets,andlanternsandincenseburnerswereplacedbeforethem,emittingaconstantstreamoffragrantsmoke.Sincethereekofsewage,dung,rubbishandrottingmeatplaguedeventhefinestcitiesinantiquity,thescentoffrankincenseincrowdedpublicplaceswasanecessarydisguise.FrankincensewaspurchasedasanofferingatthetemplesandburnedinordertogainfavourfromRomandeities.Itwasburnedbeforehouseholdgodsindomesticshrines,andvastquantitieswereburnedduringpublicgamesandvictories,atbanquets,weddingsandcremations.Atfuneralceremonies,frankincensewasheapedontothepyrestohonourthedeadanddisguisethestenchofburningflesh;atthefuneralofthegeneralanddictatorSullain78BC,alife-sizestatueofthedeadman,fashionedfromfrankincenseandotheraromatics,emittedfragrantsmokethroughouttheceremony.

TheannualharvestofSouthArabianfrankincensewasapproximately3,000tons.AccordingtoPliny,theEmperorNeroburnedanentireyear’ssupplyoffrankincensetomournthedeathofhisbelovedconsortPoppaea,anditwasclearthatsupplyfromArabiacouldnotmeettheextravagantdemandinRome.Inthelate1stcenturyBCorearlyyearsofthe1stcenturyAD,severaldevelopmentstookplaceundertheruleofthekingofHadramawt,totryandincreasethesupply.Asecondharvestwasintroduced,sothatthefrankincensetreesweretappedinthewintermonthsforcollectioninearlyspring,aswellasatthemainsummerharvest.25Secondly,theH adramitesbegantostrengthentheircontrolovertheotherfrankincense-producinglandsofsouthernArabia.Theyturnedtheirattentiontotwoplacesinparticular–theislandofSocotra,andtheregionofDhofar.

TheislandofSocotra,knownbytheRomansasDioscorida,liesoffthesouth-eastcoastofYemen.IthasnineuniquespeciesofBoswelliatree,andtherearefrankincensetreesgrowingeverywherefromthecoastrightuptothecentralmountains(Fig.12).ForcenturiesbeforetheHadramiteoccupation,theSocotrishadharvestedandtradedtheirfrankincense,aloes,Dragon’sbloodresinandtortoiseshell,sellingthemtopassingIndianandArabianmerchantsandtheoccasionalpirateormercenary.Butduringthe1stcenturyAD,thepreciousresinsandplantsthatgrewwildontheislandbecameinternationalcommoditieswithfixedpricesandtariffs,controlledbytheHad ramitesandboundintoacycleofseasonalharvestsandtradingpatterns.Socotrifrankincense,Dragon’sbloodresin,aloesandtortoiseshellwereallrareitemsthatfetchedhighpricesontheinternationaltrademarket(Fig.2.13).Tortoiseshellwaspopularinalmostevery

portmentionedinthePeriplus.Dragon’sbloodresinwaswidelyusedinmedicines,veneersanddyesthroughouttheMediterraneanworld,andthealoeplantwasgreatlysought-after;believedbyRomanphysicianstocureallkindsofdiseasesandafflictions.AllthesepreciousgoodsleftSocotraattheendofeachharvestandwereshippedtoQana’onsmallboatsandraftsheldupwithinflatedanimalskins,accordingtothePeriplus.AtQana’theywereeithersoldtopassingmerchant-ships,orstoredfortransportationinlandtoShabwa.

InDhofar,whichlay400milestothesouth-eastofShabwa,frankincensetreesgrewabundantlyalongthelimestoneridgebeyondthemountains,fromthewestoftheregiontotheveryfurthesteast.TheHad ramitesestablishedtwoinlandpositionsinfrankincenseterritory,bothwitheasyaccesstoanaturalwatersupply.One,namedHanoon,layintheNejdregion,wherefrankincensewasmostplentiful.Theother,Andhur,layfurthereast,inhawjeriterritory,wherethequalityoffrankincensewasatitsveryfinest.Mostimportantly,theysecuredapositiononthecoast.Thiswasvital,astheoverlandjourneybacktoShabwawasapunishingthirtydaysormore,whereasthesearoutewasrelativelyeasy.

Fig.2.14.TheY-shapedharbourandsouthernwallsofSumhuram.

Fig.2.15.ThesettlementofSumhuram.ThesquarewellintheforegroundisthoughttobepartoftheIlumtemple.

ThesitetheHadramitessettledonthecoast,whichtheynamedSumhuram,26andwhichtodayisknownasKhorRori,wasperfectlylocated(Fig.2.14).Tothesouth,eastandwest,steepescarpmentsleddowntothewatersofthelagoonandtheoceanbeyond.TheharbouritselfwasaY-shapedchannelflankedbytwoflat-toppedcliffs–whichprovideddistinctivelandmarksforpassingmerchantships.Tothenorthofthesitelayanexpanseofflatplain,whichwasatthetimecultivatedfarmland,andinthedistancewasWadiDarbat,whichprovidedaconstantsourceoffreshwater.Approximately200H adramitessettledhere,andthesettlementcontainedatemple,houses,shops,pavedstreets,atleastonemarketplaceandfrankincensewarehouses,allprotectedbyheavily-fortifiedwallsandaprominentgate-tower(Fig.2.15).

FromSumhuram,thefrankincensewassoldtopassingships:mostofthesailorswhodockedherewouldhavebeenGreeksandEgyptiansontheirwaybackfromIndia,over-winteringbeforereturningtoEgypt.Fromaroundthe1stcenturyBChowever,withtheestablishmentoftheportofQana’,muchoftheDhofarifrankincenseharvestwaspackedontoflotillasofsmallwoodenraftsbuoyeduponinflatedgoatskins,andsailed500milesalongthesouthArabian

coast,viaSyagros,toQana’which,bythestartofthe1stcenturyAD,wasthemostimportantfrankincensedepotintheancientworld.

Qana’wasthemainportandshipyardoftheHad ramitekingdom,theplacewhereallsea-goingvesselsbelongingtotheHad ramiterulerwerebuilt,andoneofthemajorstopsontheEgypt-Indiamaritimetraderoute.TraderscameherefromtheRomanEmpire,fromScythiaandOman,fromPersiaandfromtheportsofEastAfrica.FindsdiscoveredhereincludeterrasigillatafromItaly,Nabataeanbowls,Indianbronzes,artefactsfromPersiaandtheArabianGulf,andfragmentsofamphoraewhichwouldhavecontainedwine,oil,fishpasteandotherperishableluxuriesfromtheRomanEmpire.RoyalagentsregularlytravelleddownfromShabwatoQana’inordertobuyexpensivegoodsfromthepassingshipsonbehalfoftheHad ramiteking.ItemssuchasGraeco-Romanstatues,goldandsilverplates,andfinely-wovencloakswereespeciallypopular.

ThelocationofQana’wasimportantfortwomainreasons.Firstly,ithadexcellentinlandconnections,withgoodcaravanroadsleadingtothecapital,Shabwa.Secondly,itscoastlinewasparticularlydistinctive.ThePeriplusdevotesmuchattentiontodescribingtheparticularlandmarksofeachport,inordertohelpsailorsidentifytheharbourandavoidwastingvaluabletimetackingupanddownthecoast.TherearefourislandsoppositetheharbourofQana’,andalargeblackflat-toppedvolcanicrock,whichYemenistodaycallHuṣnal-Ghurābor‘fortressofthecrows’,whichrisesupfromtheedgeofthebeachtothesouthofthesettlement.Thesefeatureswouldhavebeenimportantlandmarks,helpingsailorstofindtheirwaytoQana’.Beingrelativelyflatontop,thevolcanicrockalsoprovidedanexcellentvantagepoint,andtherewasasettlementonthesummitforguardstokeepwatchovertheentirearea(Fig.2.16).

Attheendofeachharvest,consignmentsoffreshfrankincensewereshippedtoQana’fromtheislandofSocotraandfromDhofar,andstoredinlargewarehouses.Thefrankincensewaseithertransportedontolargershipsandsoldtopassingtraders,orpackedupforthestartoftheoverlandjourneytoShabwa,whereallgoodshadtopassinordertobetaxed.

Fig.2.16.Theflat-toppedvolcanicrockatQana’,knowntodayasHuṣnal-Ghurāb,wasusedasalook-outpointandlandmark.

ThereweretwomainoverlandroutesfromQana’toShabwa.Bothweresimilardistances–around170miles,butonewasconsiderablyeasierforacaravantonegotiatethantheother.ThefirstroutefollowedthecourseofWadiMayfa’a,awide,sandyhighwaythatsnakedthroughthemountainstothewestofQana’,passingwaterstops,smallfertilesettlementsandanimportantwalledoasis-citynamedMayfa’atalongtheway.Theroutecrossedanarrowpassthroughthemountainrange,ledintoWadiJirdanandskirtedroundthenorthernedgeofthemountainsthatcircledthedesert.Fromthere,themerchantswouldcrossthesandytractsthatledtoShabwa.Thesecondroute,alongWadiHajr,wasmoredifficult.Itbypassedtheflatfertilevalleyandheadedstraightforthemountains.Thisrouteledthecamelssingle-filethroughnarrowmountainpasses,directlydowntoWadiIrmahandintothecityofShabwa.Eitherway,theSocotriandDhofarifrankincensejoinedtheconsignmentsofHadramitefrankincense,tobetaxedinthetemple.Here,asdescribedabove,theoverland

routefromShabwatotheMediterraneanbegan.

Thenetworkofthearomaticstradewascomplicatedandmany-stranded,particularlyafterthediscoveryofthemaritimeroutesfromtheRedSeatotheIndianOceanfromthelate1stcenturyBConwards.Theinternationaltradeinaromaticsflourishedinthiswayforatleastanother200years.Fromthebeginningofthe3rdcenturyADonwardshowever,theeconomiccrisiswithintheRomanEmpiremeantthatdemandforfrankincenseandothereasternluxurieswentintosteepdecline.ThisinpartresultedinthefragmentationandweakeningoftheincensekingdomsofsouthernArabia,althoughtherewereotherinternalfactorsatplay,includingtheriseinthe1stand2ndcenturiesADofapowerfulnewtribalgroup,theHimyarites,whoshiftedthecentreofpowerawayfromtheSayhadickingdoms.TheintroductionofChristianityasthestatereligionoftheRomanEmpireinAD323dealtanotherblowtotheincensetrade,sincetheearliestChristiansrejectedthepaganritualsofthepast,outlawingtheuseoffrankincenseinreligiousceremoniesandabandoningcremationritesinfavourofsimpleburialswithouttheaccompanimentofincense.AlthoughmerchantsfromSouthArabiacontinuedtotravelnorthinafeebletrickleforcenturies,andtheHimyaritestookcontrolofthemaritimetradealongthesouthernstretchoftheRedSea,withouttheformerinsatiabledemandforfrankincensefromthepaganRomanworld,theArabianaromaticstradeneveragainreachedtheheightsofprofitabilityandcomplexitythatithadachievedduringthetimeofPliny,thePeriplusandthePaxRomana.

NotesIamimmenselygratefultoM.C.A.Macdonaldforreadingthischapterpriortopublication,andforprovidingsomanyinvaluablecorrectionsandcomments.Anyremainingfaultsare,ofcourse,entirelymyown.

1 SeeforexampletheLord’sinstructionstoAaroninExodusandLeviticus,whichcontainnumerousprescriptionsfortheuseofincense,including:Exodus30v7:‘Aaronmustburnfragrantincenseonthealtareverymorningwhenhetendsthelamps’,andLeviticus16v12–13,instructionstoAaronontheDayofAtonement:‘HeistotakeacenserfullofburningcoalsfromthealtarbeforetheLordandtwohandfulsoffinelygroundfragrantincenseandtakethembehindthecurtain.HeistoputtheincenseonthefirebeforetheLord,andthesmokeoftheincensewillconcealtheatonementcoverabovetheTestimony,sothathewillnotdie.’

2 ForexampleChapter19,theChapterofthe‘ChapletofVictory’ofthe

EgyptianBookoftheDeadconcludeswiththewords:‘thoushaltcastincenseintothefireonbehalfofOsiris’.WallisBudge(1967).

3 ThelocationofPuntisthetopicofanongoingscholarlydebate:seeforexampleKitchen(1997).

4 SeeforexampleBulliet(1990)chapters2and3foranoutlineofthedebate.

5 Plutarch,‘LifeofAlexandertheGreat’inTheLivesoftheNobleGreciansandRomans,trans.T.North,WordsworthEditions,Herts,1998,pp.385–465.

6 Ibid,chapter25pp.411–412.

7 Herodotus,Historiestrans.GeorgeRawlinson,WordsworthClassics1996,seeBookone,chapter198.

8 Ibid,Bookthree,chapter113.

9 Theophrastus,EnquiryintoPlants,transA.Hort,LoebClassicalLibrary,HeinemannandHarvardUniversityPress,1916,book9chapter4,section4.AccordingtoA.F.L.Beeston,quotingJacquesRyckmans,TheophrastusandotherGreekwritersmayhavebeenreferringtopeoplefromShabwaratherthanSaba’,since“itwouldbevirtuallyimpossibleforaGreekspeakertomakeacleardistinctionbetween‘Sabaean’and‘menofShabwa’”.Beeston(2005).

10 Strabo,Geography16,4.,trans.H.L.Jones,LoebClassicalLibrary.

11 Pliny,NaturalHistory,transH.Rackham,LoebClassicalLibrary.

12 Thomas(1932),122.

13 PlinyNaturalHistory,12,30.

14 Plinywrites:‘FrankincenseafterbeingcollectedisconveyedtoSabota[Shabwa]oncamels,oneofthegatesofthecitybeingopenedforitsadmission;thekingshavemadeitacapitaloffenceforcamelssoladentoturnasidefromthehighroad.AtSabotaathitheestimatedbymeasureandnotbyweightistakenbythepriestsforthegodtheycallSabin,andtheincenseisnotallowedtobeputonthemarketuntilthishasbeendone.’NaturalHistory,12,32.

15 Seeforexample,Swiggers(1995).

16 SeeMaraqten(1996).

17 Thissectionoftherouteisstillopentodebate.A.F.L.Beestonforexample,suggeststhatthemerchantsbypassedTimna’altogether,andinsteadheadedwest-north-westfromShabwa,throughagravelcorridorintheSayhaddesert,whichpassedarockyoutcropnamedThaniyyah,directlytotheWadiJawfinthekingdomofMa’in.SeeBeeston(2005).

18 SeeforexampleGroom(1982).

19 Strabo,Geography,2,98–99.

20 Strabo,Geography,17,1.

21 Strabowrote:‘Theseregionshavebecomefarbetterknowntousoftodaythantoourpredecessors.Asmanyas120vesselsaresailingfromMyosHormostoIndiawhereasformerly,underthePtolemies,onlyaveryfewventuredtoundertakethevoyageandtocarryontrafficinIndianmerchandise.’Geography,16,4.

22 PlinywrotethatatAlexandria,‘frankincenseisworkedupforsale’,anddescribedthesecurityarrangementsattheprocessingplants.Workersweredressedinspecialapronsandmasks,andwerestrippedbeforeleavingthepremises,toensuretheycouldnotstealanyofthepreciousresin.NaturalHistory,12,32.

23 SeeSchoff(1912),andCasson(1989).

24 FlowerandRosenbaum(1961).Chapter3,section18.

25 Plinywritesthat:‘Itusedtobethecustom,whentherewerefeweropportunitiesofsellingfrankincense,togatheritonlyonceayear,butatthepresentdaytradeintroducesasecondharvesting’.NaturalHistory,12,32,58.

26 ThemostrecentexcavationsatSumhuramhavepositedimportantnewinformationaboutthedatingofthissettlement.Whereaspreviouslyitsfoundationwasthoughttohavedatedtoc.1stcenturyBC,itisnowbelievedtohavebeensettledasearlyasthe3rdcenturyBC,whichpre-datesthe

establishmentofQana’byasmuchas200years.Thisseemstoindicatethatfromthe3rdtothe1stcenturyBC,SumhuramwasthemostimportantcoastalsettlementoftheH adramawtkingdom.SeeAvanziniandSedov(2005).

SelectBibliographyAvanzini,A.,andSedovA.V.,2005.ThestratigraphyofSumhuram:newevidence.ProceedingsoftheSeminarforArabianStudies35.

Casson,L.,1989.ThePeriplusMarisErythraei,textwithintroduction,translationandcommentary.Princeton.

Beeston,A.L.F.,2005.TheArabianaromaticstradeinantiquity.InM.C.A.MacdonaldandC.S,Phillips(eds),A.F.L.BeestonattheArabianSeminarandotherpapers.Oxford

BullietR.W.,1990.TheCamelandtheWheel.NewYork.

Flower,B.,andRosenbaum,E.,(trans)1961.Apicius.London.

Groom,N.,1982.Gerrha–A‘Lost’ArabianCity.ATAL,JournalofSaudiArabianArchaeology,6.

Kitchen,K.A.,1997.Punt,EgyptandtheQuestforAromaticResins.InYemenauPaysdelaReinedeSaba’,InstitutduMondeArabe.

Maraqten,M.,1996.Dangeroustraderoutes:ontheplunderingofcaravansinthepre-IslamicNearEast,Aram,8.

Schoff,W.H.,1912.ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSea.NewYork.

Swiggers,P.,1995.AMinaeanSarcophagusinscriptionfromEgypt.InImmigrationandEmigrationwithintheAncientNearEast,FestschriftE.Lipinski,Leuven.

ThomasB.,1932.ArabiaFelix.London.

Chapter3:BasaltasShips’BallastandtheRomanIncenseTrade

DavidPeacock,DavidWilliamsandSarahJames

DuringtheperiodwhenallimportsofcodintoEnglandfromIcelandcamethroughthetown[KingstonuponHull],theshipsusedtobringbackwiththemasballastfromIcelandlargecobblestones,becausetheircargooffishwastoolight,andasaresultthesecobbleswereusedtopavethewholeofKingstonfromoneendtotheother.

JohnLeylandItinerary1546,ed.J.Chandler(1993)

SummaryThispaperisanattempttocharacterisebasaltships’ballastfromQuseiral-QadimandBerenikeontheEgyptianRedSeacoast.Sampleswereexaminedpetrographicallyandanalysedchemicallyfortraceandmajorelements.FifteensamplesweredatedbytheArgon–Argonmethod.ComparativerocksfromEritrea,DjiboutiandYemenwereanalysed,inothercaseslimitedpublisheddatawereavailable.TheresultingdatawereprocessedusingbivariateplotsandPrincipalComponentAnalysis.

TheresultssuggestthattheballastoriginatedinanareaofrecentvolcanismratherthanthemucholderDeccantrapsofIndiaasoriginallysuspected.ThesourceorsourcesmustlieinthesouthernRedSeaorGulfofAden.Itissuggestedthatabout70%oftheballastcamefromQana’inYemen,andabout30%orlessfromAden.

InthelightofthePeriplusoftheErythreanSea,itissuggestedthatAdenwas

themeetingplaceforIndianandEgyptianshipsandthatthisrolewaslatertransferredtoQana’.Heavycargoessuchaswheatorwinewouldbeexchangedforlighteronessuchasfrankincensenecessitatingtheuseofballasttobalancetheships.

TwopiecesofobsidianfoundinRomancontextsatQuseirareprobablyofEritreanoriginandmayhavebeenacquiredthroughtradewithAdulis,whenceivoryandtortoiseshellwouldhavebeenexported.

IntroductionBeforewaterballastingwasintroducedinthenineteenthcentury,lightlyladenoremptyshipswouldneedtotakeonballasttobalancethem.Thisusuallyconsistedofalocallyavailablerock,whichwouldbedumpedwhenaheavypayloadwastakenon.Theprovenanceofballaststonescanoftenbedeterminedbygeologicalmeans,thusaffordingameansofassessingancienttrade:theyprovidedirectevidenceofemptyorlightlyladenshipsloadingwithaheaviercargo.However,thepotentialofthismaterialhasbeenlittleexploitedtodateandoneofushasalreadysurveyedthemeagreevidencefromBritain(Peacock1998).Theimportanceofthismaterialisemphasisedby,forexample,eighteenthandnineteenthcenturyLaRochelleontheAtlanticseaboardofFrancewhichwasvirtuallybuiltofCanadiangraniteorbythestreetsofHull,whichinLeyland’stime,werepavedwithcobblesofIcelandiclavaastheabovequotationindicates.Elsewhere,thetopichasbeenvirtuallyignored:KeithandSimmons(1985)regardballastas‘themostthoroughlyignoredobjectcategoryofshipwreckarchaeology’.Thesameappliestolandarchaeology,butnowwiththenotableexceptionofworkdoneonthere-usedballastincorporatedinthetownwallofmedievalKingsLynn(Hoareetal.2002).ThisdemonstratedanoriginintheBaltoscandianareaormoreprecisely,westernEstonia,apartfromonepiecefromScotland.Generally,thereisamarkedlacunainourknowledgeofships’ballastandthispaperisattempttoaddresstheproblem.

KeithandSimmons(1985,416)listtheproblemsinballaststudy:Determiningtheoriginsofthestonesdependsontheinvestigator’sabilitytodiscerngeographicalsignaturesfromtherocks.Ifthestonesrepresentloadingepisodesindifferentregions,theinvestigatormustbeabletounravelacomplexpatternofrocks.Ifthesuiteofstonesresultfromrandomhumancollectionormixtureratherthancollectionfromoneparticularregion,nocleargeographicalsignaturewillemerge.

Theseareveryrealconstraintsonthestudy,buttheyarebynomeansinsuperableandcanbeaddressedby:

Restrictingthestudytoawell-definedregionandundertakingfield-workinrelevantpartsofthecoast,predeterminedbystudyofexistinggeologicalmaps.Restrictingthestudytorocktypeswhichcanbereadilycharacterisedbyscientificmeansandwhichhavebeenthesubjectofextensivegeologicalstudy.Examiningthestonescarefullytoascertainwhethertheyhavebeenusedpreviously,inabuilding,forexample.

Inthiscase,theareaselectedistheRomanRedSea,whereacommonballastmaterialwasbeachbouldersofbasalt,arockwhichcanbeexaminedpetrographicallyandchemicallyanddatedbyisotopicmethods.Forthesereasonsitisidealfortestingthepotentialofballaststudy.Hereanattemptismadetocharacterisebasaltusingpetrographicexaminationinthinsectionandgeochemicalstudy,particularlyofthetraceelementdistributionusingInductivelyCoupledPlasmaSpectroscopy(ICPS).Inaddition,fifteensamplesweredatedusingthe39Ar–40Armethod.

TheRedSea,whichinRomantimeswouldhaveincorporatedpartsoftheIndianOcean,isanexcellentstudyarea,becausemanyofthemajorportshavenowbeeninvestigatedbymoderntechniquesandtheyaredescribedinthePeriplusMarisErythraei(Casson1989).Thisis,inessence,amid1stcenturyADsailors’logbookdescribingtheharboursandsailingconditionsbetweenEgypt,Arabia,AfricaandIndia.Itdiscussesthebestanchoragesandwhatcanbeboughtinthelocalports,butwithastrongemphasisonluxuries.ThePeriplusisanessentialtoolintheunderstandingofballast.

TheMaterialInrecentyearstherehasbeenrenewedinterestintheportsontheRedSeacoastofEgypt,whichwerepivotalinarticulatingRome’stradewiththeeast.Since1994,theportofBerenikehasbeenexcavatedbyaDutch-Americanteamandfrom1999–2003newexcavationswereundertakenatQuseiral-Qadim(MyosHormos)bytheUniversityofSouthampton,supportedbythePederSagerWallenbergCharitableTrustandtheAHRB.BerenikeisaPtolemaicfoundationwhichpersistedtotheendoftheRomanPeriod.Quseiral-Qadimmayhavebeenfoundedatthesametime,butwasonlyoccupieduntilthe3rdcenturyADandthenagainintheAyyubid-Mamlukperiod.

BothsiteshaverevealedheapsofRomanballast,comprisingfreshbasalticlavawhichdoesnotoccurintheQuseirregionandonlyassmallinlandoutcropsintheareaofBerenike.Theymusthavebeenimportedbyhumanagency.Fig.3.1showstheconcentrationsofbasaltatQuseiral-Qadim.Whiletheyarescatteredacrossthesite,therearemarkedconcentrationsintheareaofthesabkha(whichwouldhavebeentheancientharbour),reminiscentoftheMedievalandlaterballastdumpsidentifiedonthebanksoftheTyne(Ellisonetal.1993;Goodricketal.1994).Manyofthestonesareroundedandsomehaveshellsadhering,suggestingthatwerecollectedasbeachboulders.ThemainconcentrationsareintheRomanpartofthesitesuggestingthattheydatefromthisperiod.CertainlybasaltballastwasbeingimportedduringtheRomanperiodbecausebouldersarebuiltintothe‘pond’discoveredin2001–2(PeacockandBlue2006)andappearinthewallsofthe‘RomanVilla’excavatedbytheAmericanteamin1980(WhitcombandJohnson1982).TheyarefoundlessfrequentlyontheIslamicpartsofthesitewheretheymayderivefromRomancontexts.TheyaboundontheislandthoughtbyWhitcombandJohnsontobearesultofdredgingoftheRomanharbour.MostoftheballastisthoughttobeofRomanratherthanIslamicdatebecause:1. ItoccursinRomancontexts2. ItiscommonatBerenikewherelateroccupationisabsent3. Islamicshipsdidnotgenerallyuseballast,relyingonthecareful

distributionofthepayloadforbalance(informationProf.D.Agius)4. Aswillbeshownlaterinthisstudythebulkofthematerialcomesfrom

Qana’intheYemenwherethelatestoccupationseemstobeinthe5thor6thcenturiesAD,withnoknownIslamicoccupation(Sedov1992andbelowchapter4).

Fig.3.1.DistributionofballastatQuseiral-Qadim.

Despitethis,thereisasmallpossibilitythatsomeofthesamplesmaybeofIslamicratherthanRomandate.

TheballastheapsofQuseirwerecarefullyexaminedfortheirpetrographyandallappearedtobefreshvolcanicrocks,mainlybasalt,butwithafewintermediatevarieties.Nomaterialotherthanvolcanicscouldbepositivelyidentifiedintheheaps.AtBerenike,Harrell(1996)recordedthepresenceofbasaltwhichhesuggestedcouldemanatefromtheSaudiArabiancoast,ortheRedSeaIslandsifnot‘SudanandEthiopia’.HedoesnotconsiderthealkalibasaltsfromnearbyShalatein(Moghazi2003),butastheseareinlandtheyareunlikelytobeasourceofstonesatBerenike,whichlikethosefromQuseirshowevidenceofamarineorigin.HarrellalsonotedlargenumbersofcarbonatecobbleswithPholadborings,whichhesuggestedcouldhaveoriginatedintheGebelDuwiandwasheddowntothecoastintheregionofQuseir.LessprobablytheyoriginatedintheEsh-MellahaRangeabout20kmnorth-westofthefortofAbuSha’ar.Thesecarbonatecobblescompriseaproblem:inbothareasthegeologyiscomplicatedandthebeacheswouldreflectthiscomplexity:

iftheyaretoberegardedasballastpickeduponnorthernbeaches,theyshouldbeaccompaniedbyotherrocktypes,whichdoesnotappeartobethecase.Equally,despitecarefulexamination,theywerenotseenintheballastheapsofQuseiral-Qadim.

Theonlymaterialwhichcan,withsomecertainty,beregardedasimportedasballastisbasaltorkindredrocks.BothQuseiral-Qadim(MyosHormos)andBerenikewereconcernedwithRome’seasterntradeandultimatelywithIndia.BasaltsaboundinIndia,wheremuchofthenorth-westernpartofthecountrycomprisesthemassiveoutpouringsoftheDeccantraps.Itwasthoughtthereforethatthiswasaprobablesource.However,somepreliminarydates,latersupportedbyalargersample,demonstratedthatthiscouldnotbethecaseastheballastwasgeologicallyveryyoung,ofrecentorTertiaryage,whereastheDeccantrapsarearound65+maold.ItseemsthereforethatthesourcemustlieintherecentvolcanicsoftheRedSeaandtheGulfofAden.Thetaskofdiscerningoriginscanbefurtherlimited.Theroundednatureofthebouldersandcobbles,thepresenceofadheringseashellssuggestabeachdeposit.Astheassemblagesarepurelyvolcanic,thesourceshouldbeclosetoacoastalvolcanoorelsethebasaltwouldbeintermingledwithsedimentaryormetamorphicrocks.

Fig.3.2.TheRedSeaandnorthernIndianOceanshowingcoastaloutcropsofvolcanicrocks.

PotentialSourcesVolcanicrocksoccurwidelyinthecountriesofthesouthernpartoftheRedSeaandtheGulfofAden,buttherearerelativelyfewplaceswheretheserocksarefoundincoastallocalitiesandtheseareshowninFig.3.2,togetherwiththesitesofQuseiral-Qadim(MyosHormos)andBerenike.Wewereabletocollectmaterialfromsomeoftheselocalitieswhichwereincorporatedinourprogrammeofanalysis.ThesampleswereobtainedinthefieldorfromcollectionshousedintheUniversityofLeedsandtheNaturalHistoryMuseum.Inothercases,becauseofpoliticalconstraintswewereunabletomakeourowncollectionandhavehadtorelyonpublisheddata.Thisismuchbetterthannothing,butislesssatisfactoryastherangeofelementsquotedismorelimited,inturnlimitingthescopefordetailedcomparison.WherepossiblewehaverestrictedourcomparandatodataobtainedbyXRayFluorescenceanalysis(XRF)ratherthanrapidmethodssuchasopticalemissionspectroscopy.Thesituationisasfollows:

SaudiArabia

BlackvolcanicrocksaboundinSaudiArabiaformingtheso-calledHarratsorvolcanicmassifs.However,theyalllieinlandandareseparatedfromthecoastbyawidebandofQuaternarysediments,comprisinggravels,sandsetc,whereanybasaltblockswouldundoubtedlybedilutedwithothermaterials.ThesoleexceptionistheHarratAlBirk,whichliesintheTihāmatbetweenAlQunfudhahandJīzānontheSaudicoast.ThepetrographyhasbeendescribedbyArnoetal.(1980)whodatetherocksbetween0and1.9ma.Theydonotgivetraceelementdata,butthesameeruptionappearsabout100kmfurthersouthintheareaofJabalaţTirfwhereColemanetal.(1977)quotemajorandsometraceelements.Ghentetal.(1980)quotesemi-quantitativedataforGebelalHaylah,only30kmwestofthemainoutcrop.TheseresultsareinlinewiththoseofColemanetal.,givingreasontobelievethatextrapolationisreasonableandjustified.

Nosampleswereavailablefromthisoutcrop,butthisisnotconsideredamajorproblem.ThePeriplus(20:7.11–12)suggeststhatthesouthernpartsofthecoastofArabiawereconsideredaltogethertooriskybecauseofhostile

inhabitantsandadangerousrockyshore-line.Inspectionofanewsatelliteimage(http://landsat.usgs.gov/gallery/detail/392/)suggestthatthecoastaroundAlBirkisverydangerouswithnumerousreefsandoffshoreshoals.Itisunlikelytobeamajorsourceofballastmaterial.

TheRedSeaIslands

ThePeriplus(20:7.15–16)indicatesthattheRomansailorwouldsetacentralcoursedowntheRedSeamakingforKatakekaumenê(burnt)island(Fig.3.3).ThiscanhardlybeotherthanJabalaţTairwhichstilldisplaysfumarolicactivity,althoughthereisnounequivocalhistoricalrecordofaneruption(Gassetal.1973).However,thelavawhichcapstheislandistholeiticratherthanalkalibasaltsocharacteristicoftheballastanditcanbedismissedasapotentialsource.

TheotherRedSeaislandsfurthersouth,Zubair,theHanīsh-Zukurgroup,andPerimintheBabalMandab,dohavealkalibasaltsandbothpetrographyandgeochemistryhavebeendescribedbyGassetal.(1973)andMallicketal.(1990).SignificantlyonlyPerimismentionedinthePeriplus(28:8.17),asthelandmarkofDiodôrusisland.Alloftheseislandsarecurrentlyoutofboundstoforeignersandwewereunabletoobtainnewspecimens,butagainthisisnotconsideredaseriousdeficiency.

JabalaţTurbah,Yemen

Thereisasmalllavaflowdatingtoabout10.5maformingpartoftheRa’sBabalMandabadjacenttoPerimisland.Wewereunabletofindpublishedinformationortoobtainsamples,butthelavasarealmostcertainlythesameasthoseonPerim.

Kharaz,Yemen

TherecentvolcanoofKharaz,datingtoabout9ma,isnotdirectlyonthecoast,butitissufficientlyclosetobeworthyofconsideration.ItliestothewestofAdeninLahijprovince,notfarfromDarMujabhar.TherockshavebeendescribedbyVenclandZamarský(2002)andbyGassandMallick(1968)whoincludedataonthemajorminorandtraceelementsaswellasthepetrography.DrVenclandProfessorZamarskýkindlyprovidedtheirdataondisc,thusgreatlyfacilitatingtheanalysisofthisoutcrop.However,itslocationawayfromthecoast,thelackofamentioninthePeriplusandtheabsenceofany

archaeologicalremainsonthispartofthecoastsuggestedthatitwasunlikelytobeasource.

Fig.3.3.TheRedSeaandnorthernIndianOceanshowingancientsitesmentionedinthetext.

TotheeastisthesmallvolcanicareaofAlBirka.Wewereunabletoobtaindataorsamples,butasitissmallandnotdirectlyonthecoast,itisnotthoughttobeimportant.PresumablyJebelKharazwouldequatewiththeCabubathraMonsofPtolemy’sGeography,totheeastandwestofwhichweretheminorportsofMardechaandSanina(Stevenson1932).However,thesealmostcertainlylayoneithersideofthevolcanicoutcropratherthanonit.

Aden(includingLittleAdenandRa’s‘Imram)

Adenisofvolcanicoriginanditiscertainlythemostintensivelystudiedvolcanointhepresentstudyarea,largelybecauseitwaseasilyaccessiblefromEurope.TheliteratureonAdenisextensiveanditwouldbesuperfluoustoreviewitall

here,butindicativepapersarethoseofCoxetal.(1969),VenclandZamarský(2002)andBletcher(1997).Wewereabletoobtain14samplesfromAdenandafurther18thoughttobefromthatsource.Astheycloselymatchtheknownsamplestheyhavebeenincludedinthestudy.AlltheknownmaterialcomesfromsixdifferentlocalitiesonorneartheAdenpeninsuladominatedbyJabalShamsam,ratherthanthewesternpeninsulaknownasLittleAden(‘AdanaşŞughra)orRa’sImrāmtothewest.LimitedgeochemicaldatahasbeenpublishedforLittleAdenandRa’sImrām(Coxetal.1968;1970).

Fig.3.4.TheHadramawtcoastshowingvolcanicoutcrops.

AdenwasknowninAntiquityasEudaimônArabia(Fig.3.3).ThePeriplus(26:8.22–32)describesitasthemeetingplaceforshipscomingfromIndiaandthosecomingfromEgyptasneitherdaremakethefulljourney.Theauthoraddstheremarkthat‘notlongbeforeourtime,Caesarsackedit’implyingthatitwasnolongerusedforthispurposeorthatitnowplayedamuchreducedrole(seep.62).

Shuqrā

TheShuqrāvolcanicfieldoccupiessome4000km2onthecoastabout120kmeastofAdeninAybanprovince.ThepetrographyandgeochemistryhavebeendescribedbyCoxetal.(1977)andCoxetal.(1993).Wewerenotabletoobtain

samples,buttheabsenceofarchaeologicalremainsonthispartofthesouthernYemencoast,suggeststhatitwouldnothavebeenanimportantsourceofballast.PresumablytheShuqrāvolcanicfieldwouldequatewithNigerMonsofPtolemy’sGeography(Stevenson1932).TheonlyplaceontheoutcropwouldbeAgamanispha(presumablymodernShuqrā),butthisisonlyclassedasavillage.

Bi’r‘AlīandHadramawt,YemenExtensiverecentvolcanicsoutcropontheYemencoastbetweenBalhāfandMukallā(Fig.3.4).ThemainconcentrationisbetweenBalhāfandBi’r‘AlīintheheartofwhichliestheancientportofKanê(Qana’)atthefootofthevolcanicventofHuṣnalGhurāb.Wewereunabletofindanypublishedaccountsoftheserocksbuttheyareclearlycrucialtothisstudy.KanêismentionedinthePeriplus(27:9.3–4,8)asthepointforsettingoutforIndiaandthemajorportforfrankincense.Itwasclearlyakeyportofcall.

Wewereunabletovisitthislocalitybecauseofthepoliticalsituation,butobtainedagoodcollectionofmaterial,principallyfromHuṣnalGhurābandQana’atitsfoot,about5kmwestofBi’r‘Alī.WeareindebtedtoDrAnne-MarieLezine,ProfessorAlexanderSedovandDrAbduGhalebforassistingus.Inaddition,wewereabletolocatefurthermaterialintheNaturalHistoryMuseum.TheseincludedfoursamplesfromtheShawranvolcano,5kmeastofBi’r‘Alī,twofromWadiHajar35kmeast,onefromWadiGhiadat(AlGhaydaonFig.3.4)60kmeast,andthreefromWadiRaima,(almostcertainlyRujayma)40kmtotheeast.Onesamplesimplylabelled‘Had ramawt’couldcomefromthisgeneralarea,butitmightcomefromaminorvolcanicfieldbeginningatQuşay’arabout125kmeastofMukallā.Thismaybeoflessimportancefromourpointofviewastherearenoarchaeologicalremainsintheareaandthevolcanicfieldisseparatedfromthecoastbyabeltofsediments.Ptolemyrecordstwoports,PretosandTrulla,onthisstretchofthecoast,andtwovillages,EmboliumandThialemath,butnometropolioremporia(Stevenson1932).

Djibouti

ThesmallrepublicofDjibouti(Fig.3.2)onthewesternsideoftheGulfofAdeniscomposedsolelyofvolcanicrocks,mostofrecentdate,butsomeofMioceneage.InacollectingvisitduringApril2003,wewereabletoobtainsamplesofallthevolcanicsoutcroppingaroundtheGulfofTadjoura.TheseincludedrecentlavasandsubaqueousflowsfromwestoftheGhoubbatalKharâb,Plio-

PleistocenebasalticfissureflowsfromeastofTadjouraandwestofDjiboutitown,theAfarStratoidSeries(4–1ma),andtheMioceneDalhabasalts(8–6ma).TheserockshavebeenbrieflydescribedbyMohr(1961).

Furthernorth,ontheapproachestotheBabalMandabisthesmallscoriacioushillformingRa’sSiyyan,withlavasformingthediminutiveoffshoreSawabi’islands.MsAntoniaWilliskindlydonatedscoriasamplesfromRa’sSiyyan.

Asfarascanbeseen,DjiboutiisnotmentionedinthePeriplusanditisarchaeologicallybarren.ThesingleamphoradiscoveredinDjibouti(offtheSawabi’islands)hasbeenpublishedbyEmpereur(1993),whocorrectlyidentifiesitasatypeappearingin18thcenturyAD.Itisacommonandwidelyspreadvariety,whichwebelieveoriginatedinNorthAfrica,possiblyTunisia.Oneofus(DP)hasseentwomoreinEritrea.OneisusedforwaterstorageontheislandofDese,theotherfromAftaisintheMassawamuseum.TheformisalmostidenticaltothesefrîjarsstillproducedontheislandofDjerba(CombèsandLouis1967,Ph.IV.8),andfurthermorethepasteisofatypecharacteristicofNorthAfrica(Peacock1984).ThisseemsamorelikelysourcethantheeasternoriginsuggestedbyEmpereur,andequallythedaterangecanbeextendedfrom18thcenturytothepresent.

DesangesandReddé(1993)conductedanarchaeologicalreconnaissanceontheDjiboutisideoftheBabalMandab.TheyrecoveredsomesherdsfromaroundRa’sSiyyanandalittlesupplementarymaterialfromthesamesitehasbeenshownusbyMsAntoniaWillis.Itisverydifficulttodate,butcouldbelateRoman.However,thescarcityofthematerialmakesitunlikelythatthiswasamajorportofcallinanyperiod.

Somaliland

ThesoutherncoastoftheGulfofAdenisdominatedbyPrecambrianmetamorphicsblanketedpartlybyMesozoicandTertiarysediments.TheonlyrecentvolcanicsaresmalloutcropsaroundQandalaand50kmeastofLasQoray,buttheyareallalittleinlandratherthancoastal.Thisareaisthereforeunlikelytobeasource.

EastofYemen

TherearenocoastalvolcanicrocksinOmanorIranwiththeexceptionofsmallislandvolcanoesintheStraitofHormuz.TheOrmusIslandsintheGulfofOmanbetweenthePersianGulfandtheArabianSeaareofvolcanicorigin.

AccordingtoHantke(1951,204)theseislandsstillhavewell-shapedcratersandlavaflows(NeumannvanPadang1963,xii).Wepurchasedsomepiecesofscoria,usedasscourers,inthesouqatMutrah,Muscat.Theyalmostcertainlycomefromthissource,althoughthevendorknewnothingoftheirorigin.Theywereanalysed,butbecauseoftheiruncertainoriginthedatamustbeusedwithcaution.EastwardstheonlyvolcanicsarethemassiveoutpouringsoftheDeccantraps,whicharemorethan65maold.OtherwiserecentvolcanicactivityoccurstotheeastofIndiaintheBayofBengal,ortothesouthintheislandsofComoroandRéuniononthelatitudeofMadagascar.

In2003,wewereablevisitKhorRoriinsouthernOman,whichwasalmostcertainlyMoscaLimênofthePeriplus.Nobasaltisrecordedfromthissite,eitherasbuildingmaterialorasportableartefacts(Avanzini2002)andwesawnone.EquallyitwasabsentfromtheMedievalsiteofAlBalidontheoutskirtsofSalalah.ItseemsthatbasaltballastisfoundwestofQana’andthereisnothingtotheeast.

Eritrea

RecentvolcanicrocksarecommononthesouthernEritreancoastandtheyhavebeenbrieflydiscussedbyMohr(1961,210)whoquotessomeoldermajorelementanalyses.TheyoccurontheBayofZulaandareamajorbuildingmaterialatAdulis,furtherextensiveflowsoccurintheDanakiltothesouthofEddandthereisarangeofvolcanichillsatAssab.Wewereabletocollectextensivecomparativematerialfromalltheselocalitiesin2002.

AdulisfeaturesinthePeriplus(4:1.19–2.15)whereitisdescribedasa‘legallylimitedport’.Itseemstohavebeenamajorsourceofivoryandtortoiseshell.TherehasbeensomedebateaboutthewhereaboutsofAdulisofthePeriplusasallthematerialfromthesitedatestotheAksumiteperiodortothePrehistoricperiod.UntilrecentlynoRomanmaterialhadyetcometolight.Casson(1981)hassuggestedthatitoriginallylayatMassawaandlatermovedtothesiteontheBayofZula.Thishasalwaysseemedanextravaganttheory,butacurrentfieldprogrammebytheUniversitiesofSouthamptonandAsmaraandtheNationalMuseumofEritreahasresolvedthematter.About6.5kmsouth-eastofAdulisisarangeofhillssurroundedtothesouthbysaltmarshwhichwouldhavebeenseainRomantimes.Offthesehillstotheeastisaprominentrockwhichwouldhavebeenanisland.OnitwasfoundDressel2–4amphoraeandEasternSigillatadatingtotheAugustanperiod.ThisisthoughttobeDiodôrusIslandofthePeriplusandtheRomanharbourofAdulis.

Adulisisapossiblesourceofballast,butonsitemetamorphicschistsoccurinsomequantityandrandomcollectionofballastwouldresultinamixedassemblage.DiodôrusIslandiscomposedofpillowlavas.

NoRomanmaterialhasbeenfoundfurthersouthinEritreaanditisprobablethattheEddareawithitsrockycoastlinewouldhavebeenavoided.OntheotherhandAssabhasbeenequatedwithAvalitêsofthePeriplus(7:3.13–14)andithasanadequateharbour.ThemainreasonforthisisthestatementthatitlayinthenarrowestpointbetweenAfricaandArabiaofthetradingwithOkêlisandMuza.TheproblemisthatthedistancegivenfromAdulistoAvalitêsis4800stades.

TheproblemofthelengthofastadiumwasreviewedbySchoff(1912,54).ItappearsthatthreedifferentmeasureswereinvogueatthetimeofthePeriplus.However,nowthatithasbeenestablishedthatMyosHormosequateswithQuseiral-Qadim(PeacockandBlue2006)wecancalculatethelengthofastadiumaccuratelyforwearetoldthatitwas1800stadiafromMyosHormostoBerenike,adistanceofexactly300km.Thisgivesthelengthofastadiumas166.67m.ThisinturnmeansthatthedistancebetweenAdulisandAvalitêswas800km.ItispossiblethatthePeriplusisinerror,buttestingtheaboveformulaonotherknownpointsofreferencesuggeststhatgenerallyitisincrediblyaccurate.AsAssabisonlyabout400kmfromAdulis,anyerrorwouldbeoftheorderof100%,whichseemsunlikely.AnalternativecontenderisZeilainSomaliawhichisexactly800kmfromAdulis.Thisissupportedtosomeextentbyanothercoordinate,becausethedistancefromAvalitêstoMalaôisgivenas800stadia.ThelatterisalmostcertainlymodernBerbera,whichisabout200kmfromZeila,morelike1800stadia.OntheotherhandthedistancefromAssabtoBerberaisabout400kmor3,500stadia.TheoddsarestackedmorefavourablyinfavourofZeilaratherthanAssab.PlacingAvalitêsinSomalilandresolvesmanyproblems,notleastwhyitisreferredtoasthefirstofthe‘farside’ports.Ifweassumethattheauthorwasreferring,nottothenarrowsoftheBabalMandab,buttothenarrowestpointcrossingoftheGulfofAdentoArabiaeverythingbeginstofitintoplace.ItisworthnotingthatClaudiusPtolemy(Book4,Chapter7),writinginthesecondcenturyADquiteunequivocallyplacesAvalitês‘afterthestraitintheRedSea’(Stevenson1932,107).

AnalyticalMethodThegeochemicalcompositionofthesampleswasdeterminedwithintheGeologyDepartmentofRoyalHolloway,UniversityofLondon(RHUL).

InstrumentalTechniques

ThegeochemicalcompositionofthesampleswasdeterminedusingacombinationofInductivelyCoupledPlasma-AtomicEmissionSpectrometry(ICP-AES)andInductivelyCoupledPlasma-MassSpectrometry(ICP-MS).Bothofthesetechniquesrequirethesampletobeintheformofasolutionandacombinationoftwosampledissolutionmethodswereusedasdescribedbelow.

ICP-AESisarobusttechniquecapableofdeterminingmajorelementsandselectedtraceelementswithinarangeofmatrices.TheinstrumentatRHULisaPerkinElmerOptima3300RLICP-AESwhichcanachievedetectionlimitsinthepartspermillionrangeintheoriginalsample.TheanalytesdeterminedbyICP-AESwere:SiO2,Al2O3,Fe2O3,MgO,CaO,Na2O,K2O,MnO,P2O5,TiO2,Ba,Co,Cr,Cu,Li,Ni,Sc,Sr,V,Y,ZnandZr.

ICP-AESisnotsensitiveenoughtodeterminethemajorityoftheremainingtraceelementsattheconcentrationsatwhichtheyarefoundinthebasalts.TheseelementswerethereforedeterminedbyusingaPerkinElmerSciexElan5000ICP-MSwhichhasfarsuperiordetectionlimits.Cs,Hf,Nb,Rb,Ta,Th,U,La,Ce,Pr,Nd,Sm,Eu,Gd,Dy,Ho,Er,Yb,andLuwerealldeterminedbyICP-MS.

SampleDissolutionMethods

Thesampleswerecollectedasrockchipsforthemostpart,andthesehadtobecrushedpriortodissolution.Ifrequired,thesamplechipswerefirstdriedat80°CandthencrushedtoafinepowderinaSwingMillgrinder,usingatoughenedsteelbarrelandpuck.

Aftercrushing,thesampleswerepreparedformajorandtraceelementanalysisusingtwopreparationmethods,aLithiumMetaboratefusionandaHydrofluoricaciddissolution.

Thelithiummetaboratefusioninvolvesmixingthesamplepowderwithlithiummetaboratefluxandheatingittoapproximately900°Cinaplatinum-goldcrucible.Atthistemperaturethesilicateswithinthesamplefusewiththelithiummetaborateandformamoltenglassbead.Thisbeadisthenallowedtocoolandsolidifyintoglass,whichisthendissolvedindilutenitricacid.TheadvantageofthispreparationovertheHydrofluoricaciddissolutionisthatallthemineralphaseswithinthesampleareattacked,andthemajorityofelementsareretainedquantitativelyintheresultantsolution.Therefore,thismethodis

idealformajorelementdeterminations,andforthoseelementsthatarefoundinrefractoryphaseswithinthesample.Toproducereliablesilicadataitisusuallynecessarytoaddaninternalstandardtoensuremaximumprecision.TheinternalstandardusedforthisanalysiswasGallium.

Therearesomedrawbackstothismethod.Firstly,lithiumcannotbedetermined,asithasbeenaddedintheflux.Secondly,theresultantsolutionisveryhighindissolvedmaterial,containingallofthesampleaswellaslargequantitiesoflithiummetaborate.SamplesolutionsneedtobedilutedbyalargeamountbeforebeinganalysedbecausebothICP-AESandICP-MSrequiredtheTotalDissolvedSolid(TDS)contentofasolutiontobebelowacertainamount.InthecaseofICP-MSthislargedilutionisoffsetbytheveryhighsensitivityofthetechnique,meaningthattraceelementscanbedeterminedsuccessfully.However,inthecaseofICP-AES,thelargedilutionmeansthattraceelementsarepresentattoolowaconcentrationinsolutionfortheinstrumenttomeasure.

TomeasuretraceelementsbyICP-AES,aHydrofluoricaciddissolutionisneeded.InthispreparationthesamplepowderisattackedwithamixtureofhotHydrofluoric(HF)andPerchloric(HClO4)acids.TheHFattacksthesilicatesinthesampleandformssilicontetrafluoride(SiF4),whichisvolatile.TheSiF4evaporatesoffalongwiththeexcessHFandleavesthesample(minusSi)andtheperchloricacid.Thisisthendriedandalloftheremainingelementsinthesampleformperchlorates,whichcanbere-dissolvedindilutenitricacid.Theadvantageofthispreparationisthatthesolutionsdonotneedtobedilutedtothesameextentaswiththefusion,becausethemostabundantelement(Si)hasbeenremovedandtheTDSareconsequentlymuchlower.ThispermitsthedeterminationofmanytraceelementsbyICP-AES,includingmanythatcannotsuccessfullybedonebyICP-MS.

Methodologies

BothmethodsarebasedonthosedescribedinThompsonandWalsh,2003.

Unlessstatedotherwise,allreagentsareAnalaRgrade,allwaterisde-ionised,andtheacidsusedareconcentrated.

LithiummetaboratefusionWeigh0.5g±0.0005gofpowderedsampleintoaPt/Aucrucible,add1.5g

±0.001gofAristargradeLiBO2andmixwell.PlacethecrucibleonaMekerburnerataround900°Candputthelidon,leavinganairgaptoensurecompleteoxidationofthesampleduringheating.Heatforatleast20minutesandoccasionallyswirlthecontentstoensurecompletemixing.Addapproximately150mlofwatertoa250mlplasticbeaker,add25mlofHNO3andtheinternalstandard.AddaPTFEstirringbeantoeachbeakerandplaceonamagneticstirrer.Whenthefusionbeadisready,allowtocoolandsolidify.Thentipouttheglassbeadintotheappropriatebeaker.Itisessentialthatthemixtureisstirredcontinuouslyduringthedissolution;otherwisethebeadwillnotdissolvecompletely,andanymaterialthatdoesinitiallydissolvemaynotremaininsolution.Poursomeoftheacidmixturefromthebeakerintotheappropriatecrucible;addastirringbeanandplaceonthestirrer.Whentheentiresolidfromthefusionhasdissolvedinboththecrucibleandthebeakerrecombinethem,rinsingthecruciblewell.Makeupto250mlinavolumetricflask,mixwellandthentransfertoaplasticstoragetube,discardinganyunnecessarysolution.ThesolutionscanbeanalysedwithoutfurtherdilutionbyICP-AES,however,theyshouldbedilutedfurtherpriortoanalysisbyICP-MS.

HydrofluoricaciddissolutionWeigh0.2g±0.0010gofpowderedsampleintoaPTFE(orPt)crucible.InaHF/HClO4compatiblefumecupboard,add4mlofHFand2mlofHClO4andplacecrucibleonahotplatesetatapproximately100–120°C.Allowtoslowlyevaporatetodryness.Removefromhotplate,allowtocoolandthenadd2mlofHNO3.Carefullyaddapproximately10mlofwaterandgentlywarmonthehotplatefor15–20minutes.Removecruciblesfromthehotplateandallowtocool.Whencoolmakeupto20ml,mixwellandtransfertostoragetubes.ThesolutionscanbeanalysedfortraceelementsbyICP-AESwithoutfurtherdilution.

RockCharacterisation

InordertoascertainthesourceoftheballastfromQuseirandBerenikeitisnecessarytofindfeatureswhichdiscriminateanddifferentiatethevarious

potentialsources.Thiswasdonebysearchingforsystematicdifferencesingeochemistrythatmight‘finger-print’sources.TheproblemwastackledbysimpleinspectionandbyusingthesortfacilityonExcel,seeingwhichsourcesclusteredtogetherwhendataforindividualelementswereordered.Thissuggestedthatthemostdiagnosticelementswerefewinnumber,usually,TiO2,Cu,Li,Ni,Co,Sr,Ba,Zn,Zr,Rb,Nb,UandY.Otherelementstendedtovaryconsiderablywithinregionsorshowedlittledifferentiation.GeochemistshavedevelopedanimpressivearmouryoftechniquesforstudyingrelationshipswithinchemicaldataandthesehavebeenreviewedbyRollinson(1993).Ourproblemisratherdifferentforinsteadoflookingforconnections,wearesearchingfordiscriminationbetweendatasets.Theprimaryanalyticaltoolwastoshowsignificantelements(usuallytraceelements)onbivariateplots.Thisenabledsourcestobecomparedwithoneanotherandtobecomparedorcontrastedwiththeballast.Mostsourcescouldberesolvedbychoosingasequenceofdifferentvariablesuntildifferentiationhadbeenachievedwiththesamplesoccupyingtheirownfields.

Thevolcanicrocksformacontinuumfromultrabasictoacidicdefinedbyincreasingcontentofsilica.Atthemostfundamentalleveladistinctionwasmadebetweenbasicrocksandintermediateandacid,thecutoffpointbetweenthetwobeinganarbitrary53%silica.Obsidian,orvolcanicglass,ishighlydistinctiveandwasalsoseparatedfromtheinitialdataset.Ourdataarethusconsideredunderthreeheadings,basic,intermediate/acidandobsidian.

AsecondlineofapproachwastosubjectthebasicorbasaltdatatoPrincipalComponentAnalysis.Thisisapowerfultechniquewhichreducesalargenumberofvariablesintoafewuncorrelatedones.

Aswewereunabletoobtaincomparandaforallpotentialsourcesinanumberofcaseswehadtomakecomparisonbetweenpublisheddataandwiththeresultsofourstudyofballast.Inordertoensurereasonablereliabilitywerestrictedourselves,withoneexception,tomeasurementsobtainedbyXRF.Theproblemisthattherangeofelementswasmuchmorerestrictedandfurthermoretheelementsrecordedvariedfromonefieldprogrammetoanother.Becauseofthis,itwasnecessarytoadoptanoutcropbyoutcropapproach,ineachcasecomparingpublisheddatawiththesameelementsrecordedinourballastsamples.Inordertoensurewewerecomparinglikewithlike,basicandintermediate/acidrockswereconsideredseparately.

Fig.3.5.AcomparisonofballastsamplesandrocksfromAlBirk,basedonpublishedsources.BaandNi.

Basicrocks

AlBirk

AsmentionedabovethedatafromAlBirkisnotasgoodasthatfromotherpublishedvolcanicoutcrops,bothwithrespecttosamplelocationandmethodology.However,itisonlypossibletoworkwithwhatisavailableandnomaterialcouldbeobtainedfromthisoutcrop.Itwassuggestedthatthiswouldbeanunlikelysource,aviewconfirmedbythetraceelementdistribution.ThemosttellingparameteristheNi:Baratio,forwhenAlBirkiscomparedwithdatafromtheballastbothoccupydiscretefields,withballasttotheleftoftheline,andAlBirktotheright(Fig.3.5).Thereisthusnocaseforsuggestingthatanyballastcamefromthisvolcano.

RedSeaIslands

TheRedSeaIslandsaretreatedtogether,butcomparisonwiththeballastislessclear-cut,largelybecauseofthelimiteddataandtherangeofelementsavailable.Ingeneral,theballasthashigherSrandlowerZrthantheislandbasaltsandhigherNbandRbwithlowerY(e.g.Fig.3.6).OnthedataavailableitseemsthatZubair,theHanīsh-ZukurgroupandPerimarealldifferent,butthereisalittleoverlapwiththeballast,particularlywithHanīsh-Zukur,whichcannotbedefinitivelyseparated.

Itwasarguedabovethattheislandsareanunlikelysourcefortheballastandthetraceelementdistributionlendsitssupporttothisargument.Ittipsthebalanceofprobabilityevenfurtherawayandtheislandsarebestdiscounted.

Fig.3.6.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromtheRedSeaislandsofZubair,HanīshZukurandPerim,basedonpublishedsources.ZrandSr.

Kharaz

TheseparationofKharazandballastisagainlessclearcutbuttheredoseemtobedifferencesintheBa:NbandBa:Srratio(Figs3.7–8).IngeneralBaishigheratKharazthanintheballastwithconsiderablevariation.NbandparticularlySrshowmorevariationintheballast.Theimpressionistwoseparatebutpartlyoverlappingclusters.Thedatadonotdisproveanassociation,buttheycertainlydonotsupportthehypothesisthattheballastwasderivedfromthissource.ItseemsprobablethattheoverlapiscausedbyasimilarityingeochemistrybetweenAdenandKharaz,butthedataarenotdetailedenoughtomakethisdistinction.GiventhearchaeologicalimprobabilityofKharazanditsdistancefromthecoast,itcanbelegitimatelyeliminated.

Shuqrā

MorepublisheddataareavailablefortheShuqrāvolcanicfieldmakingcomparisonalittleeasier.TheratiosofZr:NbandparticularlyZr:RbareindicativeasShuqrāoccupiesafieldwhichisdistinctfrommostoftheballast

(Fig.3.9).Mostballastliesabovetheline,mostShuqrāsamplesbelow.Itisclearthatverylittle,ifany,ballastcamefromthissourcewhichfitswellwitharchaeologicalexpectation.

Oman

ThesixpiecesofscoriapurchasedintheMutrahsouqaredemonstrablyverydifferentfromtheballast.ThemoststrikingdifferenceisthemuchhigherCeintheOmanisamples.TheratioSr:Ceconvenientlyseparatesthetwogroupsmakingithighlyimprobable,despitethesmallsamplesize,thatthisisasource(Fig.3.10).

Fig.3.7.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromKharaz,SouthernYemen,basedonpublishedsources.BaandNb.

Fig.3.8.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromKharaz,SouthernYemen,basedonpublishedsources.BaandSr.

Fig.3.9.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromShuqrā,SouthernYemen,basedonpublishedsources.ZrandRb.

Djibouti,Eritrea,AdenandH adramawt,YemenThesomewhatslenderevidencefrompublishedsourcesgivesnogeochemicalgroundsforsupposingthatanyoftheaboveproducedsignificantquantitiesofballast.Astheyareallarchaeologicallyimprobabletheyarebesteliminatedfromconsiderationandthediscussionwillnowfocusonthelocalitiesfrom

whichwewereabletoobtainrocksforanalysisinthisprogramme.Thesewereperceived,fromtheoutset,astheplacesmostpertinenttothisstudy.

TrialanderroronourowndatademonstratedthatthemostsatisfactorydiscriminationbetweensourceswaswiththeratioofZn:Rb.TheresultsareshownonFig.3.11,wherethereisacleardistinctionbetweenQana’,Adulis,DjiboutiandAden.DjiboutiischaracterisedbyasignificantlylowerRblevel,Qana’haslowerZnwhichincreasesinAdulisandAden.TheothersamplesfromtheeastofQana’andelsewhereintheHad ramawthavebeenomittedfromthisgraphastheyhavehigherZnvaluesandconfusethepicture.Thisisjustifiedasalltheseoutcropsaresomewhatinlandandwouldnothavebeenasourceofballast:onlyQana’liesonthecoast.InallotherrespectsthesesamplesareindistinguishablefromQana’.

TheratioislesseffectiveindistinguishingAssabandEddfromAdenandherethereisconsiderableoverlap.However,otherelementscanbeusedtofurtherdiscriminate,notablyTiO2,whichisexceptionallyhighintheEddrocksandLiwhichisgenerallyhigherthanAdenatbothAssabandEdd(Fig.3.12).ItshouldthusbepossibletoassignasampletoitssourceonthebasisofRb,Zn,LiandTiO2.FurtheranalysissuggeststhattheratiosRb:ZrandNi:Crarealsoofconsiderablevaluealthoughthereisalittlemoreoverlapandtheclusteringisnotsocrisp.ThetoolsfordistinguishingQana’,Aden,Adulis,AssabandEddarethusestablished.Comparisonwithballastisreserveduntilotheroutcropshavebeenconsidered.

Fig.3.10.AcomparisonofballastandsamplespurchasedinOman,believedto

befromHormuz.CeandSr.

ItappearsthattheZn:Rbratiowasthebestwayofdiscriminatingbetweensourcesatapreliminarylevel.Thenextstepistocompareballastwithindividualrocksources.Fig.3.13showstherelationshipbetweenballastandtherocksofDjiboutiusingZnandRb.Thereisacleardistinctionbetweenthetwoclusterswithnooverlap.AsthesampleisacomparativelylargeonewemaybeconfidentthatnoneoftheballastcomesfromDjiboutiandthatpotentialsourcecanbeeliminated.TherocksfromRa’sSiyyanwerenotanalysed,butthinsectionstudysuggeststhattheyaretexturallydifferentfromtheballastandhenceunlikelytobeasourcerock(seebelow).

Fig.3.11.Acomparisonofselectedareaswhichwerepotentialsourcesfortheballast.RbandZn.

Fig.3.12.AcomparisonoftherocksofAden,Adulis,EddandAssab.LiandTiO2.

ThegraphcomparingballastwithHadramawtrocksisquitedifferent(Fig.3.14).ThereisaconvincingoverlapwiththetwogroupsfromHadramawtparticularlyattheupperendoftheRbscalewherenodifferentiationcanbemade.SomeoftheHad ramawtsampleswithlowerRbalsoshowlowerZnthantheballast,butthismerelyindicatesthattherangeofrockscollectedwasgreaterthantherangeactuallyusedinantiquity.

SimilargraphsforcomparingAdulisandAdensuggestscleardistinctionsbetweenballastandthoseareas,i.e.ballastisconcentratedtotheleftofthelineinFigs3.15–16.ThematterisnotsoclearasanumberofballastsamplesfallintotheAdenandAdulisfields.ExaminationoftheSr:ZrdistributionshowsacleardistinctionbetweenAdulisandtheH adramawtasAdulishaslowerSrandZr(Fig.3.17).WhentheballastisplottedonthisgraphitfallsfirmlywithinthefieldfortheHadramawtandnotasinglepieceequateswithAdulis.ThissuggeststhatAduliswasnotthesourceforanyoftheballast.

Fig.3.13.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromDjibouti.RbandZn.

Fig.3.14.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromQana’.RbandZn.

AfewsamplesseemtofallconvincinglyintheAdenareaofFig.3.16.Thereisagoodoverlap,buttheballasttailstotherightwithhigherZnvalues.ElevensamplesofballastwithsignificantlyhigherZnvalueswereseparatedoffandplottedonanewgraphshowingtherelationshipofLiandTiO2.ThesesamplesdonotoverlapwithAdulisand5fallfirmlywithintherangeforAden.TwolieonthebordersoftheEdd/AdenfieldandtwoontheAssabAdenfield.Principal

ComponentAnalysis(below)linksthesampleswithAdenratherthaneitherEddorAssab.TheninesamplesinvolvedthereforeseemtocomefromAden(QAQ/3.1,8.2,8.3,10.3,QAQ/MH5,8,9,BNC2,15).

Fig.3.15.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromAdulis.RbandZn.

Fig.3.16.AcomparisonofballastandrocksfromAden.RbandZn.

Thisstudysuggeststhatamongthebasaltballast,68samplescomefromSouthernCentralYemen,namelyQana’,andnineoriginateinAden.Nonecome

fromAdulis,Assab,EddorDjibouti.

PrincipalComponentAnalysis

PrincipalComponentAnalysisisapowerfulstatisticaltoolwhichreducesthenumberofvariablestoafewuncorrelatedones.Theoriginalsetofvariablesistransformedintoanewsetof‘principalcomponentcoordinates’sothatifonlyafewprincipalcoordinatesaccountforthevariationtherestmaybediscarded(Rollinson1993).

Themethodisfarfromauniversalpanaceaandinourcasethedataisvirtuallyhomogeneous,withminorvariationservingtodifferentiatesources.Themethodcanmasktheserelativelysubtledifferenceswhicharecrucialincharacterisationwork.Neverthelessitisanalternativeapproachgivingabroadpictureofgroupsofrocksbelongtogetherwhichcanbeofusewhenbivariatediagramsfailtogiveaconclusiveresult.

Thebasaltdatawassubjectedtothisanalysisandgroupedintoanarbitrary40clusters.Theresultsaretabulatedbelow:

Fig.3.17.AcomparisonofballastwithrocksfromAdulisandtheHadramawt.ZrandSr.

Samples Cluster

ADEN/85498_2106 1

ADEN/85498_2106 1

DJIB/1 1

DJIB/6 1

DJIB/8 1

DJIB/12 1

DJIB/15 1

DJIB/32 1

DJIB/33 1

DJIB/34 1

DJIB/35 1

DJIB/22 2

QAQ/1.3 3

QAQ/1.5 3

QAQ/2.1 3

QAQ/2.2 3

QAQ/3.2 3

QAQ/4.1 3

QAQ/5.3 3

QAQ/5.5 3

QAQ/5.8 3

QAQ/5.9 3

QAQ/6.1 3

QAQ/6.1 3

QAQ/6.2 3

QAQ/7.1 3

QAQ/7.4 3

QAQ/8.1 3

QAQ/8.4 3

QAQ/9.1 3

QAQ/9.2 3

QAQ/9.3 3

QAQ/9.4 3

QAQ/9.5 3

QAQ/MH1 3

QAQ/MH4 3

QAQ/MH7 3

BNC/4 3

BNC/7 3

BNC/10 3

BNC/19 3

BNC/23 3

EDD/5.2 3

EDD/5.3 3

EDD/5.4 3

EDD/5.4 3

EDD/6.4 3

SHAWRAN/1988.P6[239]2B11533 3

SHAWRAN/1988.P6[230]11092 3

SHAWRAN/1988.P6[276]273116.6 3

MS/1 3

BA/1 3

BA/2 3

BA/3 3

BA/7 3

BA/9 3

BA/14 3

BA/18 3

BA/36 3

BA/37 3

BA/39 3

BA/40 3

BN/1 3

DJIB/10 4

DJIB/11 4

DJIB/13 4

DJIB/14 4

BNC/18 5

BNC/13 6

QAQ/MH5 7

ASS/8.1 7

ASS/8.6 7

ASS/8.7 7

ASS/10.1 7

ADEN/29468 7

QAQ/2.3 8

QAQ/3.1 9

QAQ/8.3 9

BNC/2 9

ASS/8.4 9

ADEN/k.127 9

ADEN/k.258 9

ADEN/k.272 9

DJIB/17 9

ADU/2.12 10

ADU/2.13 10

ADU/2.16 10

BNC/1 11

BNC/6 11

BNC/11 11

QAQ/11.6 11

BA/20 11

BA/22 11

ASS/8.3 12

BNC/9 13

ADU/2.4 13

ADU/2.5 13

ADU/2.6 13

ADU/2.7 13

ADU/2.8 13

ADU/2.14 13

ADU/2.15 13

ADU/2.17 13

ADU/2.18 13

ADU/2.20 13

ADU/2.23 13

ADU/2.25 13

ZULA/3.2 13

ZULA/3.3 13

ADEN/k.124 13

ADEN/85498[2104] 13

QAQ/11.1 14

BA/17 14

QAQ/1.1 15

QAQ/1.2 15

QAQ/1.4 15

QAQ/4.6 15

QAQ/5.1 15

QAQ/5.7 15

QAQ/8.6 15

QAQ/9.6 15

FS/1 15

QAQ/11.4 15

BNC/14 15

BNC/21 15

BNC/22 15

EDD/5.1 15

EDD/6.3 15

BA/8 15

BA/10 15

BA/11 15

BA/12 15

BA/13 15

BA/15 15

BA/38 15

ADEN/k.5 16

ADEN/k.8 16

ADEN/k.37 16

ADEN/k.39 16

ADEN/kkcj.3 16

ADEN/k.7 16

ADEN/k.11 16

ADEN/k.336 16

ADEN/29445 17

ADU/2.19 18

QAQ/7.2 19

BNC/8 19

BNC/16 19

WADIHAJAR/1988.P20_32 19

BA/4 19

BA/5 19

BA/6 19

BA/16 19

BA/19 19

BA/31 19

QAQ/4.4 20

QAQ/11.5 20

EDD/6.1 20

EDD/6.2 20

BA/27 20

BA/32 20

ASS/8.2 21

DJIB/19 22

DJIB/20 22

DJIB/21 22

DJIB/23 22

DJIB/24 22

DJIB/27 23

QAQ/MH2 24

BNC/17 24

ADEN/k.2 24

ADEN/k.30 24

SHAWRAN/1988.P6.[218]11061.4 24

H ADRAMAWT/1988.P7[154] 24

WADIRAIMA/1988.P22[1] 24

WADIRAIMA/1988.P22[2] 24

WADIGHIATAT/1988.P6[113] 24

BA/30 24

ADU/2.9 25

ADU/2.22 25

DJIB/2 25

DJIB/3 25

DJIB/4 25

DJIB/5 25

DJIB/9 25

DJIB/16 25

DJIB/25 25

DJIB/26 25

DJIB/5a 25

DJIB/7 26

DJIB/29 26

DJIB/31 26

ADU/2.1 27

ADU/2.24 27

ZULA/3.1 27

ASS/10.2 28

WADIHAJAR/1988.P6[67] 29

QAQ/8.2 30

QAQ/MH8 30

QAQ/MH9 30

ADEN/1911.1364[1] 30

QAQ/4.2 31

QAQ/7.5 31

QAQ/8.5 31

QAQ/11.3 31

BA/21 31

BA/23 31

BA/24 31

BA/25 31

BA/26 31

BA/28 31

BA/29 31

BA/33 31

BA/33 31

BA/34 31

BA/35 31

BA/41 31

BA/42 31

BA/43 31

BNC/20 32

DJIB/18 33

BNC/3 34

BNC/5 34

QAQ/11.2 34

BNC/24 34

BNC/15 35

ADU/2.2 36

ADU/2.3 36

ADU/2.11 36

ZULA/13.1 36

ZULA/13.2 36

DJIB/36 36

QAQ/10.1 37

QAQ/10.2 37

QAQ/10.3 37

QAQ/10.3 37

QAQ/10.5 37

ADEN/k.3 37

ADEN/k.35 37

DJIB/28 37

DJIB/30 37

ASS/8.5 38

DJIB/37 39

WADIRAIMA/1988.P22[3] 40

Itwillbenotedthatsomeclusterscontainrocksofvaryingoriginandnoballast,whileinothercasestheballastremainsunassigned.Clusters3,15,19and31arelargeandsuggestthatthebulkoftheballastcomesfromQana’,althoughsomeEddrocksalsoappearinclusters3and15.Incasessuchasthiswherethereisachoice,discriminationcanbeachievedbylookingatindividualelementsaswasdoneabove.EddcanbeeliminatedbecauseofitshighTiO2.Similarlyincasessuchascluster37,wherethereisachoicebetweenAdenandDjibouti,adecisioncanbemadeinfavourofAden.

Overalltheresultsofthisanalysisaccordswellwiththebivariatediagrams,namelymuchbasaltcomesfromQana’withasmallquantityfromAden.

Intermediateandacidrocks

Allsampleswithmorethan53%silicawereseparatedfromtheabovedatatobeconsideredseparately.Obsidianisaspecialcaseandwillbeconsideredinthenextsection.ThetableshowsthesamplesandtherocktypetowhichtheycanbeattributedusingthesystemofLeMaitre(1989).

AlltheballastsamplescomefromMersaNakariorQuseiral-QadimandallthecomparativerocksfromAden,excepttworhyolitesfromAdulis.However,intermediateandacidrocksalsooccuratKharaz,LittleAdenandPerimforwhichpublisheddataareavailable.Fig.3.18showsaplotofZn:Zrfortheintermediateandacidballastcomparedwiththeaboverockdata.Extrainformationhasbeenaddedfrompublishedsources.ItisclearthatPerimandtheAdensamplesfallinthesamefield,buttheinclusionofKharaz,andLittleAdenextendstherangealthoughtheytoooverlap.Inshort,thecaseforsuggestingasourceotherthanAdenorLittleAdenisnotproven,andinviewofarchaeologicalprobability,thisseemsthemostlikelysource.

Obsidian

TwosamplesofobsidianwerefoundintheexcavationsatQuseiral-Qadim.Theybothcamefromtrench7AwheretheywereassociatedwithlateAugustanorearly1stcenturyADamphoraemanyofwhichwereItalianDressel2–4wine

jars.Afewpiecesofpumicewerefoundinthesamedeposit(PeacockandBlue2006).

ObsidianisreferredtointhePeriplus(5:2.16–18)wherethereismentionofasourceinaverywidebay,almostcertainlyHowakilBaytothesouth-eastofAdulis.HenrySalt(1814,190)landedonthenorthernshoreofthebayatAréna.

“NearthisspotIwasdelightedwiththesightofagreatmanypiecesofablacksubstance,bearingaveryhighpolish,thatlayscatteredaboutonthegroundatashortdistancefromthesea;andIcollectednearlyahundredspecimensofit,mostofwhichweretwothreeandfourinchesindiameter.Oneofthenativestoldmethatafewmilesfurtherintheinterior,piecesarefoundofmuchlargerdimensions.ThissubstancehasbeenanalyzedsincemyreturntoEngland,andprovestobethetrueopsian,orobsidian,stone,whichanswersmostexactlytothefollowingdescriptiongivenbyPliny:“AmongthedifferentsortsofglassmaybeenumeratedtheobsidianfoundbyObsidiusinAethiopia,ofaverydeepblackcolour,sometimesalittletransparent(ontheedges)butopaqueinitsgeneralappearance,(wheninamass)andreflectingimages,likemirrorsplacedagainstawall.Manymakegemsofit,andwehaveseensolidimagesofthedivineAugustuscutoutofthissubstance;whoorderedfourobsidianelephantstobeplaced,ascuriosities,intheTempleofConcord,&c”.

Fig.3.18.IntermediateandacidballastcomparedwithrocksfromAdulis,Kharaz,Aden,LittleAdenandPerim,basedpartlyonpublishedsources.Znand

Sr.

ItisverytemptingtosuggestthatthiswasthesourceoftheobsidianfromQuseir.However,theassociationwithMediterranean,specificallysouthernItalian,amphoraecouldindicateanalternativesource.Withinthisarea,thesourcesclosesttotheareaoforiginoftheamphoraewouldbePantelleria,LipariorthePontineIslands.TheobsidianofPantelleriaisveryscarceevenintheoutcropsontheisland,butinvariablyhasadistinctivegreencolour(Peacock1985).Itcanbeeliminatedasapotentialsource.

Williams-Thorpe(1995)haspublishedausefulreviewofobsidiancharacterisationstudiesandsourcesintheMediterranean.Francaviglia(1995)hasalsoattemptedtodefineparametersfordiscriminatingbetweenobsidiansofMediterraneanorigin.Obsidiansareoftenclassifiedchemicallyontheircontentoftheoxidesofaluminium,calciumandthealkalis,sodiumandpotassium.OnthisbasisthesamplesfromQuseirwouldbedescribedassubalkaline,asAl2O3isslightlyinexcessofNa2OplusK2O.ThetypicalcompositionsgivenbyWilliams-Thorpe(1995,Table1)suggestthattheobsidiansofthePontineIslandsandLipariarealsosubalkaline,butmorestronglyso,asaluminiumissubstantiallyinexcessofalkalis.TheobsidianfromPantelleriaisstronglyperalkaline.

Thetraceelementdistributionsalsoshowmarkeddifferences.TheItalian

sourceshavemarkedlylowerZr,higherY,higherSr,lowerRb,higherZn,andlowerV.Thecontrastiscompleteandconvincing,suggestingthatthesesourcesarehighlyimprobable.

TheeasternsourcesintheAegeanandTurkeyarelessprobableasthereisnoevidenceofatradeconnectionbetweentheseareasandQuseir.EquallyitispossibletodetectchemicaldifferenceswiththeQuseirsamples(c.f.Francaviglia1995).

AsaMediterraneansourceisimprobable,itseemsthattheQuseirobsidianshouldoriginatefurthersouthintheRedSea.WewereabletoobtainasmallsamplefromAdulis,butasthisisnotasourcearea,itmusthavebeenimportedfromelsewherepresumablyinEritrea.Wewereabletoobtain15samplesfromnorthofGela’elo.ThesetooktheformofpebblesfromarecentgraveldepositwhichwasalmostcertainlycontiguouswiththeonefromwhichSalttookhissamples.FlakeswereobtainedfromMersaFatma,DahlakKhebirandAlikointhesamegeneralregion,whilefromthesouthofthecountrywehadflakesfromthebeachatBeylulandnearBera’esoli.Allofthesampleshoveraroundthesubalkaline–peralkalineboundary,amajorityjustfallingintothesubalkalinefield.Thisseemstobearegionalcharacteristic.

Amongstthetraceelements,Zr:Ba,Zr:NbandZr:RbwereadoptedbyCannandRenfrew(1964)andmorerecentlybyFrancaviglia(1995).InthiscasetheBa:Zrplotisleastsatisfactory.Thereseemtobetwogroups,onewithhighBaandgenerallylowerZr,theotherwithminimalBaandhighZr(Fig.3.19).Theformeristypicalofnortherlysources,thelatterofsouthern.OneoftheQuseirsamples,thepiecefromMersaFatmaandtheAlikosamplesfallinthefirstgroup,theotherQuseirsample,thatfromAdulisandthepiecefromDahlakfallintothesecondgroup.HoweverplotsofNb:ZrandRb:Zrshowaclearbreakbetweennorthernandsouthernsources(Figs3.19–20),withonlyonesamplefromthesouthfallingwithintheplotforGela’elo.ThisishoweverawasteflakeratherthananoutcropsampleandmayhavebeenimportedtoBera’esolifromthenorth.

Thesampleisaverysmalloneanditishardtojudgefromsingleanalyses,butitisonlypossibletoarguefromthedataavailable.TheresultstentativelysuggesttheQuseirpieces,thatfromAdulis,andthatfromDahlakoriginatedintheGela’eloarea.ItseemsentirelyprobablethatAduliswasadistributioncentrethoughwhichmaterialreachedEgyptandtheDahlakIslands.

Thereishoweverachronologicalproblem.ThematerialfromAduliscomes

fromthewesternedgeofthesite,whereParibeni(1907)dugandlocatedanearlyphaseofoccupation.MostofthesiteisdominatedbyAksumiticmaterialdatingbetween4thand7thcenturyAD.However,histrench1revealedwhathethoughtwastheearliestoccupationofAdulis,withhand-madesherdssuggestingaprehistoricdate.However,herecordsthepresenceintheearlylevelsofunalucernettadiuntipocheèlargamenterappresentatointuttoilmondoromano.ThisistheonlyevidencewehaveofRomanoccupation,soclearlyattestedinthePeriplus.ItistobehopedthatthislacunawillbefilledinthecourseofthecurrentprogrammeoffieldworksponsoredjointlybytheUniversitiesofSouthamptonandAsmara,andtheNationalMuseumofEritrea.Asuggestionthatthisperiodmustbepresentcomesfromrecentradiocarbondatesonsurfaceshellfragmentsfromthesouthwestcornerofthesitewhichclusteraround10BC–AD150.Itisentirelypossiblethatobsidianwouldhavebeenaminorobjectoftrade,althoughwhetherthematerialwasfreshlyquarriedorrecycledfromearlieruse,isamootpoint.

Fig.3.19.ObsidianfromQuseiral-QadimAdulisandDhalakKebircomparedwithsourcerocksfromGela’elo,Bera’esoli,MersaFatmaandAliko.BaandZr.

Fig.3.20.ObsidiansamplesandsourcerocksasinFig.3.19.NbandZr.

RockDates15samplesweredatedbyDrSimonKelleyoftheOpenUniversityusingtheArgon/Argonmethod.Theresultsaretabulatedbelow.

Itwillbenotedthatofthe15samples,10areveryrecentdate,1maorless.Theremaindershowincreasingagesof1.89,2.53,5.79,8.2,and10.2ma.Thissuggeststhatmostoftheballastcomesfromanareaofveryrecentvolcanism,

withamaximumageofUpperMiocene.SomeindicativeK/Ardatesareavailablefortherocksofsouth-westernYemen:

PerimIsland10.5±1.0ma(Mallicketal.1990)JabalaţTurbah10.5±1.0ma,10.6±1.0ma(VenclandZamarský2000)JabalKharaz9.6±1.0ma,8.8±1.0ma(VenclandZamarský2000)LittleAden5.3±0.5ma(VenclandZamarský2000);5.3±0.5ma,6.4±0.6ma(Coxetal.1968)Aden5.0±0.5ma,6.5±0.6ma(VenclandZarmarský2000);6.5±0.6ma,5.0±0.5ma(Coxetal.1968)

Twooftheballastsamples,QAQ/7.3andQAQMH/6couldcomefromAden(seeabove)aviewconfirmedbythematchingage.QAQMH/8isexceptionallyoldandmayoriginateinoutcropstothewestofAdensuchasPerim,JabalaţTurbah,orevenJabalKharaz.

PetrographyAmajorityofsampleschemicallyanalysedwerealsoexaminedinthinsectionunderthepetrologicalmicroscope.Ingeneral,becauseoftheinherentvariationtypicalofvolcanicrockstheyaddlittletotheaboveanditseemspointlesstodescribeeachsectionindetail.Howeverthemaincharacteristicsarenotedbelow.

Basalts

Allofthebasaltsconsideredherearealkaliolivinebasaltsandnotholeiticbasaltswerefoundinthesample.Thereisconsiderabletexturalvariation,butthecommonesttypeshowsagroundmassofsmalllabradoritemicrolites,oftenalignedinaflowtexture,setinablackorbrownglassymatrix.Phenocrystsarecommonlyofidiomorphicolivineorpyroxene.Twovarietiesarepresent,colourlessaugiteorsometimeshypersthene.Thesemineralsoccurbothinthegroundmassandasphenocrysts.Veryrarelyplagioclasefeldsparoccursasphenocrysts,itisusuallystronglyzonedandofbytownitecomposition.Brownmicamayoccurinaccessoryamounts.

Finervarietiesoccurmorerarely,butapartfromtheirtexture,thepetrographyisthesame.

ThecoarserrockisidenticalineverywaytothatformingHuṣnal-GhurābaboveQana’andprovidesindependentconfirmationofthisattribution.ThesamplesfromRa’sSiyyaninDjiboutiarrivedtoolateforinclusioninthe

chemicalprogramme,buttheywereexaminedinthinsection.Theyareolivinebasalts,butmuchfinerandmoreglassythananyoftheballast.Thepetrographysuggeststhatthiswasnotasource.

Intermediaterocks

Thetrachytes,trachyandesitesandbalsaltictrachyandesitesarecharacterisedbyamuchfinergroundmasscomposedofminutefeldsparmicroliteswhichweredifficulttoresolve.Theyhaveatypical‘trachytic’textureandoftenshowclearflowalignment.Phenocrystsarenotabundant,butfeldsparsincludesanidineandoligoclase.Someaugiteispresentandoccasionallybrightgreenaegirineisencountered.ThesamerangeofmineralsandtexturesispresentintheballastandintherocksofAden,butallourrockthinsections,apartfromonefromKharaz,arefromthissourcesothisconclusionmustbetreatedwithcaution.Aegirineisarelativelyraremineral,whichoccursintheLowerShamsanseriesofAden(Bletcher1997,25).

Theintermediaterocksarenotablylessfreshthanthebasaltsandthemineralsmuchmoredegraded,totheextentthattheyareoftenhardtodetermine.Vesiclesarecomparativelyrare,butwhenencounteredareoftenfilledorlinedwithzeolites.Theserocksappeartobeolderthanmostofthebasalt,whichwouldaccordwithanorigininAden.

Rhyolites

Therhyoliteswerenotexaminedinthinsectionanditisnotpossibletoaddtothechemicaldatagivenabove.

DiscussionWemustnowconsiderwhattheabovedatameansinarchaeologicaltermsandwhatlightitthrowsonthemechanismofRomancommerceintheRedSeaarea.Thesalientpointstoemergefromtheaboveanalysisare:

theobsidianfromQuseircomesfromthenorthernshoresofHowakilBayinEritrea,possiblythroughtheportofAdulis;66ballastsamples(77%)appeartooriginateatQana’intheYemen,20(23%)fromAden(twoconfirmedbyAr-Ardates);allsamplesfromBerenikeandthosefromMersaShuna,FuryShoalandBirNakhilcomefromQana’;atQuseiral-Qadim45(70%)canbeattributedtoQana’and19(30%)to

Aden(withonedubioussampledatedto10.2maandonefromMersaNakhariwhichcomesfromAden);thereisnoreasontosupposethatanyballastcomesfromDjibouti,Eritrea,SaudiArabiaorelsewhereinYemen;TheballastdoesnotoccureastofQana’,itisknownonlyfromEgypt,butsitesinEritrea,SudanandelsewhereinYemenhavenotyetbeenexplored.

ThefirststrikingpointistheabsenceofballastfromAdenatBerenike.AsthelatterisexclusivelyRomanindateitcouldsuggestthatAdenmaterialatQuseirbelongstotheIslamicperiod.Adenwasoflittleimportanceintheearlymedievalperiod,butlyingmidwaybetweenCairoandIndia,withanexcellentharbour,itwasreinstatedafter10thcenturywhentradesawadefinitiveshiftfromtheGulftotheRedSea.(Daum1987,168).However,thisisnotanentirelysatisfactoryexplanationastwostratifiedpiecesfromRomancontextsatQuseircanbeascribedtothissource(QAQMH/3,QAQMH/6).TheydatefromlateAugustanandlate1sttoearly2ndcenturiesrespectively(informationR.Tomber).InthecaseofQAQHM/6sourceattributionisconfirmedbyanAr-Arrockdate.Thebasaltsample,QAQMH/8,datedtothelate1storearly2ndcenturyisalsoascribedtoAden.However,ithasarockdatewhichaccordswithanorigineitherinAdenormoreprobablyintherockstothewestoftheport.ItisclearthatsomeoftheAdenmaterialisRomanindate,butpreciselyhowmuchmustremainamatterofconjectureuntilmoresecurelystratifiedmaterialhasbeenexamined.

AsTchernia(1995)haspointedout,therearetwoancientsourceswhichbeardirectlyonthemechanismofRomantradewithIndia.ThefirstisPliny(NaturalHistory,6,26),theotheristhePeriplus.PlinystatesthattheroutefromEgypttoIndiawasviaOkêlisorKanê.ThequickestwaywastosetoutfromOkêlis,fromwherewiththeHippaluswindblowingitispossibletoreachMuzirisin40days.OkêlisisbelievedtolieontheYemenisideoftheBabalMandabandMuzirisinSouthernIndia.ThepositionofOkêlisisgivenratherpreciselyinthePeriplus(25–26).Itissaidtobeonthestraits,1200stades(140km)westofAden.Casson(1989,158)plausiblysuggeststhatthesiteislocatedatShaykhSa’īdorKhawrGhurayah,wherethereisalagoon,possiblyasiltedharbour.Itisdescribedasnotsomuchaport,butawateringstationforthosesailingon.GurukkalandWhittaker(2001)locateMuzirisonthecoastofKerala,butShajanetal.(2004)havediscoveredasiteinthesamegeneralregionwhichtheyconvincinglyclaimisMuziris.

Pliny(NaturalHistory,6,26)alsosuggeststwoalternativeroutes,one

runningfromtheSyagrospromontory(certainlyRa’sFartakinYemen)toPataleinIndia,butasaferrouteranfromthesamecapetoZigerusinIndia.Ra’sFartakisthemostprominentheadlandontheeasternYemenicoast(Fig.3.21).AccordingtothePeriplus(30)ithadafortress,aharbourandastorehouseforfrankincense.However,asfrankincensewasexportedthroughQana’(seebelow)theharbourmayhavebeenofrelativelylocalimportance,forcollectingratherthandistributionandtrade.CertainlyRa’sFartakwouldbeaprominentlandmarkandanavigationalaid.ItisperhapsbestseenasanalogoustotransatlanticlinersfromSouthamptonleavingLandsEndontheirjourneytoAmerica.ItisextremelyunlikelythatSyagroswasamajorportbecausethePeriplus(29,9.22)informsusthattheareawassounhealthyandfataltothoseworkingtherethatthefrankincensewasharvestedbyslavesandconvicts.

ThetwoIndianportsaremoreproblematical.Casson(1989,216)followingothercommentators,equatesZigeruswithMelizeigara,modernJaigarh,tothesouthofBombay.PataleisnotmentionedinthePeriplus,butTchernia(1995)locatesitintheIndusdelta.IfthatiscorrectitmightequatewithBarbarikonwhichCasson(1989,188)placesinthesamearea.Thereismuchuncertainty,whichwillnotberesolveduntilmorefieldworkhasbeendone.Interestingly,however,aChinesedocument,theHouHanshu,thehistoryoftheHandynasty(AD25–221),mentionsRomantradewithTianzhu,usuallymeaningnorth-westernIndia,centringontheIndusriver(Hill2003).Itappearsthatitproducedelephants,rhinoceroses,turtleshell,gold,silver,copperandironandthatallmannerofthepreciousthingsofDaQin(Rome)couldbefoundthere:finecottoncloth,excellentwoolcarpets,perfumeofallsorts,sugarloaves,pepper,gingerandblacksalt.Thereisnodoubtthatthiswasanimportanttradingarea,butthereisachronologicalproblembecausetheHouHanshuwascompiledbyFanYewhodiedinAD445.

Theotherdocument,thePeriplus,givesaratherdifferentandmoredetailedview.OneofthemosttellingcommentsisthedescriptionofEudaimônArabia(Aden).Itappears(16,8.31–32)thatsomeyearsbeforethePeripluswaswritteninthe1stcenturyAD(Robin1991),Caesarhadsackedthetown.ThiswasalmostcertainlyduringthecampaignofAeliusGallusin16–25BC,theonlyknownRomanattackonSouthArabia.Casson(1989,160)reviewstheextensivedebatewhichthisstatementhasgenerated.TheportwaslittleusedatthetimeofthePeriplus,butbeforethistimeitwasamajorhubfortradewithIndia.ItwasherethattradersfromEgyptandIndiamet,neitherdaringtomakethefulljourney.

Amajorquestionraisedbythisstatement,isdidtheshipsnowmakethefulljourneyasCasson(1989,160)suggests,ordidanotherporttakeovertheroleasthecentreoftrade?OurnewevidencesuggeststhatwhileAdencontinuedtofulfilitsoriginalpurposeinarelativelysmallway,Qana’becamethenewimportantpivotaroundwhichtheIndiatradewasarticulated.ThisviewissupportedbythePeripluswhichstatesthatitcontrolledthefrankincensetradeandcarriedoncommercewithportstotheeastasfarasIndia.

‘AllthefrankincensegrowninthelandisbroughttoKanê,asiftoawarehouse,bycamelaswellasbyraftsofalocaltypemadeofleathernbags,andbyboats.Italsocarriesontradewithportsacrossthewater–Barygaza,Skythia,Omana–andwithitsneighbour,Persis.ItsimportsfromEgyptarewheat,limitedquantity,andwine,justastoMuza;alsoastoMuza,Arabclothingeitherwithcommonadornmentornoadornmentorofprintedfabric,inratherlargequantities;copper;tin;storax;andtherestoftheitemsthatgotoMuza.Alsofortheking,embossedsilverwareandmoney(?),ratherlargequantities,plushorsesandstatuaryandfine-qualityclothingwithnoadornment.Itexportslocalwares,namelyfrankincenseandaloe;therestofitsexportsarethroughitsconnectionswithotherportsoftrade.’

(Casson1989,67)

Fig.3.21.RoutesacrosstheIndianoceanaccordingtoPlinyandthePeriplus.

ItisclearthatshipsfromEgyptwouldhavebeenheavilyladenwithitemssuchaswineandsomewheataswellascopper,tin,storax,horses,statuaryandtextiles,whileforthereturnjourneythecommoditieswouldbedominatedbyfrankincenseandotherrichpickingsoftheeast.Theimportationofstorax,thegumofStyraxofficinalis,iscurious,asitshouldbeaproductofKanê,ratherthanimport.However,inthiscontextwehaveanexplanationofthepre-eminenceofQana’ballastatBerenikeandQuseiral-Qadimforinreturnforheavygoodslightoneswouldbereturnedandtheshipswouldneedbalancing.ThegoodsreceivedbyQana’betweenthe1stand6thcenturiesADhavenowbeenillustratedbyDaviddeetal.(2004)andbySedov(1996;1997;andchapter4below).TheyincludeCampanianDressel2–4wineamphorae,Laodiciantypes,TarraconensianDressel2–4,andGauloise4fromsouthernGaulaswellaswellasNubian,Egyptian,andpossiblyIndianproductions.ThisisatrulyremarkableassemblagesofarfromitsMediterraneanhomelandwhichatteststhevarietyandqualityofgoodsarrivingatQana’.Tomber(2004)hasshownthatthereturntradefromSouthArabiawasnotrestrictedtolightgoods,forshehasidentifiedSouthArabianstoragejars,cookingpotsandpossiblyorganicallytemperedjarsfromQuseiral-QadimandBerenike(butnotinlandsitessuchasMonsClaudianusandMonsPorphryrites).However,theyarecomparativeraritiesandinviewofthelargequantitiesofballast,itseemsunlikelythattheywereamajoritemoftrade.

EquallytheabsenceofbasaltatKhorRoriinOmansuggeststhatthetrafficwasinonedirectiononly.KhorRoriandSyagrosmayhavehadportsbuttheydidnotplaythesameroleasQana’.TheseweremuchmoreconcernedwithsupplyingQana’withfrankincenseandnodoubtitwouldhavebeencarriedonsmallercoastalcraft,suchastheraftsmentionedinthePeriplus,whichwouldnothaveneededballasting.Pirenne(1975,95)sawQana’astheofficiallyappointedportwhereincensecouldbebroughtandexchangedforothercommodities,afterwhichitwouldbetransportedinlandtoShabwahandthencebycaravantotheMediterranean.TherouteisdiscussedinmoredetailbyGroom(1981)andmorerecentlybydeMaigret(2003),Beeston(2005)andbySingerinchapter2above.AnAssyriantextsuggeststhattheroutemayhavebeenusedfrombefore8thcenturyBCandcontinueduntilthedestructionoftheMāribdammmentionedintheKoran(7thcenturyAD)(deMaigret,2003).ItseemsthattheroadwouldhaveledtowardsTimna’,thecapitaloftheGebbanitae,whoaccordingtoPliny(NaturalHistory,12,32)monopolisedthetrade.Thedistancesareprodigious.Shabwahwasabout270kmfromQana’throughadifficultmountainpass.Timna’lay80kmtothesouthwest.Fromthere,accordingtoPlinyitwas1487½miles(about2250km)toGaza,thejourneyfromthere(orShabwah–itisnotclearwhich)beingdividedinto65stages.Thetotaloverlandjourneywouldbe2600km.EnquiriesofBedouintravellingintheEasterndesertofEgyptsuggestthatacamelcouldcoverabout30kmaday.Ifthisfigureisextrapolated,itwouldhavetakenabout90daystoreachtheMediterraneanfromQana’bytheoverlandroute,anestimateinlinewithGroom’s(1981,213)suggestionof69–88days.

TheevidenceoftheballastnowsuggeststhatthemaritimerouteviaEgyptwasalsoimportant.Unfortunatelythereisnowayofassessingthebalancebetweenthetwo,buttravelbyseaandacrosstheEgyptiandesertmusthavebeenmuchquickerandmoreefficient.ItwouldalsobefreefromthebrigandrywhichplaguedtheoverlandroutesthroughArabia(Issac1987).

Itisabundantlyclearthattheimportanceofaromaticsshouldnotbeunderestimated.AccordingtoGroom(1981)itwasthefoodofthegodsandconsumedinprodigiousquantitiesinthetemplesandatfuneralsandwasthestuffofemperors.Perfume,particularlyfrankincense,wasthewayinwhichtheysymbolisedtheirpower(Bowerstock1997).Bird(2004andherechapter6)hasrecentlyemphasiseditskeyroleinMithraicritualtociteanapplicationinbutonereligiouscult.ItsimportanceisfurtherillustratedbytheexistenceofaspecialisedcollegiumofthurariietunguentariiatRomeandimportersat

Pozzuoli(Salmeri1997).IncenseisalsomentionedinChinesesourcesasoneoftheproductsofDaQin(Rome).BoththeHouHanshuandtheWeilue,anaccountofthepeoplesoftheWestwritteninAD239–245,mentionfrankincense,myrrhandstorax(Hill2003;2004).Thetwoaccountsareverysimilar,bothconcentratingonexoticluxuries.ItseemsthatthewritersarelistingthingsthatwouldappealtoaChinesemarket.ItisclearthatRomeandChinawereanxioustomakecontact,theRomanswantingtoacquirecolourfulChinesesilks,butaccesswasblockedbytheParthians.TheHouHanshutellsusofabreakthroughwhenin166ADtheemperorMarcusAureliussentanembassytotheEast,whichmettheirChinesecounterpartsatRinan(acommanderyonthecentralVietnamesecoast).However,thelatterwereunimpressedwiththeofferingofelephanttusk,rhinoceroshornandturtleshell.

TheextenttowhichshipssaileddirectlybetweenEgyptandIndiaorviceversaisamootpoint.ItisworthnotingthatnoIndianballasthasbeenfoundatQuseirorBerenike.OnemightexpecttheDeccantrapsfromthenorthormetamorphicrocksfromthesouth,bothofwhichseemtobelacking.EquallynoballasthasbeenfoundinIndia,althoughitisdoubtfulifithasbeensystematicallysearchedfor.OnbalanceitseemsthatthepreferredpointwasexchangeatQana’,withAdencontinuingtoactinthisroletoalesserdegree.ThisaccordswiththeviewofSalles(1993,506),whoconsidereditunlikelythatproductsshippedatMyosHormoswouldreachIndiaonthesameboat,attheendofastraightvoyage,andvice-versa.Suchjourneysdidhappen,butwereprobablyararity.

TheabsenceofballastfromAdulisismoredifficulttounderstand,andsurelycargoessuchastortoiseshellorivorywouldneedballasting?Equallythepresenceofobsidianandpre-aksumitepotteryatQuseirsuggestsdirectcontactbetweenthetwoports.Ifweknewmoreofthenatureoftheshipsengagedinthistrafficwemightbeabletoanswerthisquestion.

Thereisclearlymuchtobedoneandmanygapstobefilled.MoreinformationisneededonthePeriplussitesofSudanandYemenandmoreresearchisneededinIndia.Therearetwoimportantpointstoemergefromthecurrentwork.ThefirstistheimportanceofQana’inRome’sconnectionwithIndia,thesecondistheimportanceofballastinunderstandingthemechanismsofmaritimetrade.Itisasubjectunworthyoftheneglectithassufferedtodate.

AcknowledgementsThisworkcouldnothavebeenattemptedwithoutthehelpofnumerous

colleaguesinmanydifferentcountries.WearegratefultotheLeverhulmeTrustforaResearchGrantwithoutwhichtheprogrammewouldnothavebeenpossible,andtoofficersoftheEgyptianSupremeCouncilforAntiquitiespermissiontoexportrocksamples,eventhoughtheyarenotartefactsandhencetechnicallyantiquities.ICPSChemicalworkwascarriedoutattheNERCfacility,RoyalHollowayCollege,Londonandweareindebtedtothesteeringcommitteeforacceptingourproject(no.OSS/256/0304).TheprincipalcomponentanalysiswasconductedatSouthamptonbyDrDarrenGlazier,withtheassistanceofDrGraemeEarl.DrSimonKelleyoftheOpenUniversitykindlyaccommodatedoursamplesintheAr-Ardatingprogramme.

Manypeopleandorganisationshelpeduswithsamples.WearegratefultoTheNaturalHistoryMuseumandLeedsUniversity,GeologyDepartment,alsotoDrAnne-MarieLezine,CNRS,Paris,ProfessorAlexanderSedov,oftheOrientalInstitute,MoscowAcademyofSciences,whocollectedQana’materialspeciallyforusanDrAbduGhaleb,Sana‘ā’Universitywhodidlikewise.InEgyptwewerehelpedbyProfessorStevenSidebotham.OurvisitstoEritreawerefacilitatedbyDrYosiefLibsekaloftheNationalMuseumandDrZemenfesTsighe,chairoftheAsmaraUniversityResearchCommittee.MrTedrosKebeddeorganisedthepracticalitiesandtookcareofoureverydayneeds.MsAntoniaWilliskindlycollectedsamplesfromRa’sSiyyanforus.

WealsothankDrJasonBletcherforinformationandthinsectionsfromAdenandDrJiříVenclandProfessorVitězslavZamarskýforsharingtheirdatawithus.DrOlwenWilliams-Thorpekindlyhelpeduslocatesomeofthemoreobscurepublicationslistedbelowandadvisedontheobsidian.Wearegratefultoeveryone:withouttheirhelpourworkwouldnothaveseenthelightofday.

Thechemicaldataonwhichthischapterisbasedcanbeaccessedathttp://www.arch.soton.ac.uk/data/ballast.

BibliographyArno,V.,Bakashwin,M.A.,Bakor,A.Y.,Barberi,F.,Basahel,A.,DiPaola,G.M.,Ferrara,G.,Gazzaz,M.A.,Guiliani,A.,Heikel,M.,Marinelli,G.,Nassief,A.O.,Rosi,M.,andSantacroce,R.,1980.RecentbasicvolcanismalongtheRedSeaCoast:theAlBirklavafieldinSaudiArabia.InGeodynamicEvolutionoftheAfro-Asianrift,AttideiConvegniLincei,47,645–54.

Avanzini,A.,(ed.)1997.Profumid’Arabia:Attidelconvegno.Rome.

Avanzini,A.,2002.KhorRoriReport1.Pisa.

Beeston,A.F.L.,2005.TheArabianaromaticstradeinAntiquity.InM.C.A.MacdonaldandC.S,Phillips(eds),A.F.L.BeestonattheArabianSeminarandotherpapers.Oxford

Bird,J.,2004.IncenseinMithraicritual:theevidenceofthefinds.InMartens,M.andDeBoe,G.,RomanMithraism:theevidenceoftheSmallFinds.Brussels,191–9.

Bletcher,J.D.,1997.TheShamsanseriesoftheAdenvolcano,Yemen:eruptionandinversionofazonedmagmachamber.UnpublishedD.Phil.Thesis,Oxford.

Bowerstock,G.W.,1997.PerfumesandPower.InAvanzini,A.,1997,543–556.

Cann,J.R.andRenfrew,C.,1964.ThecharacterisationofobsidiananditsapplicationtotheMediterraneanregion.Proc.Prehist.Soc.,8,111–133.

Casson,L.,1981.ThelocationofAdulis(Periplusmariserythraei4).InCasson,L.andPriceM.,(eds.)Coins,CultureandHistoryintheAncientWorld.NumismaticandotherstudiesinhonorofBlumaL.Trell.Detroit,113–22.

Casson,L.,1989.ThePeriplusMarisErythraei.Princeton.

Chandler,J.,1993.JohnLeyland’sItinerary.TravelsinTudorEngland.Stroud.

Coleman,R.G.,Fleck,R.J.,Hedge,C.E.,andGhent,E.D.1977.ThevolcanicrocksofsouthwestSaudiArabiaandtheopeningoftheRedSea.SaudiArabianDirectorateGeneralofMineralResources,Bull.22,D1–D30.

Combès,J-L.,andLouis,A.,1967.LesPotiersdeDjerba.Tunis.

Cox,K.G.,Charnley,N.,Gill,R.C.O.,andParishK.A.,1993.AlkalibasaltsfromShuqra,Yemen:magmasgeneratedinthecrust-mantletransitionzone?InPrichard,H.M.,Alabaster,T.,Harris,N.B.W.,andNearyC.R.(eds.)MagmaticProcessesandPlateTectonics.Geol.Soc.SpecialPub.,76,443–53.

Cox,K.G.,Gass,I.G.,andMallick,D.I.J.,1968.TheevolutionofthevolcanoesofAdenandLittleAden,SouthArabia.Quart.Journ.Geol.Soc.,124,283–308.

Cox,K.G.,Gass,I.G.,andMallick,D.I.J.,1970.ThePeralkalineVolcanicSuiteofAdenandLittleAden,SouthArabia.Journ.Petrology,11,433–61.

Cox,K.G.,Gass,I.G.,andMallick,D.I.J.,1977.ThewesternpartoftheShuqravocanicfield,SouthYemen.Lithos,10,185–91.

Daum,W.,1987.FromAdentoIndiaandCairo:Jewishworldtradeinthe11thand12thcenturies.InDaum,W.,(ed.)Yemen.3000YearsofArtandCivilisationinArabiaFelix.InnsbruckandFrankfurtamMain,167–73.

Davidde,B.,Petriaggi,R.,andWilliams,D.F.,2004.NewdataonthecommercialtradeoftheharbourofKanêthroughtypologicalandpetrographicstudyofthepottery.Proc.SeminarArabianStudies,34,85–100.

deMaigret,A.,2003.Laroutecaravanièredel’encensdansl’Arabiepréislamique.Élémentsd’informationsursonitinéraireetsachronologie.Chroniquesyéménites,11.

Desanges,J.,andReddé,M.,1993.LaCôteAfricaineduBabAlMandabdansl’Antiquité.InHommagesàJeanLeclant,161–90.

Ellison,M.,McCombie,G.,MacElvaney,M.,Newman,A.,O’Brien,C.,Tavener,N.,andWilliams,A.,1993.ExcavationsatNewcastlequayside:waterfrontdevelopmentatSwirle.Arch.Aeliana,21,155–234.

Empereur,J-Y.1993.Observationssurl’Amphore“Letaconnoux”.InHommagesàJeanLeclant,191–4.

Francaviglia,V.M.,1995DiscriminatingbetweenMediterraneanobsidians.Proc.GeosciencesandArchaeologySeminar,381–398.

Gass,I.G.,andMallick,D.I.J.,1968.JebelKharaz:anUpperMiocenestrato-volcanoofcomenditicaffinityontheSouthArabiancoast.Bull.Volcan.32,33–88.

Gass,I.G.,Mallick,D.I.J.,andCox,K.G.,1973.VolcanicislandsoftheRedSea.Journ.Geol.Soc.London,129,275–310.

Ghent,E.D.,Coleman,R.G.andHadley,D.G.,1980.UltramaficinclusionsandhostolivinebasaltsofthesoutherncoastalplainoftheRedSea,SaudiArabia.Amer.Journ.Science,280A,499–527.

Goodrick,G.,Williams,A.,andO’Brien,C.,1994.ExcavationsatNewcastlequayside:theevolutionofSandgate.Arch.Aeliana,22,219–33.

Groom,N.,1981.FrankincenseandMyrrh.AStudyoftheArabianIncenseTrade.London.

Gurukkal,R.andWhittaker,C.,2001.InsearchofMuziris.Journ.RomanArch.,14,334–350.

Harrell,J.A.,1996.Geology.InSidebotham,S.E.,andWendrich,W.Z.

PreliminaryReportofthe1995ExcavationsatBerenike(EgyptianRedSeaCoast)andSurveyoftheEasternDesert,Leiden,109–110.

Hill,J.E.,2003.TheWesternRegionsAccordingtotheHouHanshu.http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/index.html.

Hill,J.E.,2004.ThePeoplesoftheWestfromtheWeiluebyYuHuan.http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/index.html.

Hoare,P.G.,Vinx,R.,Stevenson,C.R.,andEhlers,J.,2002.Re-usedBedrockBallastinKing’sLynn’s‘TownWall’andtheNorfolkport’sMedievalTradinglinks.MedievalArch.,46,91–106.

Issac,B.,1987.TradeRoutestoArabiaandtheRomanPresenceintheDesert.InFahd,T.(ed.)L’arabiepréislamiqueetsonenvironmenthistoriqueetculturel.TravauxducentrederecherchesurleProche-OrientetlaGrèceantiques.10,221–5.Strasbourg.

Hantke,G.,1951.ÜbersichtüberdievulcanischeTätigkeit,1941–1947.Bulletinvolcanologique,11,161–208.

Keith,D.H.,andSimmonsIII,J.J.,1985.Analysisofhullremains,ballast,andartefactdistributionofa16th-centuryshipwreck,MolassesReef,BritishWestIndies.Journ.FieldArch.,12,411–24.

LeMaitre,R.W.,1989.Aclassificationofigneousrocksandglossaryofterms.Oxford.

Mallick,D.I.J.,Gass,I.G.,Cox,K.G.,DeVries,B.v.W.,andTindle,A.G.,1990.PerimIsland,avolcanicremnantinthesouthernentrancetotheRedSea.Geol.Mag.,127,309–18.

Moghazi,A-K.M.2003.GeochemistryofaTertiarycontinentalbasaltsuite,RedSeacoastalplain,Egypt:petrogenesisandcharacteristicsofthemantlesourceregion.Geol.Mag.,140,11–24.

Mohr,P.A.,1961.ThegeologyofEthiopia.Asmara.

NeumannvanPadang,M.,1963.CatalogueofActiveVolcanoesoftheWorldincludingSolfataraFields.PartXVIArabiaandtheIndianOcean.InternationalAssociationVolcanology.Napoli.

Paribeni,R.,1907.Richerchenelluogodell’anticaAdulis.MonumentiAntichi,18.

Peacock,D.P.S.,1984.Petrologyandorigins.InFulford,M.G.andPeacock

D.P.S.(eds.)ExcavationsatCarthage:TheBritishMission,Volume1.2TheAvenueduPresidentHabibBourguibaSalammbo.ThePotteryandotherceramicobjectsfromthesite.Sheffield,14–20.

Peacock,D.P.S.,1985.ArchaeologyofPantelleria,Italy.NationalGeographicSociety,Researchreportsfor1977,567–79.

Peacock,D.P.S.,1998.TheArchaeologyofStone:AReportforEnglishHeritage.London.

Peacock,D.,andBlue,L.,2006.MyosHormos–Quseiral-Qadim,RomanandIslamicportsontheRedSea.Volume1,Surveyandexcavations1999–2003.Oxford.

Pirenne,J.,1975.TheIncensePortofMoscha(KhorRori)inDhofar.Journ.OmanStudies,1,81–96.

Robin,C.,1991.L’ArabieduSudetladateduPéripledelaMerErythrée.Journ.Asiatique,279,1–30.

Rollinson,H.,1993.Usinggeochemicaldata:evaluation,presentation,interpretation.London.

Salles,J-F.,1993.ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSeaandtheArab-PersianGulf.Topoi,3,493–523.

Salmeri,G.,1997.Dell’usodell’incensoinepocaromana.InAvanzini,A.,1997,529–540.

Salt,H.,1814.AVoyagetoAbyssiniaandTravelsintotheInteriorofthatCountry.London.

Schoff,W.,1912.ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSea.ReprintNewDehli,2001.

Sedov,A.V.,1992.NewarchaeologicalandepigraphicalmaterialfromQana’(SouthArabia).Arab.Arch.Epig.,3,110–37.

Sedov,A.V.,1996.Qana’(Yemen)andtheIndianOcean:thearchaeologicalevidence.InRay,H.P.andSalles,J.-F.,(eds)TraditionandArchaeology.EarlyMaritimeContactsintheIndianOcean.NewDelhi.11–36.

Sedov,A.V.,1997.Sea-tradeoftheHad ramawtKingdomfromthe1sttothe6thcenturiesA.D.InAvanzini,A.,(ed.)Profumid’Arabia.AttidelConvegno.Rome.

Shajan,K.P.,Tomber,R.,Selvakumar,V.,andCherian,P.J.,2004.LocatingtheancientportofMuziris:freshfindingsfromPattanam.Journ.RomanArch.,

17,312–320.

Stevenson,E.L.,1932.ClaudiusPtolemy.TheGeography.Doverreprint,1991.

Tchernia,A.,1955.Moussonsetmonnaies:lesvoiesducommerceentrelemondegréco-romainetl’Inde.Annales,histoire,sciencessociales,5,991–1009.

Thompson,M.,andWalsh,J.N.,2003.AhandbookofInductivelyCoupledPlasmaAtomicEmissionSpectrometry.London.

Tomber,R.,2004.RomeandSouthArabia:newartefactualevidencefromtheRedSea.Proc.SeminarArabianStudies,34,351–60.

Vencl,J.andZamarský,V.,2000.VulcanismusnapobřežíAdenskéhozálivu:Adenskávulkanickásérie.SbornikvĕdekýchpracíVysokéškolybáňské–TechnickéuniverzityOstrava,46,91–100.

Whitcomb,D.S.,andJohnson,J.H.,1982.Quseiral-Qadim1980.PreliminaryReport.Malibu.

Williams-Thorpe,O.,1993.ObsidianintheMediterraneanandtheNearEast:aprovenancingsuccessstory.Archaeometry,37,217–248.

Appendix1ListOfSamplesAnalysed

Egypt

1.QuseirAl-Qadim QAQ/1.1

2.(Unstratified) QAQ/1.2

3. QAQ/1.3

4. QAQ/1.4

5. QAQ/1.5

6. QAQ/2.1

7. QAQ/2.2

8. QAQ/2.3

8. QAQ/2.3

9. QAQ/3.1

10. QAQ/3.2

11. QAQ/3.3

12. QAQ/4.1

13. QAQ/4.2

14. QAQ/4.4

15. QAQ/4.5

16. QAQ/4.6

17. QAQ/5.1

18. QAQ/5.3

19. QAQ/5.5

20. QAQ/5.6

21. QAQ/5.7

22. QAQ/5.8

23. QAQ/5.9

24. QAQ/6.1

25. QAQ/6.2

26. QAQ/7.1

27. QAQ/7.2

28. QAQ/7.3

29. QAQ/7.4

29. QAQ/7.4

30. QAQ/7.5

31. QAQ/8.1

32. QAQ/8.2

33. QAQ/8.3

34. QAQ/8.4

35. QAQ/8.5

36. QAQ/8.6

37. QAQ/9.1

38. QAQ/9.2

39. QAQ/9.3

40. QAQ/9.4

41. QAQ/9.5

42. QAQ/9.6

43. QAQ/10.1

44. QAQ/10.2

45. QAQ/10.3

46. QAQ/10.4

47. QAQ/10.5

48. QAQ/11.1

49. QAQ/11.2

50. QAQ/11.3

50. QAQ/11.3

51. QAQ/11.4

52. QAQ/11.5

53. QAQ/11.6

54. QAQ/11.7

55. QAQ/11.8

56.QuseirAl-QadimHarbour QAQMH/1

57.(StratifiedRoman)Harbour QAQMH/2

58.Harbour QAQMH/3

59.Harbour QAQMH/4

60.R/Villa QAQMH/5

61.R/Villa QAQMH/6

62.R/Villa QAQMH/7

63.R/Villa QAQMH/8

64.R/Villa QAQMH/9

65.QuseirAl-Qadim,Trench7A QAQ/OB/1Obsidian

66. QAQ/OB/2Obsidian

67.FuryShoal,RedSeawrecksite FS/1

68.MersaNakari MN/1

69.MersaShuna MS/1

70.Bi’rNakhil BN/1

71.Berenike BNC/1

71.Berenike BNC/1

72.(Unstratified) BNC/2

73. BNC/3

74. BNC/4

75. BNC/5

76. BNC/6

77. BNC/7

78. BNC/8

79. BNC/9

80. BNC/10

81. BNC/11

82. BNC/13

83. BNC/14

84. BNC/15

85. BNC/16

86. BNC/17

87. BNC/18

88. BNC/19

89. BNC/20

90. BNC/21

91. BNC/22

92. BNC/23

92. BNC/23

93. BNC/24

Eritrea

94.Adulis ADU/2.1

95. ADU/2.2

96. ADU/2.3

97. ADU/2.4

98. ADU/2.5

99. ADU/2.6

100. ADU/2.7

101. ADU/2.8

102. ADU/2.9

103. ADU/2.10

104. ADU/2.11

105. ADU/2.12

106. ADU/2.13

107. ADU/2.14

108. ADU/2.15

109. ADU/2.16

110. ADU/2.17

111. ADU/2.18

112. ADU/2.19

113. ADU/2.20

114. ADU/2.21

115. ADU/2.22

116. ADU/2.23

117. ADU/2.24

118. ADU/2.25

119. ADU/2.26Obsidian

120.Zula ZULA/13.1

121. ZULA/13.2

122.SouthofZula ZULA/3.1

123. ZULA/3.2

124. ZULA/3.3

125.NorthofGela’elo GEL/4.1Obsidian

126. GEL/4.2Obsidian

127. GEL/4.3Obsidian

128. GEL/4.4Obsidian

129. GEL/4.5Obsidian

130. GEL/4.6Obsidian

131. GEL/4.7Obsidian

132. GEL/4.8Obsidian

133. GEL/4.9Obsidian

134. GEL/4.10Obsidian

135. GEL/4.11Obsidian

136. GEL/4.12Obsidian

137. GEL/4.13Obsidian

138. GEL/4.14Obsidian

139. GEL/4.15Obsidian

140.MersaFatma MF/11.1Obsidian

141.DahlakIsland DAH/12.2Obsidian

142.Aliko ALI/14.1Obsidian

143. ALI/14.2Obsidian

144. ALI/14.3Obsidian

145.BayofEdd EDD/5.1

146. EDD/5.2

147. EDD/5.3

148. EDD/5.4

149.SouthofEdd EDD/6.1

150. EDD/6.2

151. EDD/6.3

152. EDD/6.4

153.Bera’esoli BERA/7.2Obsidian

154. BERA/7.6Obsidian

155. BERA/7.7Obsidian

156. BERA/7.8Obsidian

157. BERA/7.9Obsidian

158. BERA/7.10Obsidian

159. BERA/7.11Obsidian

160NorthofAssab ASS/8.1

161. ASS/8.2

162. ASS/8.3

163. ASS/8.4

164. ASS/8.5

165. ASS/8.6

166. ASS/8.7

167.AssabPort ASS/10.1

168. ASS/10.2

169.BeylulBay BEY/9.1Obsidian

170. BEY/9.2Obsidian

Yemen

LeedsUniversityColl.

171.Aden ADEN/k.124

172.Aden ADEN/k.127

173.Aden ADEN/k.130

174.Aden ADEN/k.133

175.Aden ADEN/k.4

176.Aden ADEN/k.258

177.Aden ADEN/k.272

NaturalHistoryMuseumColl.

178.Aden ADEN/1911.1364[1]

179.Aden ADEN/1911.1364[2]

180.Ra’sMarbut,Aden. ADEN/1922111[2]

181.GoldMohurValley,Aden ADEN/1922.111[5]

182.SiraIsland,Aden ADEN/85498[2104]

183.Ra’sMarshag,Aden ADEN/85498[2106]

184.Ra’sTershyne, ADEN/86620[9]

LeedsUniversityColl.

185.ProbablyAden ADEN/k.2

186.” ADEN/k.3

187.” ADEN/k.5

188.” ADEN/k.8

189.” ADEN/k.37

190.” ADEN/k.39

191.” ADEN/KKCJ.3

192.” ADEN/29445

193.” ADEN/29468

194.” ADEN/k.7

195.” ADEN/k.11

196.” ADEN/k.30

197.” ADEN/k.35

198.” ADEN/k.253

199.” ADEN/k.336

200.” ADEN/A.793

201.” ADEN/L.7210

202.” ADEN/T.627

Hadramawt(NaturalHistoryMuseumcoll.)

203.WadiHajar, WADIHAJAR/1988.P6[67]

204.WadiHajar, WADIHAJAR/1988.P20[32]

205.Shawranvolcano, SHAWRAN/1988.P6[218]11061.4

206.Shawranvolcano, SHAWRAN/1988.P6[239]2B1153.3

2B1153.3

207.Shawranvolcano, SHAWRAN/1988.P62301109/2

208.Shawranvolcano, SHAWRAN/1988.P6[276]273116.6

209.Hadramawt HADRAMAWT/1988.P7[154]

210.WadiRaima, WADIRAIMA/1988.P22[1]

211.WadiRaima, WADIRAIMA/1988.P22[3]

212.WadiRaima, WADIRAIMA/1988.P22[2]

213.WadiGhiadat WADIGHIADAT/1988P6[113]

A-M.LezineColl.

214.Bi’r‘AliHuṣnalGhurāb BA/1

A.SedovColl.

215.Qana’ BA/2

216.” BA/3

217.” BA/4

218.” BA/5

219.” BA/6

220.” BA/7

A.Ghalebcoll.

221.” BA/8.

222.” BA/9

223.” BA/10

224.” BA/11

225.” BA/12

226.” BA/13

227.” BA/14

228.” BA/15

229.” BA/16

230.” BA/17

231.” BA/18

232.” BA/19

233.” BA/20

234.” BA/21

235.” BA/22

236.” BA/23

237.” BA/24

238.” BA/25

239.” BA/26

240.” BA/27

241.” BA/28

242.” BA/29

243.” BA/30

244.” BA/31

245.” BA/32

246.” BA/33

247.” BA/34

248.” BA/35

249.” BA/36

250.” BA/37

251.” BA/38

252.” BA/39

253.” BA/40

254.” BA/41

255.” BA/42

256.” BA/43

Oman

Purchased

257.Muscat MU/01

258. MU/02

259. MU/03

260. MU/04

261. MU/05

262. MU/06

Djibouti

263.Arta DJIB/1AfarStratoidseries

264.N1,turntoArta a.DJIB/2AfarStratoidseries

265. b.DJIB/3”

266. c.DJIB/4”

267.N1,25kmWDjibouti a.DJIB/5Basalticfissureflow

268. b.DJIB/5aUpperpartofStratoidSeries

269. c.DJIB/6”

270. d.DJIB/7”

271.DoraleBeach a.DJIB/8”

272. bDJIB/9”

273. c.DJIB/10”

274. d.DJIB/11”

275. e.DJIB/12”

276.N1,43kmWDjibouti a.DJIB/13”Dalhabasalt

277. b.DJIB/14”

278. c.DJIB/15”

279. d.DJIB/16”

279. d.DJIB/16”

280.N9,3kmafterN1 a.DJIB/17AfarStratoidseries

281. b.DJIB/18”

282. c.DJIB/19”

283. d.DJIB/20”

284.N9,20kmafterN1 a.DJIB/21”

285. b.DJIB/22”

286. c.DJIB/23”

287. d.DJIB/24”

288.N9,2kmN a.DJIB/25Recent

GuinniKomabay basalticlava

289. b.DJIB/26”

290. c.DJIB/27”

291.N9,nearAddali a.DJIB/28Basalticfissureflow

292. b.DJIB/29UpperpartofStratoidSeries

293. c.DJIB/30”

294. d.DJIB/31”

295.HillNTadjoura a.DJIB/32”

296. b.DJIB/33”

297. c.DJIB/34”

298. d.DJIB/35”

299.PlateauduSerpent,sea a.DJIB/36Importedblock

299.PlateauduSerpent,seawall

a.DJIB/36Importedblock

300. b.DJIB/37”

Chapter4:ThePortofQana’andtheIncenseTrade

AlexanderSedov

IntroductionTheruinsofasettlementidentifiedastheancientHadramicity-portofQana’aresituatedonthesoutherncoastoftheArabianPeninsulanearthemodernvillageofBi’r‘Alī,ontheoppositesideofabeautifulbay,atthefoothilloftheblackvolcanicrockcalledHuṣnal-Ghurāb,probablyoneofthebestlandingplacesonthesoutherncoastofYemen(Fig.4.1a–b,Fig.4.2).Therock,withamaximumheightofabout140m,occupiesthesouth-westernpromontoryofthebay.Thewidthofthebayisabout3km,extendinginlandabout2km.TherearesixislandsinfrontoftheBi’r‘Alībay:theflatvolcanicislandofHalaniyaisabout800msouthofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,Sihaislandisabout11nauticalmilessouth-eastofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,threesmallislandscalledal-Gaddarayn(‘TwoTraitors’)areabout4nauticalmileseastofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,andthelargeal-Barrāqahislandliesonthefarsouth-eastoftheBi’r‘Alībay.

TothewestofHuṣnal-Ghurābthereisaratherextensivesandybay,about50kminlength,knownasGubbatal-‘Ayn.ApromontorycalledRa’sQusayr(13°54’N;47°47’E)bordersthebaytothewest.Onthenorth-westernsideisthemouthofWadiMayfa’a,thecoreoftheso-calledWesternHadramawt(al-Mashriq).AttheeasternendofGubbatal-‘AynistheWadi‘Arar(al-Huvail)andpromontorycalledRa’sal-‘Usaida.ThepresentlyabandonedtownofBalhāf,builtinthe1930sbytherulersoftheal-Vahidifamily,islocatednearby.ThevolcanicrockofRa’sal-Ratllies6.5kmeastofRa’sal-‘Usaida,inclosevicinitytoHuṣnal-Ghurāb.EastofBi’r‘AlīthereisanotherextensivebaycalledMaqdahā(Majdahā).Theruinsofasmallvillageandwinterresidenceofal-Vahidisultanscanbetracedinitseasternpart.ThesiteofMajdahāwasmentionedbyIbnal-Mujāwir(diedinAD1291),whodescribeditasastationonthepilgrimroadfromRaysut(thepresentSultanateofOman)toAden(Ibnal-Mujāwir1954,270;Sprenger1864,145).Accordingtosomescholars,the

earliestmentionofQana’occursintheBible(Ezekielxxvii,23)andcanbedatedaroundthefirstquarterofthe6thcenturyBC(Doe1971,182;Griaznevich1995,285)(butcf.below).KανήέμπóριóνwasknowntoPliny(NaturalHistory,6,36,104)andPtolemy(Geography,V,7,§10;VIII,22,§9),andwasalsomentionedinthePeriplusMarisErythraei,theancientguidewrittenmostprobablyaroundthemiddleofthe1stcenturyADbyaGreek-speakingmerchant.1Thesitewasdescribedasaportoftrade,‘belongingtothekingdomofEleazos,thefrankincense-bearingland’,andtheplacewhere‘allthefrankincensegrownintheland’wascollected(Periplus,27:9.4–8).

ThetoponymHuṣnal-GhurāboccursintheworksofsomeArabgeographersofthe13thcentury,suchasYacut(diedAD1229)andal-Qazwīnī(diedAD1283),probablyincorporatingearlierreports.Ibnal-Mujāwirdescribesitasacastlebuiltbyal-Sama‘lbin‘Adiyyāal-Yahūdī,thefamousYemenipoetofthefirsthalfofthe6thcenturyAD.2Ageographicalnameal-Qanā,apparentlyonthesoutherncoastoftheArabianPeninsula,ismentionedbytheBahrainipoet,geographer,historianandanthropologistIbnal-Muqarrab(AD1176–1232)(Khulusi1976,101).Jaza’iral-Qanā(Qanāislands),thestartingpointforsailingtoAfricanports,wereknowntothefamousArabianpilotAhmadbinMadjid(secondhalfofthe15th–beginningofthe16thcenturiesAD)(Madjid1984,87)aswellastotherecentYemenisailors(Ar-Rafik1966,82–83;Shihab1984,208,210;Griaznevich1995,281).ThePortuguesediscovererscalledthemtheCanacani(Canicani)Islands(Doe1964,12,note3).Noneofthesesourcesindicateanyruinsofanancienttownorcity-port.

ThefirstEuropeanswhovisitedthesitewere,inallprobability,BritishnavalofficerswholandedaboardthePalinurusonthemorningofthe6thofMay1834.InabookpublishedinLondonin1838oneoftheexplorers,Lt.J.R.Wellsted,describedtheruinsofavastsettlementatthefoothillonthesoutherncoastofBi’r‘AlībayandafortressontopoftherockofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,thefind-spotofthefamousSouthArabianinscriptionsnowknownasCIH621andCIH728(Wellsted1838,421–427).

Fig.4.1a.Huṣnal-Ghurāb,viewfromtheHalaniyaisland;b.Bi’r‘AliSettlement(ancientQana’),ruinsofstructures(viewfromtheslopeofHuṣnal-

Ghurāb).

Fig.4.2Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).Sketchplan:AreasI-VII;1BurialStructure.

Thus,thedelightfulruinsoftheancientQana’or,accordingtoournomenclature,theBi’r‘Alīsettlement,werealreadyknowntoscholarsmorethan150yearsago.In1957thesitewasvisitedandexploredbyB.Doe,wholater,in1961,publishedthefirstsketch-planandratherdetaileddescriptionoftheruins(Doe1961,191–198;1964,9–16).Thearchaeologicalexcavationsatthesitestartedin1972withclearingtheremainsofabigbuildinglocatedatthehighestpointofHuṣnal-Ghurāb(Shirinskij1977,202–205).3Since1985,systematicexcavationsatBi’r‘AlīsettlementhavebeencarriedoutbytheRussianArchaeologicalMissiontotheRepublicofYemenwhich,untiltheendof1991,wascalledtheSoviet-YemeniJointComplexExpedition.Inseveralfieldseasons,(eachcampaignlastingfrom2to4weeks),ithasbeenpossibletoidentifythecharacterofthecity’sbuildings,theapproximatechronologicalandterritoriallimitsoftheancienttown,andthestratigraphyofculturaldeposits.

DescriptionOfTheSiteTheancientsettlementissituatedonthesouth-westernsideofthebay,about3kmfromthemodernvillageofBi’r‘Alī,atthefoothilloftheblackvolcanicrock,Huṣnal-Ghurāb.Incanconvenientlybeconsideredunderthreeheadings:theLowerCityincludingseparatestructuresoutsidethecitylimits;theCitadelonthesummitofHuṣnal-Ghurāb(fortress‘UrrMawiyataccordingtotheSouthArabianinscriptionsCIH621andCIH728);andtheNecropolisonthenorth-westernedgeofthecity(Fig.4.2).

LowerCity.Thetell,intheformofarectangleconsistingoftwoparts,constitutesthemainpartofthesettlement.Thesizeofthetellisabout300×500m.Theheightofthenorth-westernpartisabout4.5–5.0m(itmeasuresabout300×320m);theheightofthesouth-easternpartsabout2.5–3.0m.Thelongnorth-easternsideofthesettlementopenstotheBi’r‘Alībay.Eventodaythisisthemostsuitablemooringforshipsandboats,andforunloadingthem.Thereisawidedepressionalongthenorth-westernsideofthesettlement,whichseparatesthenecropolissituatedbehindit.Thesouth-easternsideofthesettlementadjoinsthefootoftherockHuṣnal-Ghurāb.Theruinsofnumerousancienthouses,insomecaseswithaveryclearly

visiblelayout,canbeseeninthispartofthesettlement.Thereisnoregularsystemoftownplanning,butsometimesstreetsandsquarescouldbeidentified,

particularlyinthesouthernandsouth-easternpartsofthesettlement.Thenumberofancienthousespresentisnotclear,butprobablywasmorethanonehundred.Theexcavationssuggestthattheordinaryhouseswerecombinedintoratherbigdwellingcomplexesconsistingofadjoininghouses,separatedbynarrowstreetsandpassages.Thelargebuildingsofthenoblemenwithwidecourtyardswereconcentratedalongtheseashoreinthenorthernandnorth-easternpartsofthesettlement.

Therearenotracesofthecitywall,andonlysomepartsoftheancienttownwerefortified.Wecannotexcludethepossibilitythatthewallsofthehousesbuiltalongtheperimeterservedasdefensivestructures.Oneofthewell-fortifiedareaswassituatedatthefootofHuṣnal-Ghurābanditwasfromthisareathattheroadleadingtothefortress‘UrrMawiyatonthesummitofHuṣnal-Ghurābstarted.Thecomplexofstructuresatthefootofthehillhadsquaretowersandanarrowentrancefromthesea.

AnarrowandsteeppathtothesummitledtothenorthernslopeofHuṣnal-Ghurāb.Insomeplacesthepathbecameakindofstaircasesupportedbystonewalls.ThecentralpartofthenorthernslopeofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,onbothsidesofthepath,wasconsolidatedwithmonumentalstonewallsmadefrombasaltblockswhich,mostprobably,werebuilttodefendagainstlandslides.Thereisawater-tankatthefootofonesideofthewalls.Ruinsoftower-likebuildingscouldalsobetracedontheslope.

Threestructureslieoutsidethecitylimits.Thewesternstructureisabout44×64minsize,andtheexcavationssuggestitisatempleofalocaldeity(Fig.4.3b).Thestructuretothenorth-westofthesettlementinallprobabilityistheruinsofasynagogue.Abigdwellingor‘custom-house’liesonitsownratherfarfromtheborderoftheancienttown,onthecoastoftheso-called‘southern’bay.

Citadel.Thenorth-westernpartofthesummitofHuṣnal-Ghurābisoccupiedwiththeruinsofwhatwas,inallprobability,thefortress‘UrrMawiyat.Theentrancetothefortresswasfromthenorth-westwhereremainsoffortifications(awallwithgates),couldbetraced.About20buildingsconstitutedthefortress.OnthetopofHuṣnal-Ghurābwasahugestructure,whichwaspartlyexcavatedin1972,andcouldbeidentifiedasalighthouseforincomingships(Fig.4.2–4.5;Fig.4.3a).Therearefourhugewater-tanksonthesummitofHuṣnal-Ghurābinadditiontotheruinsofthefortressandlighthouse.Theyarerectangularorsquareinshape,and6×12;12×12;4×14minsize.

Necropolis.Theancientcemeteryliesabout300mtothenorth-westofthe‘LowerCity’.Thereareroughly15burialstructures,mostofthemnowcompletelyruined.Theexcavationssuggesttheywerefamilytombswithrectangularsurfacestructuresandsubterraneanchambers.Thefuneralpracticeseemstohavebeencollectiveinhumationinsubterraneangravesaccompaniedbygravegoodssuchaspottery,personalornaments,etc.Thecemeterywasinuseduringthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofoccupation,i.e.inthe2nd–5thcenturiesAD(seebelow).

Fig.4.3a.Huṣnal-Ghurāb,ruinsofalighthouseonthesummit;b.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’),templeoflocaldeity(AreaVII).

StratigraphyoftheSiteSystematicexcavationsatBi’r‘Alīsettlement(ancientQana’)haveshedagreatdealoflightonvariousfacetsofthecity’shistory:itstopography,thecharacterofthecity’sstructures,thestratigraphyoftheculturaldepositsincludingitsapproximatechronologicallimits,andondifferentaspectsofitsmaterialculture.Thefollowingisanattempttosummarizethepreliminaryresults.

ExcavationsandsoundingsinvariouspartsofthesettlementmadeitpossibletodeterminethreemainphasesofBi’r‘Alīoccupation:the‘lower’(BA-I),‘middle’(BA-II)and‘upper’(BA-III)periods.Eachperiodhaditsownchronologicallimits,andwascharacterisedbyspecificpotteryandnumismaticassemblages,dwellingsandbuildingconstructions.Importedpotterywasdominantinallstratafromthesettlementandaddedupto75%ofallpotteryfinds.

The‘lower’(BA-I)period

Structures.TheearlieststructuresunearthedduringtheexcavationswerelocatedatthefootofHuṣnal-Ghurāb(AreaVI),atthebeginningofthepathleadingtothefortressandthelighthouseonthesummit.Theexcavatedbuilding(‘EarlyStructure’)revealedseveraladjoininglargerooms,someofthemcoveringanareaofabout90squaremetres(Fig.4.6).Inaddition,wecannotexcludethepossibilitythatsomehousesonthenorthernslopeofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,alongthepathtothesummit,werealsobuiltduringtheBA-Iperiod.Priortotheexcavationssuchasuppositioncouldnotbejustifiedwithcertainty,buttheclosesimilarityinthecharacterofthestonemasonryofthese‘early’buildingsshouldbenoted.

Layers.Culturaldepositsunearthedintheruinsofthe‘EarlyStructure’inArea6abovethe‘initial’floorsofitsroomsarenotverythick,suggestingaspecificfunctionofthebuildingperhapsasawarehouseratherthanadwelling.Tracesofabigfireexposedintheruinsshowveryclearlythattheendofthe‘EarlyStructure’wasviolent.InadditiontoArea6,stratawithsimilarpotteryassemblageswereunearthedinthesoundingsinAreas2and4,butinbothcasesthedepositswerearatherthincoveringofthebedrockorvirginsand,withnostructuresexposed.

Pottery.Themajorityofthepotteryfragmentsfoundinthestrataofthe‘lower’

(BA-I)periodcanbeidentifiedasimportsfromtheMediterranean,ArabianGulfandtheIndianSubcontinent.Ofspecialinterest,istherathersmallpercentageoflocallymadepottery:itconstitutesonlyabout25%ofthetotalsherds.Thesearemostlylarge,handmadestoragevessels,theso-calledzirs(Fig.4.7,4.1–8),buttherearealsoalimitedamountofkitchenandtableware(pedestalbowls).ParallelsforlocallymadepotterycouldbefoundintheWadiHadramawtpotteryassemblageofthelastcenturiesBC–firstcenturiesAD(phasesLR-I–LR-IIIofthe‘LateRaybun’Period)(Sedov2003,173–196).

Anumberofdiagnosticformscanbeidentifiedineachcategoryofpottery.Inthestoragepottery,themajorityofthedistinguishablepieces,about58%oftheRHB(rim,handle,base)fragments,belongtotheso-calledKoantypeorDressel2–4amphorae(Fig.4.8,1–6;4.9,1–6).Atleastthreefabricscouldbeidentified:(a)Koanand/orEasternAegeanfabric,(b)Egyptianfabric,and(c)Campanianfabric.4Theamphoratypesfromthe‘lower’(BA-I)periodarenotlimitedtotheDressel2–4forms.FragmentsofprobableRhodianamphorae(6%ofRHBfragments),Dressel1BOstiaXXClass4andDressel7–11OstiaLIIBeltrànI/Class17(10%and8%ofRHBfragmentsaccordingly)werefoundinthemixedcontextsintheArea2andArea6.Allabovementionedtypescanbedatedbetweenthemiddleorlate1stcenturyBCandtheearlyormiddle2ndcenturyAD(Panella1970,109;1977,504–515;Hayes1976,47–123;1978,83–84;Riley1979,134–135;PeacockandWilliams1986,113–114,120–121;SciallanoandSibella1994).

Fig.4.4.Huṣnal-Ghurāb.Structureonthesummit(lighthouse),plan(afterS.S.Shirinskiy).

Fig.4.5.Huṣnal-Ghurāb.Structureonthesummit(lighthouse),variantofreconstruction.

Fragmentsofaratherspecialtypeofacoarse,thick-walledstoragevessel,theso-called‘blackandgreyware’werefoundinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.Itshowedparallelswithed-DurmaterialandcouldbeidentifiedasArabianGulfproductionofthelastcenturiesBC–firstcenturiesAD(Salles1984,247;1993,513;DePaepeetal.2003,211–212).

Thetablepotteryincludedpiecesofthewellknowneasternsigillatawares.SomefragmentscanbeclassifiedasEasternSigillataA(ESA)wares(Fig.4.10,1–4,14–17),butothersareundoubtedlyofwesternorigin(Fig.4.10,5–13).TheEasternSigillataAsherdsrangeindatefromthefirsthalftothelate1stcenturyAD,whilethoseforItalianterrasigillataarebetween15BCand15AD(Goudineau1968,277–309,341–347,376–377;Hayes1085,15–17,42,55;Pucci1985,382–385,389–391;Ettlingeretal.1990;Ballet1996,822–825).

Fragmentsofelegant,thin-walledbowlsandplatesmadeofpinkclayandpaintedinsidewitharedpatternwerealsofoundinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-

I)period(Fig.4.11,1–2).TheyareundoubtedlyofNabateanoriginandcanbedatedclosetothe1stcenturyBC–1stcenturyAD(Negev1986,36–62;Schmitt-Korte1974,70–93;1984,7–40).

Afewpiecesoffineslippedpottery,whichshowsimilaritieswithIndianRedPolishedWare(RPW),RouletedWare(RW)andBlack-and-RedWare(BRW),alsooccurredinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period(Fig.4.11,3–9)(Orton1991;Gurumurthy1981,230–275;Singh,1982;Gupta1995–96;Schenk2001).Thesamestratarevealedasmallamount,i.e.about8%ofallpotterysherds,oftheso-calledgreenglazedpottery(Fig.4.11,10–15),whichhassimilaritieswiththeParthian,ormoregenerally,Mesopotamianpottery(Toll1943).

Thediagnosticformsofthekitchenpotteryareglobularorbiconicaljarsanddeepbowls,redslippedandburnished,madefromredpaste.

Coins.Altogether61coinsattributedtodifferentHadramiseries,aswellassinglepiecesofSabaean,HimyariteandEasternArabianseries,wererevealedinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.ThecoinageofHadramawtisrepresentedbytheso-called‘earlyimitation’series(serieshead/owl,types1.1,1.2and3.0),theShaqarbull’sheadtype(type10.0)andheadeagle(type4.0).5ForeigncoinageisrepresentedbySabaeanbronzeserieswith“Bucranium”(c.veryearly2nd–firsthalfofthe3rdcenturiesAD),silvercoinof‘AmdanBayinYuhaqbid,kingofSaba’anddhu-Raydan(c.AD80–100)(smallfractionofhisserieswithtwoheads),andasolepieceoftheEasternArabiancoinage,classXXXVIII(accordingtoD.T.Potts’classification).

Dating.Judgingfromthepreliminaryanalysisofthematerial,mostlyMediterraneanimports,the“lower”(BA-I)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupationcanbeplacedbetweenthesecondhalfofthe1stcenturyBCandthemiddleor,moreprobably,thelate1stcenturyAD.

Fig.4.6.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,‘lower’(BA-I)period,planofexcavatedstructures.

The‘middle’(BA-II)period

Structures.Structuresofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodwererevealedinvariouspartsofthesettlement(AreasII,III,IV,VIandVII)(Fig.4.12–15).Particularlycommonwerebigmulti-roomeddwellingssometimeswithenormousenclosedcourtyards(AreasIIandVI),shops(AreasIVandVI)andreligiousbuildings,asynagogueandatempleoflocaldeity(AreasIIIandVII).Someofthemwerebuiltontheruinsofpreviousstructures(AreaVI),whileotherswerebuiltonthebasaltplatformorvirginsoil(AreasII,III,IV).ItseemsquiteprobablethatbuildingsontheslopeofHuṣnal-Ghurābaswellasonitssummit(fortress‘UrrMawiyatandlighthouse)werestillfunctioning.

Layers.SeveralphasesofoccupationconnectingwithdifferentfloorsweredistinguishedinthebuildingsattheAreasII,III,VandVI.Thethicknessofculturaldepositstestifiesaratherlongperiodofoccupation.Unfortunately,thedifferenceinthepotteryassemblagesbetweenthe‘early’and‘late’layersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodcannotbedeterminedandisreflectedonlyinthecoinfinds(seebelow).

Pottery.Therearealotofchangesinthepotteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupation,whichcanbeexplained,nodoubt,aschronologicallydetermined.

Dressel2–4andotherearlyMediterraneanamphorae,terrasigillataandNabateanpotteryhavecompletelydisappearedatthistime.Themosttypicalformsoftransportationpotteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodarevesselsofapparentlyNorthAfricanorigininwhichwecanrecogniseanumberofNorthAfricanamphoraesuchas?Tripolitaniantypes,madefromredtodark-redpastewithalargeportionofwhitelimegrits(TripolitanianIandII),andAfricanatypes,madefromgreyishtodark-redpastewithwhiteinclusions(AfricanapiccoloandAfricanagrande).Theso-called“NorthAfrica-Gallic”amphoraecouldbeidentifiedinthepotteryassemblageoftheperiodaswell(OstiaVDressel30Class38andOstiaLXPélichet47Class27).Allthesetypeswereproducedfromthelate2ndtothe4thorearly5thcenturiesAD(PalmaandPanella1968,105–106,tav.XXXIV,523,XXXV,525–528,XXXVI,532,533,XXXVII,538,XXXVIII,539;Panella1973,116,143,187,tav.XXIV,131,XXIX,190,191,193,XXXVI,265,LX,526–528,530;1977,37,tav.XVII,121,XXXVI,262;Hayes1976,47–123;1978,83–84,fig.27,39,43;Riley1979,195–197,fig.84,249–250,85,251–255;Peacock1984,130,fig.39,56–62;PeacockandWilliams1986,142–143,153–157,171–172;SciallanoandSibella1994).

TwoformsarediagnosticofthevesselsoftheBA-IIperiod:(1)handlelessamphora-likevesselswithtriangularorovalpointedslightlyverticalrimand,probably,longnarrowbody(Fig.4.16,1–11),and(2)handlelessamphora-likevesselswithcollarsteppedrim(Fig.4.17,1–6).Theyweremanufacturedfromredorreddish-brownpastewithalargeportionofwhitelimegritandsmallportionofmica,andcoveredwithyellowishtopinkwashor,sometimes,reddishbrownslipontheexterior.MostprobablytheoriginofthesestoragejarswasPalestine,whereverysimilarformshavebeenproducedatleastfromtheEarlyIronAge(Blakely1988,39,fig.7,7;MazarandMazar1989,61–121).Recently,thevesselswithcollarsteppedrimwerecomparedwithIndianpotteryfrom,forexample,Amreli,andanIndianoriginwaspostulated(Davidde,Petriaggi,andWilliams2004,94–97).

FragmentsofEgyptian‘bitronconique’amphoraealsooccurredinthelayersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period(Ballet1996,825–826).

Onemorediagnosticformforthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodisaveryspecifictypeofoillampintheshapeofaplatewitharoundbottomandsmallreservoir

inside(Fig.4.18,12,14,15).Theedgeofreservoirisusuallyslightlyburnt.RathersimilaroillampswerediscoveredinabundanceduringexcavationsoftheEarlyChristian(4thto7thcenturiesAD)sitesalongtheNileinNubia(BietakandSchwartz1987,171–172,fig.24,76449,76460,42,76712,76750,76762,44,76687,76688,76713,50,76777–76779,65,76789–76795,Taf.60,76788–76795;seealsoDavidde,Petriaggi,andWilliams2004,94),wererevealedattheancientsettlementsinIndiawheretheywereusuallyinterpretedaslids(Wheeleretal.1946,fig.23,38a,c;Rao1966,fig.17,52–53;Begley1993,105,fig.15).AcompletelampandarimsherdofthistypewerefoundinShabwainthelayersXI–XIV,datedclosetothe2nd–4thcenturiesAD(Badre1992,280,fig.16,331,334).

Tablepotteryischaracterisedbythepresenceofsherdsoffineorangepaintedwarerepresentingbeakerfragments(Fig.4.18,5–8).ThedirectanalogiesforsuchpotterycanbefoundatTepeYahyainthestrataofPeriodsI–IAdatedtothePartho-Sassanianperiod(c.0–500AD),aswellasatsomeothersouthernIraniansites,andinmonumentslocatedontheArabiancoastoftheGulf(intheSasanianlayersofQala’atal-Bahraindatedclosetothe3rd–4thcenturiesAD)(Lamberg-Karlovsky1972,89–91;WhitehouseandWilliamson1973,38,fig.5–6;deCardi1975,57–58,fig.9,40–65;Mouton1992;Lecompte1993,195–217,fig.12,1–4;Hojlund1997,213–215,fig.886–895;Potts1998,207–220).ThepercentageofglazedwaresofMesopotamianorigin(Fig.18,9–11)(Toll1943)andtheso-calledIndianRPW(Fig.18,1,3,4)(Orton1991,51,fig.4.1,no.2–4,65,fig.4.15,no.2,52–53,fig.4.2,no.3,67,fig.4.18,no.2,3;WhitehouseandWilliamson1973,38–39,fig.5,7;Zarins1997,615–689),knownfromthepreviousstratainveryfewnumbers,increasesinthelayersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.Attheendofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period,AksumitepotterysuggestingperhapsEastAfricanconnections,appearsforthefirsttimeintheBi’r‘Alīpottery(Munro-Hay1989,290–311).Fragmentsoflocal,Hadramipotteryremainscarce,representedexclusivelybylargestoragevesselsmadefromcoarseandporousyellowishorgreenish-yellowpaste.

Fig.4.7.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.8.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.9.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Fig.4.10.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Coins.TheHad ramiseries(59pieces)werefoundexclusivelyinthe‘early’layersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupation.Thisseriescomprisesradiatesofheadwingedcaduceus(type3.0),issuesattributedtoYashhur’ilYuhar’ish,sonofAbiyaśa’,mukarribofHadramawt(seriesheadeagle,type4.0),aradiateserieswithheadbull(type5.3),headbull(types6.1,6.2and7.1),Shaqarbull(type8.1)andShaqarbull’shead(type10.0).‘Late’layersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupationrevealed716coins:424attributedtoHadramiseries,SabaeanandHimyariteseriesand253identifiedaslateHimyariteserieswith“Bucranium”,togetherwithasingle

bronzecoinoftheAksumitekingOuazebas(c.4thcenturyAD).

Fig.4.11Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period.

Thus,themaindifferencebetween‘early’and‘late’layersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘AlīoccupationisthepresenceorabsenceofthelateHimyaritebronzeserieswith‘Bucranium’.Theyareamongthesmallest,lightestandthemostnumerousissuesevermintedinSouthArabia.ThefindsfromBi’r‘Alīshowedveryclearlythatthecustomofwithdrawingoldpiecesfromcirculationwhenthenewonesappearedonthemarket,wasnotpractisedinHadramawt.

Fig.4.12.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaII,planofexcavatedstructure.

Dating.Judgingfromthepreliminaryanalysisofthepotteryassemblage,the‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alī(ancientQana’)occupationcanbeplacedbetweenthe2ndand5thcenturiesAD.Itmightbeconcludedalsothat‘early’layerswereformedbeforeancientQana’wasintegratedintothepoliticalandeconomicsystemoftheHimyariteEmpire,i.e.beforethelate3rdcenturyAD.

The‘upper’(BA-III)period

Structures.Structuresofthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodwererevealedinthesouth-western(AreaI)andcentral(AreaV)ofthesettlement(Fig.4.19&20),usuallycharacterisedbybigmulti-roomedhousesseparatedfromeachotherbysmallnarrowstreets.

Layers.Severalphasesofoccupationconnectingwithdifferentfloorsweretracedintheexcavatedbuildings.

Fig.4.13.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaIV,planofexcavatedstructure.

Pottery.Newtypesofstoragepotteryarecharacteristicofthestrataofthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodofBi’r‘Alī.

Amphoraewitharibbedbodyconstitutethemajorityofsherds(Fig.4.21,1–8;4.22,1–4).Thevesselsweremadeofreddishgrittyclay,containingmica,whitelimeinclusionsandlargegranulatedquartz.Theyhavecream,nearlypink,orgreyishwashontheexteriorandaverticalrimwithastepinside,ahighneckandarathernarrowbodywidelyspacedbyridges.Theirhandlesweremassive,ovalorsemi-ovalinsection.Ratheroftenthevesselshadgraffiti,dipintiorpainteddesignwithblackorredontheexterior.

TheamphoraewithribbedbodyarecomparabletotheAyla-AksumtypedistributedintheRedSearegionduringthe5th,6thandearly7thcenturies(Tomber2004).ThemajorityoftheQana’vesselswereproduced,probably,attheregionofAqaba(ancientAyla),wherekilnsoftheearly7thcenturyADhavebeendiscovered(Whitcomb1989,fig.5).

Anotherdiagnostictypeisthevesselsmadeofbrowntodrabbrownclaysometimeswithagreyishwashontheexterior.6Theyhadasmallevertedorslightlyverticalrimandrough,loophandlesontheshoulders(Fig.4.22,5–9).Thisisthewell-knownGazatypeorLateRomanAmphora4,producedinPalestineinthelate4thtothelate7thcenturiesAD(Egloff1977,117;Riley1979,219–222;PeacockandWilliams1986,198–199;SciallanoandSibella1994;Ballet1996,827;Majcherek1995,163–178).

Fig.4.14.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,planofexcavatedstructuresofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Fig.4.15.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaIII,‘latesynagogue’,planofexcavatedstructure.

Fig.4.16.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Thestrataofthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodrevealedagreatamountofhandmadepottery(Fig.4.22,10;23,1–11)withcloseparallelsinAksummonuments(Munro-Hay1989,290–311;Ballet1996,828).

Coins.Onlytwocoinswerefoundinthestrataofthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodoccupation.ThefirstcouldbeattributedtotheHad ramiseries,radiatehead/bull(type5.3),whileidentificationofthesecondoneisuncertain.

Dating.Judgingbytheanalysisofthepottery,the‘upper’(BA-III)periodsoftheBi’r‘Alī(ancientQana’)occupationshouldbeplacedbetweenthe6thandearly7thcenturiesAD.

Fig.4.17.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaVI,potteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

DevelopmentoftheSiteAsstatedabove,somescholarsconsiderthattheearliestattestationofQana’occursinthefirstquarterofthe6thcenturyBC.However,othersbelievethatthereferenceofEzekielshouldbeattributedtoCanasituatedinGalilee.Itishardtoimagine,inmyopinion,thatsuchasmallplaceonthethenpracticallyuninhabitedsoutherncoastoftheArabianPeninsula,sofarfromPalestine,wouldbementionedintheBible.

TheearlieststructuresoftheBi’r‘AlīsettlementunearthedduringtheexcavationswerelocatedatthefootofHuṣnal-Ghurāb(AreaVI),atthebeginningofthepathleadingtothefortressandtothelighthouseonthesummit.Theexcavatedbuilding(‘EarlyStructure’)revealedseveraladjoiningbigrooms,someofthemcoveringanareaofabout90squaremetres,withcolumnsonce

supportingtheroof.7Theroomshadbeencutintothebaseoftherock.Judgingfromtheexposedremains,thebuildingwasusedasawarehouseforholdingincense,themainexportitemoftheHad ramawtKingdom.Itsroomswerebadlydamagedbyfireandalargeamountofburntincensewasfoundalloveritsfloors.Theremnantsofburntincensewerealsodiscoveredinbasketsorbigbagsmadeofpalm,whichoncestoodinthecornersoftherooms.ThesecontainerswereusedinancientHadramawttocarryandholdincense,whichfindscorrespondencewiththemodernpractice.

Fig.4.18.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaII,potteryofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.

Wecannotexcludethepossibilitythatsomehousessituatedonthenorthern

slopeofHuṣnal-Ghurābalongthepathtothesummitalsobelongedtotheperiodof‘EarlyQana”.Priortotheexcavationssuchasuppositioncouldnotbejustifiedwithcertainty,butclosesimilarityinthecharacterofthestonemasonryofthese‘early’buildingsmustbenoted.ThefragmentofDressel2–4amphorafoundduringtheexcavationofthelighthouseontheverytopofHuṣnal-Ghurābconfirmstheexistenceofthebuildingfromtheverybeginningofthecity’shistory.Itseemsquiteprobablethatsomestructuresconstitutedtheruinsofthefortress‘UrrMawiyatonthetopoftherock,aswellasatleastthreebigwatercisterns,whichwerealsoconstructedduringtheearlierdaysofthecity.

OfspecialimportanceistheabsenceofremainsofanystructuresintheBA-IstrataexposedattheAreas2and4.Judgingbythis,itseemsquiteprobablethatthe‘EarlyQana”,Qana’ofthetimeofthePeriplusMarisErythraei,waslimitedtotheareasatthefootofHuṣnal-Ghurāb,wherethewarehouseforholdingincensewassituated,aswellasstructuresonthesummit.

Theperiodbetweentheearly2ndand5thcenturiesADwas,probably,theheydayoftheBi’r‘Alīsettlement.Itsterritorygrewupveryintensivelyandatthattimecoveredanareaofmorethan5ha.Bigmulti-roomedhouseswiththecentralcorridorsystem,sometimeswithenormouscourtyards,werebuiltalongtheseashoreofthebay(AreaII),whileshopswereapparentlyconcentratedinthesouthernpartofthecity(AreasIVandVI).AhugetempleprobablydedicatedtoSayin,thesupremegodofHad ramawt,wasbuilttothesouth-westofthesettlement(AreaVII).8Onthenorth-westernoutskirtsofthecityabuildingusedasasynagoguewaserected(AreaIII).Acemeteryconsistingofrectangularcryptswithsubterraneanchamberswasfoundedtothenorth-westofthecity.ThewarehouseatthefootofHuṣnal-Ghurābwasabandoned.Alongdefensivewallwithrectangularbastionssurroundingthefootofthehillandprotectingthepathtothe‘UrrMawiyatfortresswaserectedonitsruins.Thebastionsweredividedintosmalladjoiningrooms.Therewerealsooblongadjoiningroomsalongthewall.Theroomsunearthedalongthewallandinbastionsseemtohavebeenusedasdwellings,shopsandstorage.Abuildingdiscoveredclosetothenorth-westofthisdefensiveareamightalsohavebeenashopasmanysmallbronzeandsilverHad rami,SabaeanandHimyaritecoinsofvarioustypeswerefoundonthefloorsoftherooms.

Onthenorth-westernoutskirtsofthesettlement,abuildingwasexcavatedwhichappearstohavehadareligiousfunction.Thisissuggestedbothbythegroundplan(Fig.4.15)andthenatureofthefindsrecoveredwithinit.Thebuildingcomprisedseveralsections:abigcourtyard,avestibule,amainprayer

hallwithaverysmallrectangularchamberonahighplatformaddedtoitsnorthernside(anapseorientedtowardsJerusalemandintendedforholdinganArkoftheLaworTorahshrine?),andsomestructuresadjoiningthenorth-easterncornerofthecourtyard.Fromitslayout,thebuildingwasidentifiedasasynagogue.Astonebasinforablutionsoncestoodinthevestibule,alargepieceoffrankincense,apartofamarblechancelscreen(?),fragmentsoflimestoneandbronzecandlesticksandalargenumberofHadramiandHimyaritebronzecoinsofvarioustypes(anunusuallylargenumberfordwelling-orstorehouse)werefoundthere.

Thestructurewaserectedabovewhatweidentifiedastheruinsofan‘earlysynagogue’withdifferentlayout.TheGreekgraffitoincisedonafragmentofgypsumplasterwasfoundonthefloorofoneoftheroomsofthebuilding(Fig.4.24).ThetextisapartofaprayerofacertainKosmas(?)totheAlmightyandtoHisTempletokeephis(Kosmas’)caravanandshipsafeandsoundduringthejourneyandtogranthim(i.e.Kosmas)successduringhisvoyage.Accordingtoitspalaeography,theinscriptioncanbedatedclosetothesecondhalfofthe4thcenturyAD,which,mostprobably,isalsothedateofconstructionoftheentirebuilding(Vinogradov1989,162–167;Bowersock1993,3–8;Sedov2005a,165–171).

Fig.4.19.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaI,planofexcavatedstructures.

Fig.4.20.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaV,planofexcavatedstructure.

Inthe6th–early7thcenturiesADtheancienttownofQana’occupiedthenorth-westernpartofthesettlementonly,whichisabout130×155minsize.Housesconsistingofseveraldwellings(AreasIandV)covereditsreducedterritory.Eachdwellinghadtwoorthree(rarelymore),smallroomsandaseparateentrance.Smallnarrowstreetsseparatedthestructuresfromeachother.AccordingtotheSouthArabianinscriptionCIH621cutontherockofH uṣnal-Ghurāb,thefortress‘UrrMawiyatwasrebuiltonthetopoftherockaroundAD525.

Inallprobability,theBi’r‘Alīsettlementwasabandonedaroundtheearly7thcenturyAD,perhapsasaresultofpoliticalandreligiouschangesontheArabianPeninsula.Itseems,however,thatthedesolationoftheindividualdistrictsofthecitydidnothappensimultaneously.Whilelifecontinuedinthecentralpartsofthetown,thesouth-westernandsouth-easterndistrictsfellintoastateofneglect.Burialswerefoundintheruinsofabandonedhouses(AreasIandVI),andprobablythelastinhabitantsofthecitywereburiedthere.Later,onlypilgrimsontheirwaytoMeccausedtheruinsofthesettlementastemporaryshelters.

PlaceofQana’intheRome–IndianSeaTradeFrankincenseandmyrrh,twoofthebestaromaticresins,well-knowninantiquity(Müller1979,79–92),grewonlyinthesouth-westernpartsoftheArabianPeninsula,andinsomepartsofEastAfrica,inthepresentSomalilandontheso-calledAfricanHorn,EritreaandEthiopia.Itisusuallyconsideredthatfrankincenseandmyrrhwereluxurygoods,andtherewasnotatempleorprivatehouse,administrativebuildingorpalaceinGreeceandItaly,EgyptandPalestine,PersiaandBabylonia,CentralAsiaandIndiawherearomaticswerenotburntonsomeoccasion.ItiswidelyacceptedalsothattheprosperityoftheancientSouthArabiankingdomswasbasedontheincensetrade(Doe1983,93–105).However,aromaticresinswerenotonlytheluxurygoods:theywereusedformedicine,religiousandfunerarypracticeaswell,thuscomprisingpartofdaily-life(Groom1981,1–21;Faure1987).TheeconomyoftheSouthArabiancivilisationwas,nodoubt,basedonagricultureandnotontrade(Groom1981,214–228;Robin1992,45–54;1997,37–56).Thisisclearbecausesurveysindicatethatwell-developedirrigationsystemswereestablishedaroundpracticallyallancientoasesaswellaseveryancienttownandvillage.Itiswellknown,forinstance,thatthefamousMāribdamblockedtheWadiDhanaandhelpedtocultivateaboutfifteenthousandhectaresintheancientoasis.

Butofcourse,thecommercialtiesbetweenSouthArabiaandtheMediterraneanandMesopotamianregionsexisted,andtheIncenseRoadwas,perhaps,oneofthemostancientroutesofinternationaltrade.OnerouteledfromSouthArabia,i.e.fromQtataban,Saba’andtheHad ramawtkingdoms,throughNajrāntoGazainPalestineandfurthertoEgypt;itcoveredatotaldistanceofalmost3400kilometres.AnotherledtoGerrhaintheeasternpartoftheArabianPeninsulaandontoMesopotamia.ItisusuallythoughtthatnotonlyproductionbutalsotradeofaromaticgoodswereinthehandsofancientSouthArabians(Groom1981,165–213;deMaigret1997,315–332;Macdonald1977,333–350).VeryoftenonecanalsofindastatementthatmaritimetraderoutesalongtheSouthArabianshorewereestablishedasearlyascaravanroutesviathePeninsula.9Forthissuppositiontobeupheld,wemusthaveatleastthefollowingcategoriesofevidence:(1)existenceofancientsea-portsonthesoutherncoastofthePeninsulabelongingtoSouthArabians,(2)materialand/orliteraryevidenceofusingsea-boatsinthecoastaland/orfar-distancetradeand(3)materialtracesofsomeproducts,whichwereexclusivelyormostlytransportedbythesea(traceswhichcanbefoundduringarchaeologicalexcavations).Unfortunately,inthepresentstateofourknowledge,thesecriteria

canseldombemetinfull.

Fig.4.21.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaI,potteryofthe‘upper’(BA-III)period.

Fig.4.22.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreasIandIV,potteryofthe‘upper’(BA-III)period.

Fig.4.23.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaI,potteryofthe‘upper’(BA-III)period.

Itisacommonplaceinscientificliterature,thatfromthetimeofthefirstPtolemaickingsofEgypt,intheearly3rdcenturyB.C.,andperhapsfromthetimeofAlexandertheGreat,themaritimetradebetweentheMediterraneanbasinandtheRedSea-IndianOceancountriesexistedandflourished(Sidebotham1986,1–12;1989,195–223).Atthattime,nodoubt,cabotagealongthecoastwouldhavebeentherule.ThecoastlineextendingalongthenorthernpartoftheIndianOceanformsanaturallinkbetweenAfricaandtheIndianSubcontinent.Therearealotofsmallbutgoodharbours,whichmakecoastalsailingrathereasyandsafe.SmalllocalcraftprobablytookcommoditiesfromIndianportsandbroughtthemsomewheretothesouth-westernpointofthe

ArabianPeninsula,where,asweknowfromtheclassicalsources,abiginternationalmarketwassituated.GreekmerchantsfromEgyptalsobroughttheirgoodsbyshipsthroughtheRedSeatothismarket.Herecargoeswereexchanged:goodsfromIndiawereshippedtoEgyptandfurthertoGreece,Palestine,AsiaMinorandotherpartsoftheMediterraneanworld,aswellasMediterraneangoodstoIndia.Atthesametimesomecommoditiescouldbeoff-loadedintheSouthArabiankingdoms.Themostsuitableplaceforthisinternationalmarketwas,supposedy,thepresentAden(Casson1989,190).

Thefirstarchaeologicalevidenceoftheexistenceofalargeandimportantpre-Islamicsite,port-cityorvillage,revealedduringthelastfewyears,isattheportofAden.ThepresenceofSabir-relatedpotteryinLittleAden(adjacenttothemoderntown10)suggeststhatthecoastalsitewaspermanentlyinhabitedsinceatleastthelate3rd–early2ndmillenniaBConwards.InthelastcenturiesBCavillageoffishermenwas,probably,transformedintoalargesettlementwithagoodharbour.Onthenorthernoutskirtsofthemoderntown,inthedistrictofBirFadl,abigpre-Islamiccemeterywasfound,whereunsystematicexcavationsrevealedinhumationsinsubterraneangravesaccompaniedbypersonaljewellery(stoneandcoralbeads,silverbraceletsandfinger-rings),bronze,glassandceramicvessels.SilverQatabaniancoinsdatedapproximatelyclosetothelate2nd–early1stcenturiesBCwerefoundinthegraves.11

Thus,thefirstarchaeologicalevidencefromtheregionsupportstheideaoftheexistenceofabigandwell-developedancientport-cityintheAdenarea.AsweknowfromthePeriplus(26:8.31–32),‘Caesar’sackedthetownandmarketplacenotlongbeforethemiddleofthe1stcenturyAD,theproposeddateofthePeriplus.

ChangestookplaceinthesouthArabianmaritimecommerceafterthediscoveryofmonsoonsbyHippalus,aseamanfromEgypt.ThisdiscoveryledtotheestablishmentofdirectsailingbetweenEgyptandIndia(Tchernia1993,525–534;1997,250–276).Itisusuallythoughtthatasaresultofthisdiscovery,theSouthArabianslosttheirmonopolyinthetradewithIndia.Inmyopinion,tothecontrary,directsailingfromtheEgyptianRedSeaportstotheportsontheIndiancoastwasrare,andusuallyinrealityitinvolvedthesouthernArabianstates,whichmadepossibleanincreasedflowofMediterraneangoodsandmaterialstoSouthArabia.

ThemostimportantsourceformaritimecommerceinthebeginningofoureraisthePeriplusMarisErythraei,ahandbookwrittenbyananonymousauthor,probablyaroundthemiddleofthe1stcenturyAD,formerchantsandskippers

whosailedintheRedSeaandnorthernpartoftheIndianOcean.12Itliststheportsandtheobjectsoftradethatcouldbeboughtandsoldineach.Inotherwords,itgivesdetailedinformationonthecommerceofthearea.

TheauthormentionsonlytwomainportsontheSouthernArabiancoastapartfromplaceslikeOkêlis,‘anArabvillage…aharbour,wateringstation’locatedneartheBabal-Mandabstrait(25:8.19),‘afortresstoguardtheregion,aharbour,andastorehouseforthecollectionoffrankincense’nearSyagros,themodernRa’sFartak(30:9.32–33),and‘adesignatedharbourforloadingtheSachalitefrankincense,calledMoschaLimên’onthepresentdayDhofaricoast(32:10.30).

ThefirstonewasMuza(21:7.19),whichwassituatedmoreorlesswhereMocha(al-Makha)istoday.Muzawas‘alegallylimitedportoftrade’inwhattheauthordescribedastheKingdomoftwonations,‘theHomerite[=Himyarites]andtheone,lyingnexttoit,calledtheSabaean’.Inspiteofseveralcampaignsbydifferentscholars,noarchaeologicalremainsofthisportoftradehavebeenfoundsofar.

AccordingtothePeriplus,EgyptexportedtoMuzagoodsofdifferentkinds(24:8.3–11):textilesandclothes,metal(silver?)inmoney,foodstuff(wineandgrain),drugsandcosmetics,anumberofluxuryitemsfortheroyalcourt(gold,silverandcopperware,expensiveclothing,andevenhorsesandpackmules).Inreturn,EgyptianmerchantstookfromMuzalocalproducts,principally‘myrrh,theselectgradeandstactê’,whitemarbleaswellasre-exportedcommodities‘fromAdulisacrossthewater’.FromthesamesourceweknowthatSouthArabiantradeconnectionsextendedeastwardaswell:shipsfromMuzamadeashortruntotheislandofDioscuridês,i.e.Socotra(31:10.20–21),andevenalongruntoBarygaza(21:7.22–23),thechiefportonthenorth-westerncoastofIndia.ThesecondportwasQana’(KanêinthePeriplus),thechiefportofthe‘frankincense-bearingland’,i.e.theHadramawtKingdom.Qana’wastheporttowhere‘allthefrankincensegrowninthelandisbrought’.Itcarriedontrade‘withtheportsacrossthewater–Barygaza,Skythia,Omana–andwithitsneighbour,Persis’(27:9.8–12).Itisinterestingtonotethat,accordingtothePeriplus,shipsfromIndia,LamyrikéorBarigaza,whichtradedwithHad ramawt,occasionallywinteredatMoschaLimên,theharbourancillarytoQana’.AsweknowfromtheexcavationsatthesiteintheKhorRorilagoon,whichwithoutdoubtmustbeidentifiedwithMoschaLimên(SumhuramoftheHad ramitexts),objectsofpureIndianorigin,sorareinSouthArabia,werefound(Albright1982;Pirenne1975,81–96;Beeston1976,39–42;Wissmann1977;Goetz1963,

187–189;Sedov1992,126).

AccordingtothePeriplus,Qana’,inasimilarwaytoMuza,carriedonanactivetradewithRomanEgypt,exchangingitsfrankincenseforthesameproductsforwhichMuzaexchangedmyrrh(28:9.13–20).Asweknow,Hadramawtalsoexportedaloe,whichmayhavecomefromSocotra.AtthetimeofthePeriplus,theislandwasapartofthe‘frankincense-bearingland’andanumberofArabian,IndianandGreekmerchantsweresettledontheisland(31:10.19–20).

Fig.4.24.Bi’r‘AlīSettlement(ancientQana’).AreaIII,‘earlysynagogue’,Greekgraffito(tracing).

NotfarfromthemodernvillageofSukonthenortherncoastoftheislandasettlementnamedHajryawasfound.Itisthebiggestancientsettlementontheislandcoveringtheareaofmorethan1ha.Adefensivestonewallsurroundedit.Bothfromthesurfaceofthesettlement,andinsoundings,numerousfragmentsoflocalhandmadepotterywerediscovered.Alongsidethispotteryweresherdsofanentirelydifferentcharacter.Therearesherdsofdarkgreenglazedpottery,whichprobablyoriginatedfromthePersianGulfareaandcanbedatedbetweenthe10thand13thcenturiesAD,aswellasfragmentsofRomanamphoraeandfineredpastecupsandbowlsofMediterraneanorigindatedclosetothefirstcenturiesAD.Furthermore,fragmentsofblackandgreywareofapparentlyArabianGulforigin,anddatedtothe1st–4thcenturiesADwerefound.Thus,thepreliminaryanalysisofthematerialpermitsustoconcludethatthesettlementofHajryawas,inallprobability,foundedintheearly1stcenturyAD.Lifeonthesettlementmusthaveendedclosetothe12thor13thcenturiesAD(NaumkinandSedov1993,569–623).

Itisinterestingtonote,thatthehugeareasoftheisland’snorthernplateauas

wellasitswesternpart,aroundthemoderntownofQallansiya,aredividedintoplotsbystoneboundarywalls.BrianDoe,oneofthefirstexplorersoftheisland’santiquities,statesthatthey‘formedalignmentsenclosingareasofprivateownership’(Doe1970,152).Inoneofhislatestbooks,hewrotethatthewallsweredividingtheplotsoflandandfarmsforgrowingincense,aloeandDragontree(cinnabar)(Doe1983,19).

Analternativeexplanationthatthesewallswereboundaries,whichinantiquitydividedplantationsoffragranttreesandaloe,seemsclosertothetruth.InthiscasetheyshouldbedatedclosetotheperiodwhenSocotrawasamajorsupplierofaloe,frankincenseandcinnabar,i.e.totheearlycenturiesofourera.

Itseems,onarchaeologicalevidence,thatQana’wasfoundedsometimeinthe1stcenturyBC,(mostprobablyclosetothebeginningofitssecondhalf),andthatitsfoundationwasdirectlyconnectedwiththeestablishmentandexpansionoftheregularsea-tradebetweenEgyptandIndia,withtheriseoftheHadramawtKingdom.

Thelate1stcenturyBCandthebeginningoftheChristianerawasveryimportantinthehistoryofoneoftheSouthArabianstates,the‘frankincense-bearingland’,i.e.theancientHad ramawtKingdom(Müller1984,125–131).Hadramitroopsledsuccessfulwarsagainsttheneighbouringcountriesandoccupiedtheirterritories.ThesettlementatKhorRorilagoon,ancientSumhuramaccordingtotheHadramitexts,orMoschaLimênaccordingtothePeriplus,wasfounded,orbettertosayrebuilt,inthelate1stcenturyBCorinthebeginningofthe1stcenturyAD.ItwasfoundedontheDhofaricoastbycolonistsfromShabwa,‘theservantsofthekingofH adramawt’,toguardtheeasternmostextensionoftheKingdom,whichincludesnowthemainfrankincenseproducingareasofSouthArabia(Robin1984,211–213).TheislandofSocotrabecamethepossessionoftheKingdomprobablyalsoaroundthattime.Thus,fromtheearly1stcenturyAD,H adramawtbecamethelargestandprobablyoneofthemostpowerfulkingdomsamongtheSouthArabianstates.Frankincenseandaloe,themainlocalproductstraditionallyexportedfromHadramawtviacaravanroutes,startedtobesentnowinlargequantitiesbyseathroughQana’andSumhuram.OntheotherhandthedirectsailingbetweenEgyptandIndia,theso-calledmonsoonsailing,whichbecameregularandveryintensivefromthelate1stcenturyBC–early1stcenturyAD,probablynecessitatedthefoundationoftransitpointsonthesoutherncoastoftheArabianPeninsulasupplyingwaterandfoodproducts.ItisunlikelythatthosestationswerefoundedbyGreekandRomansailorsormerchants,butnodoubtbytheir

localpartners.Wehave,atleast,evidenceofthepresenceofsuchpartnersinlateHellenistictimes:altarswithMineanandHad ramidedicationsfromthesanctuaryofArtemisonDelosislandintheAegeanSea(c.mid-2ndcenturyBC);afamoussarcophagusfromGizawithfuneraryinscriptiontellingaboutacertainMineanwhowasapriestintheEgyptiantempleandwasinvolvedintheincensetrade(diedaroundthelate2nd–early1stcenturyBC)(Robin1992a,62).Theywereinexistence,nodoubt,inthelate1stcenturyBC–early1stcenturyAD.

ThelocationofQana’israthersurprising.Thecoastalareaaroundthesiteiswildandunpleasantwithsand,blackvolcanicstones,saltwatereveninthewells,andverylittlevegetation.Itisinterestingtonotethatfurthereasttherearealotmoreplausibleandsuitableharboursforshipsandplacesforsettlement.Wecansuggestatleasttwoexplanations:(1)thebayofQana’withitsoffshoreislandsandhugeblackvolcanicrock,knownnowasH uṣnal-Ghurāb,wasimpossibletomissandsoitwasafavouriteplaceformooringships,or(2)thereweregoodandsuitablecaravanroadsconnectingQana’andShabwa,thecapitaloftheKingdom(probably,alongtheWadiHajarfullwithsweetwater),Qana’andMayfa’at(modernNaqbal-Hajar),thechief-townoftheregionofal-Mashriq,theso-calledWesternH adramawt,oneofthelargestandmostimportantpartsoftheancientKingdom.

ArchaeologicalinvestigationsshowthatthemainstructuresatQana’atthetimeofthePeripluswerestorage-housesatthefootofthehilltoholdincense,water-tanks,alighthouseandprobablysomebuildings(thefortress)onthesummitofHuṣnal-Ghurābandonitsnorthernslope.Theceramicmaterialfromtheexcavationsgivesanexcellentopportunity,inadditiontothewrittensources,totracethegenerallinksoftradeconnectionsofthisport,andtoidentifythemainproductsexportedbyseatotheHadramawtKingdom.AccordingtothePeriplus,amongstthe‘importsfromEgypt(toQana’–A.S.)are:wheat,alimitedquantity,andwine...’(28:9.13–14).SomewineanddateswereimportedtoArabia,i.e.toQana’aswell,fromtheArab-PersianGulfports,ApologosandOmana,mostprobablybythelocalmiddlemen(36:12.10–11).

Themaintypeofamphorafoundinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-I)periodisDressel2–4.ThisisthemostpopulartypeofamphorausedduringtheperiodoftheEarlyRomanEmpireintheMediterraneanregion.ItisthoughtthattheprincipalcontentofDressel2–4amphoraewaswine(Riley1979,150;PeacockandWilliams1986,105–106).Rhodianamphorae,foundinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-I)periodinsmallnumbers,wereusedforthetransportationof

Rhodianwine(Riley1979,134–135).

WeknowthatItalianwinewastransportedallovertheEmpirefromBritainandthenorthernProvincestotheRedSea,ArabianPeninsula,Arab-PersianGulfandIndianSubcontinent.AccordingtothePeriplus,Adulis,theAfricanRedSeaport,andBarygaza,theportonthewesternIndiancoast,weremarketsfor‘wineofLaodiceaandItaly’(6:2.32–33;49:16.20–21)andthisstatementistrueforQana’aswell.

However,manyoftheDressel2–4amphoraefoundattheBi’r‘AlīsettlementwereproducedinEgyptiankilns.Whatkindofproductswerecarriedinthesecontainersaftertheyhadservedaswinejars?CoulditbethewheatmentionedinthePeriplus?ItisinterestingtonotethataccordingtoRiley‘asecondaryuseofthelaterGazaamphora(knowninlargenumbersinthestrataofthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodofBi’r‘Alīsettlement,wasforwheatandamphoraewereusedasameasureofvolumeinEgypt’(Riley1979,222).

ItisknownfromthePeriplusthatArabianwinewasimportedtoIndia(49:16.20–21).Mostprobably,thisproductwaspickedupinsomeSouthArabianportslikeQana’orMuzabytransitvesselssailingtoIndia.Thelocaltraderscouldalsodeliveritthere.Theonlystoragejarsknowninthelocalpotteryarebighandmadevesselsofcoarseporouspaste,theso-calledzirs.Nodoubtitwasimpossibletocarrywineinsuchvessels.DidSouthArabiansre-usetheDressel2–4amphoraeforsuchpurposesandfillthemwithlocalwinesomewhereonthecoast?

WineanddatesfromtheArab-PersianGulfports,ApologosandOmana,couldbecarriedinblackandgreywarerepresenting,verylikely,thetypeoflocalcontainersproducedintheGulfarea.

ItisknownthatDressel7–11OstiaLIIBeltranIamphorae,fragmentsofwhichwerealsofoundinthestrataofthe‘lower’(BA-I)period,havebeenmanufacturedalongthesouthernSpanishcoastandcarriedfish-basedproductsandfishsauces(PeacockandWilliams1986,113–114,120–124).Mostprobably,thesecontainedsmallquantitiesofdeliciousfooddestinedforforeignresidents,aswellasforlocalofficialsorotherimportantpersonslivinginQana’orinShabwa,thecapitaloftheHad ramawtKingdom.Thus,thetradelinksof‘EarlyQana”,Qana’ofthetimeofthePeriplus,coveredanextensiveregionfromthewesternMediterraneancountrieslikesouthernSpainandtheItaly(fishsauces,wineandsomeluxuriesliketerrasigillataandglassvessels)toEgypt,PalestineandAsiaMinor(wine,wheatandthefinepotterysuchasEastern

SigillatawaresandNabateanbowls).Thepresenceoftheblackandgreyware(containersfordates?)andgreenglazedpottery(luxuryvessels?)indicatesthetradeconnectionswithanotherpartoftheancientworld–withtheMesopotamianandArab-PersianGulfcountries.

Ofparticularnoteareanextremelysmallnumberofartefacts,whichcouldbeconnectedwiththeIndianimportstosouthernArabia.Thisisratherstrange,especiallyifwecomparethiswiththelargernumberofwesternartefacts.Ofcourse,wecansupposethatgoodsfromIndiadidnotleaveanymaterialevidence,whichmightbefoundinexcavations.Ontheotherhand,lackofartefactscouldbesatisfactorilyexplainedasanindicationofmuchlessintensivetradecontactsbetweenSouthernArabiaandIndiathanbetweensouthernArabiaandRomanEgypt.Thedemandforfrankincense,traditionalexportfromHadramawt,was,probably,greaterintheMediterraneanworldthaninIndia,althoughweknowaboutthepresenceofthisgoodontheIndianmarketsaswell(Periplus:39:13.8).

AlthoughthePeripluspointsoutthelocalsea-tradecarriedonbetweenQana’and‘theportsacrossthewater–Barygaza,Skythia,Omana’(27:9.10–12)wehavepracticallynoindicationintheguideaboutIndianimportstothesouthArabianports.Thereareonlytwoexceptions:IndianimportstotheislandofSocotra(31:10.20–24)andtheexceptionalcaseofMoschaLimên.AsstatedinthePeriplus,whensomevessels‘fromLimirikêorBarygazathatpassedthewinter[sc.atMoscha]becauseoftheseasonbeinglate,byarrangementwiththeroyalagentstakeon’,i.e.gotacargooffrankincense‘inexchangeforcottonclothandgrainandoil’(32:11.1–5).

AccordingtothePeriplus,Qana’wasoneofthedeparturepointsfortransitvesselsontheirruntoIndia(57:19.7).ButdidtheyusethesamepointontheirrunbackwhensomeIndianproductscouldbeoff-loaded?

VeryprobablythemajorityoftheabovementionedproductsandothercommoditiesknownfromthePeripluswerecarriedtothesoutherncoastoftheArabianPeninsulabyprivatemerchantsfromEgypt.Ontheotherhand,undoubtedlyH adramimiddlemenwerealsoinvolvedinthesea-commerceaswell.

TheheydayofQana’,aswellasforSouthArabianmaritimecommerceingeneral,wasprobablybetweenthelate2ndand4thcenturiesAD.Theterritoryofthesettlementgrewveryintensivelyandcoveredanareaofmorethan5ha.Strongfortificationswereerectedabovetheearlieststructuresatthefootof

Huṣnal-Ghurāb.Bighouseswithenormouscourtyardswerebuiltalongtheseashoreofthebay,whileshopswereapparentlyconcentratedinthesouthernpartofthecity.AhugetempleprobablydedicatedtoSayin,thesupremegodofHadramawt,wasbuilttothesouth-westofthesettlement.Onthenorth-westernoutskirtsofthecity,abuildingusedasasynagoguewaserected.Acemeteryconsistingofrectangularcryptswithsubterraneanchamberswasfoundedtothenorth-westofthecity.Nodoubtthesechangesresultedfromthesuccessfulpoliticalandeconomicdevelopmentofthechiefportoftheancientstateduringthereignof‘Ili’adhYalut,sonof‘Amidhakhar,kingofHad ramawt(c.AD200?–225?),whenambassadorsfromIndia,probablyarrivingviaQana’,andPalmyretookpartinanofficialceremonyledbytheking(Jamme1963,44).AccordingtosomeSabaeaninscriptions(Ry533,Ir.13),aroundthebeginningofthe3rdcenturyADQana’wasdestroyedduringthemilitaryraidofSabaeantroops,whenshipswereburntinitsbay.However,thearchaeologicalevidenceshowsthattheancientport-citywasrebuiltveryquickly.Fromthelate3rdcenturyADQana’wasnodoubtapossessionofHimyaritekings(morethan36%ofallcoinfindsofthisperiodcouldbeidentifiedasHimyaritecoinage).

ItisimportanttonotethatPtolemylistedmorevillagesandtownsontheArabiancoast(Geography,VI,7).Accordingtohim,Okêlis,forinstance,wasanemporium,andnotawateringstationasstatedinthePeriplus(25:8.19–20).Nodoubt,thesechangeswereareflectionofsuccessfuldevelopmentoftheSouthArabianmaritimecommerce.AtthistimeJudaism(fromthelate4thcenturyAD)widelypenetratedintosouthArabia.AmajorityofHimyaritekingsofthelate4th–early6thcenturiesADowedallegiancetoJudaism.AsBeestonstates,‘evidentlybythistimetherewasawell-establishedJewishcommunity(orcommunities)ofsomewealthandstanding,fullyintegratedintothesocialstructureandenjoyingthepatronageoftheking’.Ontheotherhand,‘itmustbeconcludedthat[inthe5thcentury]–Judaismdidnotprevailatanytimeamongmorethanaminorityofthepopulation’(Beeston1984,277).Anyway,wecanassumethatthesynagogueerectedonthenorth-westernoutskirtsoftheancientcitywasused,inallprobability,notonlybyforeignresidentsbutalsobylocalpeopleconvertedtoJudaism.

Unfortunately,thereisnoguidelikethePeriplusforthe2ndtothe5thcenturiesAD,i.e.forthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupation.Theanalysisofthetradeconnectionsmustthereforebebasedexclusivelyonthematerialsfromthearchaeologicalexcavations.

Theceramicfindsofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupation

demonstratethatthetradeconnectionsbetweentheH adramawtandlaterHimyariteportoftradeandtheMediterraneanregionwerepreservedandevenextended.Winewasstillimported.The‘NorthAfrica-Gallic’amphoraefoundinthestrataofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodprobablyoriginateinthesouthofFrance,anditisthoughttohavenormallycarriedwine(PeacockandWilliams1986,142–143,171–172).NorthAfricantypesofamphoraearethoughttohavecarriedoliveoiland,lessfrequently,fishproducts(PeacockandWilliams1986,153–169).VeryprobablythiskindoffoodcontinuedtobeimportedforforeignresidentsinQana’or,moregenerally,intheHadramawtandHimyariteKingdoms.13Theamphora-likevesselsorstoragejarswiththeinnercoatingshowtheestablishmentofpermanenttradeconnectionswiththePalestineregion,whichbecamemoreregularandintensiveinthenext,‘upper’(BA-III)periodofBi’r‘Alīoccupation.Thecontentofthesevesselsisunknown.Itisthoughtthatthevesselsusuallycarriedwine,andtheresinoussubstanceservedasakindofprotectorofdirectcontactbetweenwineandfabricofthevessel(Adan-Bayewitz1986,97–99;PeacockandWilliams1986,18).

Theincreasednumbersofthegreenglazedpotteryfragments,andthepresenceofblackandgreywareandfineorangepaintedwareindicate,nodoubt,moreintensivecontactswiththeMesopotamian,Arab-PersianGulfandevensouthernIranianregions.Mostprobablysomeproductsfromthosecountrieslikewine,datesandluxuryvesselscontinuedtoarriveatQana’.AlargenumberofpotterysherdsofundoubtedlyIndianorigin(RPW)camefromthestrataofthe‘middle’(BA-II)period.ItseemsHad ramawtstillpreservedandevenincreaseditscommercewiththecountriestotheeastofArabia.ItisveryimportanttonotethattheobjectsofIndianoriginrevealedatKhorRori,ancientSumhuramorMoschaLimên,bytheAmericanExpeditionhavechronologicalrangeswhichareclosetothe‘middle’(BA-II)periodatQana’.TheIndianbronzefigurinerepresentingafemaledeityorspirit,probablyayakshiintheso-calledsalabhanjikapose,maybeattributedtothebeginningofthe3rdcenturyAD(Goetz1963,187–189).ThebronzecoinoftheKushanakingKanishkaIwasalsofoundinthe«leveloflatehabitation»datedapproximatelytotheearly4thcenturyAD(Albright1982,50;Sedov1992,126).OfnolessinterestisthestatementofthelateV.BegleybasedonthenewinvestigationsatArikamedu,that‘some–commercetookplaceinthe4thcentury.andlater’(Begley1993,105).

Ingeneral,theimpressioncanbesummarisedasfollows.ThetradeconnectionswiththeMediterraneanregion,whichwerereduced,probably,inthelate1stcenturyAD,werenodoubtre-activatedinthe2nd–5thcenturiesAD

although,perhaps,notatthesamelevelasbefore.AtthebeginningoftheBA-IIperiod,i.e.inthe2nd–early3rdcenturiesAD,Qana’wastransformedfromasmallcoastalsettlementusedmostlyasatransitstationforvesselsontheirrunfromEgypttoIndia,andas‘awarehouse’forfrankincense,intoanextensiveport-cityoftheHad ramawtand,later,HimyariteKingdoms.TheincreasedmaterialevidenceoftheimportsfromArabianGulfcountries,MesopotamiaandIndiaaswellasthereductionofMediterraneanobjectsshow,verylikely,that,incontrastwiththepreviousperiod,thereweresomechangesinthecharacterofthesea-trade.ThecommercenowwasconcentratedinthehandsofmiddlemenfromHadramawtand/orforeignmerchantswhohadtheirpermanentresidenceintheancientkingdom.ItseemsquiteprobablethatHad ramimiddlementriedtofindakindofbalancebetween‘western’and‘eastern’imports.

Inthe6th–early7thcenturiesADtheancienttownofQana’occupiedthenorth-westernpartofthesettlementonly,whichisabout130×155minsize.Smallhousesseparatedbynarrowstreetscoveredthereducedterritory.ThisperiodwasdominatedbyconflictbetweentheHimyariteEmpireandtheAksumiteKingdom,and,accordingtotheinscriptionCIH621,the‘UrrMawiyatfortressonthetopofHuṣnal-GhurābwasrebuiltaroundAD525asastrongholdofsomelocalHimyaritetribes(Yaza’nites)againsttheEthiopians.

Amphoramaterialfromthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodshowsverystrongtradelinksbetween‘LateQana”andtheregionsofsouthernPalestineorsouth-westJordan.TheprincipalcontentoftheamphoraeproducedintheAqabakilnsisunknown,butmostlikelyitwaswineoroilasitwasassumedforthesimilartypeofamphoraefromBereniceandCarthage(Riley1979,215).ItisthoughtthatamphoraefromGazacarriedthefamouswhitewinefromthatregion.However,thereisevidencethatoliveandsesameoilwasoccasionallycarriedinsuchvessels(Riley1981,120;PeacockandWilliams1986,185–187,198–199;Blakely1988,35–38).ThestoragejarswithinnercoatingwhichprobablycarriedwineaswellcontinuedtoarriveinQana’fromsomewhereinPalestine.

TheconnectionswiththeIndiansubcontinentwerereduceddrastically.Ontheotherhand,fromthestrataofthe‘upper’(BA-III)periodwehavearatherimportantbutcuriousfindindicatingtheveryearlycontactsbetweentheArabianPeninsulaandFarEasterncountries.AfragmentofChineseceladon,slightlygreyish,nearlywhiteincolour,withpartoftheChineseletterofvan,whichmeans“king”,wasfound.14

AgreatamountofAksumitehandmadepotteryincludingkitchenwaresaswellasotherfindsattestthepermanentandveryclosecontactsbetweenQana’

andthenorth-easterncoastoftheAfricancontinentduringthelastdecadesofthetown’sexistence.ItishardtosaywithcertaintythatthepopulationofQana’atthattimedirectlycamefromAksum,butnodoubtthesailingacrosstheBabal-MandabStraitandconnectionswiththeAksumiteKingdomwereverycloseandintensive.

TheevidenceofintensivetradecontactswithPalestine,i.e.withtheregionsofByzantineEmpire,fitsverywellwiththepoliticalsituationinSouthArabiaatthattime,whenChristianAksumiteKingdomdominatedthearea.WecansupposethatmiddlemenfromAksumnowcontrolledthesea-tradeoftheancientcity(Munro-Hay1996,403–416).

Inallprobability,Qana’wasabandonedaroundtheearly7thcenturyAD,perhaps,asaresultofgeneralpoliticalandreligiouschangesontheArabianPeninsula,includingachangeofthedirectionsoftradinglinks.TheprophetMohammedbegunanewchapterinthehistoryofArabianPeninsula,andthemajorityofpre-Islamiccentreswentintoastateofneglect.Newonesappearedandbeguntoflourish,likeal-Mukalla,oneofthemostbeautifulYemenicities,andas-Shihr,whichwerefounded100kilometrestotheeastofQana’.Al-Mukallāandash-Shih rbecamenewport-citiesofHadramawt,andnewcentresofArabianseafaring.

Notes1 OnthedateofthePMEseeRobin1991;Fussman1991.

2 SeeYacut’sgeographischesWörterbuch,ausdenHandschriftenzuBerlin,St.Petersburg,Paris,LondonundOxford…Bd.VI.Hrsg.vonF.Wüstenfeld.Leipzig,1866–1870,S.273;seealsoIbnal-Mujāwir1954,270;Doe1964,12,note3;Griaznevich1995,280.

3 SeealsoAdwā‘al-l-athāral-Yamaniya.Taqrīrl-’alamas-sufyatiySirjiShirinski‘anal-athārfial-Yamanad-dumuqrati.Aden,1975.

4 BibliographyonDressel2–4amphoraeisverynumerous,see,forexample,Grace1961;EttlingerandSimonett1952,90;Callender1965,9–11;BeltranLloris1970,358–367;1978,172;RicercheaPompei1984,278–279;Robinson1959,10,83–85;TcherniaandZevi1972,35–67;FarinasdelCerro,FernadezdelaVegaand,Hesnard1977,179–206;PanellaandFano1977,133–177;PeacockandWilliams1986,105–106;SciallanoandSibella1994;aboutDressel2–4amphoraeinIndia(Arikamedu)seeWheeleretal.1946,17–124;Wheeler1954,

146;Slane1991,204–215;1996,351–368;Will1991,151–156;1996,317–350;Tchernia1993,525–534andbibliographyinthelastfiveworks;abouttheproductionofDressel2–4amphoraeinEgyptseeEmpereur1986,599–608;EmpereurandPicon1992,145–152.

5 OnthetypologyofH adramawtseriesseeSedov2005,359–419.

6 TheGazatypeamphoraefirstoccurredinthe‘late’layersofthe‘middle’(BA-II)periodofBi’r‘Alī(ancientQana’)occupation.

7 Cf.similarstoragerooms,“thebins”(especiallyroomK3),excavatedatthesiteinKhorRorilagoon(ancientSumhuram):Albright1982,33;pl.4;12,fig.19.

8 Templewaspartlyexcavatedin1995–96bytheFrenchteamundertheleadershipofDr.MichelMouton;seeSedov2005a,161–165.

9 Butcf.Crone1987,12–50.

10 Thesiteofan-NabwawasthesubjectofexplorationbythejointGerman-RussianteamunderthedirectionofB.VogtandH.Amirkhanovin1999–2000.

11 ThematerialisbeingkeptnowintheAdenNationalMuseum.

12 Seethelasteditionofthemanuscript:ThePeriplusMarisErythraei.TextwithIntroduction,Translation,andCommentarybyLionelCasson.Princeton,1989.

13 WenowhaveconsiderableevidencetestifyingthepresenceofforeigntemporaryresidentsinHad ramawtin2nd–4thcenturiesAD:theevidenceaboutPalmyreneandIndianambassadorsinShabwa;theprayerofcertainKosmas,whowas,mostprobably,atemporaryresidentinQana’;theChristianostraconfromQana’bearingtheGreeknamewithChristianaffiliation;SyriacgraffitifoundalongwiththeKosmasinscription;astructureatQana’,whichcouldbeidentifiedasasynagogue,andwaserectedinitially,mostprobably,forforeignresidentsratherthanforlocalpeople.In1988M.PiotrovskijandP.GriaznevichfoundaGreekinscriptionadornedwithacrossaboveit,unfortunatelyinbadcondition,inthevicinityofWadiHajar.TheinscriptionwasincisedontherockatthesideofanancientcaravanroadleadingfromQana’toShabwaandwastentativelydatedtothe‘earlyByzantineperiod’(M.B.Piotrovskij,pers.com.).

14 CouldaChinesevesselhavebeendroppedbyalatevisitortothesiteprobablyinthe10thor11thcenturiesAD,andlateroneofthefragmentswasaccidentallyplacedintotheupperstrataofthesettlement?

BibliographyAdan-Bayewitz,D.,1986.ThePotteryFromLateByzantineBuilding(Stratum4)andItsImplications.InLevine,L.I.,andNetzer,E.ExcavationsatCaesareaMaritima.1975,1976,1979–FinalReport.Jerusalem,97–99.

Albright,F.P.,1982.TheAmericanArchaeologicalExpeditioninDhofar,Oman,1952–1953.Washington,DC.

Badre,L.,1992.LesondagestratigraphiquedeShabwa1976–1981.InBreton,J.-F,(Ed)FouillesdeShabwa.II.Rapportspréliminaires.Paris,229–314.

Ballet,P.,1996.DelaMéditerranéeal’océanIndien.L’Égypteetlecommercedelonguedistanceal’époqueromaine:lesdonnéescéramiques.Topoi,6/2,809–840.

Beeston,A.F.L.,1976.TheSettlementatKhorRori.JournalofOmanStudies,2,39–42.

Beeston,A.F.L.,1984.JudaismandChristianityinPre-IslamicYemen.ArabieduSud.Histoireetcivilisation.TomeI.InChelhod,J.(Ed),Lepeupleyéméniteetsesracines.Paris,271–278.

Begley,V.,1993.NewinvestigationsattheportofArikamedu.JournalofRomanArchaeology,6,93–108.

BeltranLloris,M.,1970.LasánforasromanasenEspaña.Zaragosa.

BeltranLlorisM.,1978.CerámicaRomana.TypologiayClassificacion.Zaragosa.

Bietak,M.andSchwartz,M.,1987.Nag‘El-Scheima:einebefestigtechristlicheSiedlungundanderechristlicheDenkmälerinSayala-Nubien.T.I.DieösterreichischenGrabungen1963–1965.Vienna.

Blakely,J.A.,1988.CeramicsandCommerce:AmphoraefromCaesareaMaritima.BulletinAmericanSocietyOrientalStudies,271.

Bowersock,G.W.,1993.TheNewGreekInscriptionfromSouthYemen.InLangdon,J.S.,etal.,(eds.)TOELLHNIKON.StudiesinHonourofSperosVrynos,Jr.VolumeI.HellenicAntiquityandByzantium.NewRochelle,3–8.

Callender,M.H.,1965.RomanAmphoraewithIndexofStamps.London.

deCardi,B.,1975.ArchaeologicalSurveyinNorthernOman,1972.EW,n.s.,25,no.1–2,9–75.

Casson,L.,1989.SouthArabia’sMaritimeTradeintheFirstCenturyA.D.L’Arabiepréislamiqueetsonenvironnementhistoriqueetculturel.InFahd,T.(ed),ActesduColloquedeStrasbourg24–27juin1987.Leiden,187–194.

Crone,P.,1987.MeccanTradeandtheRiseofIslam.Oxford.

Davidde,B.,Petriaggi,R.,andWilliamsD.F.,2004.NewdataonthecommercialtradeoftheharbourofKanêthroughthetypologicalandpetrographicstudyofpottery.ProceedingsSouthArabianSeminar,34,85–100.

DePaepe,P.,Rutten,K.,Vrydaghs,L.,andHaerink,E.,2003.APetrographic,ChemicalandPhytolithAnalysisofLatePre-IslamicCeramicsfromed-Dur(Ummal-Qaiwain,U.A.E.).ArchaeologyoftheUnitedArabEmirates.InPotts,D.,al-Nabbodah,H.,Hellyer,P.(eds.),ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalConferenceontheArchaeologyoftheU.A.E.TridentPress,207–228.

Doe,B.,1961.Huṣnal-GurâbandthesiteofQana’.LeMuséon,54,191–198.Doe,B.,1964.Huṣnal-GurâbandthesiteofQana’.DepartmentofAntiquitiesPublication.Bulletin3.Aden,July1964.

Doe,B.,1970.Socotra.AnArchaeologicalReconnaissancein1967.Miami,152.

Doe,B.,1971.SouthernArabia.London.

Doe,B.,1983.MonumentsofSouthArabia.Cambridge.

Egloff,M.,1977.Kellia.Lapoteriecopte.Quatresièclesd’artisantetd’échangesenBasse-Égypte.Genève.

Empereur,J.-Y.,1986.UnatelierdeDressel2–4enEgypteauIIIesiècledenotreère.InEmpereur,J.-Y.,etGarlan,Y.(eds.),Recherchessuelesamphoresgrecques.Paris,599–608.

Emperior,J.-Y.,andPicon,M.,1992.Lareconnaissancedeproductionsdesateliercéramiques:l’exempledelaMaréotide.InBallet,P.(Ed),Cahiersdelacéramiqueégyptienne.AteliersdepotiersetproductionscéramiquesenÉgypte.Cairo,145–152.

Ettlinger,E.,andSimonett,C.,1952.RömischeKeramikausdemSchutthügelvonVindonissa.Basel.

Ettlinger,E.,etal.1990.Conspectusformarumterraesigillataeitalicomodoconfectae.Bonn.

FarinasdelCerro,L.,FernadezdelaVega,W.,andHesnard,A.,1977.Contributionàl’établissementd’unetypologiedesamphoresdites«Dressel2–4».Méthodesclassiquesetméthodesformellesdansl’étudedeamphores.Rome,179–206.

Faure,P.,1987.Parfumsetaromatesdel’Antiquité.Paris.

Fussman,G.,1991.LePéripleetl’histoirepolitiquedel’Inde.Journalasiatique,279,no.1–2,31–38.

Goetz,H.,1963.AnIndianBronzefromSouthArabia.Archaeology,16,no.3,187–189.

Goudineau,Chr.,1968.Lacéramiquearretinelisse.Paris.

Grace,V.R.,1961.AmphorasandtheAncientWineTrade.Princeton.

Griaznevich,P.A.,1995.MorskajatorgovljanaAravijskommore:AdeniKana(Sea-tradeintheArabianSea:AdenandQana’).Hadramaut.Arheologicheskie,etnograficheskieiistoriko-kul’turnieissledovanija.TrudiSovetsko-Yemenskojkompleksnojekspedicii.TomI(H adramawt.Archaeological,EthnologicalandHistoricalStudies.PreliminaryReportsoftheSoviet-YemeniJointComplexExpedition.VolumeI).Moscow,1995,273–301.

Groom,N.,1981.FrankincenseandMyrrh.AStudyoftheArabianIncenseTrade.London.

Gupta,S.,1995–96.BeyondArikamedu:macrostratigraphyoftheIronAge–earlyhistorictransitionandRomancontactinSouthIndia.Puratattva.BulletinoftheIndianArchaeologicalSociety,26,50–61.

Gurumurthy,S.,1981.CeramictraditionsinSouthIndia(downto300A.D.).Madras.

Hayes,J.W.,1976.Pottery:Stratifiedgroupsandtypology.InHumphrey,J.H.(ed.),ExcavationsatCarthage1975conductedbytheUniversityofMichigan.Vol.I.Tunis,47–123.

Hayes,J.W.,1978.PotteryReport–1976.InHumphrey,J.H.(Ed),Excavations

atCarthage1976conductedbytheUniversityofMichigan.Vol.IV.AnnArbor,23–98.

Hayes,J.W.,1985.Sigillateorientali.Enciclopediadell’arteantica.Classicaeorientale.Atlantedelleformeceramiche.II.CeramicafineromananelbacinoMediterraneo(tardoellenismoeprimoimpero).Rome,1–70.

Højlund,F.,1997.Sasanianpaintedpottery.InHøjlund,F.,Andersen,H.H.,Qala’atal-Bahrain.Vol2.TheCentralMonumentalBuildings.Aarhus.

Ibnal-Mujāwir,1954.Descriptioarabiaemeridionalis…quiliberinscribiturTa’rīhal-Mustabsir.Pt.1–2.Ed.byO.Löfgren.Leiden.

Jamme,A.,1963.Theal-’UqlahTexts.WashingtonD.C.(DocumentationSud-Arabe,III).

Khulusi,S.,1976.AThirteenthCenturyPoetfromBahrain.ProceedingsoftheSocietyforArabianStudiesSeminar,6,91–102.

Lamberg-Karlovsky,C.C.,1972.TepeYahya1971–MesopotamiaandtheIndo-IranianBorderlands.Iran,vol.10.

Lecompte,O.,1993.Ed-Dur,lesoccupationsdes3eet4es.ap.J.-C.:contextedestrouvaillesetmatérieldiagnostique.MaterialenzurArchäologiederSeleukiden-undPartherzeitimsüdlichenBabylonienundimGolfgebiet.ErgebnissederSymposien1987und1989imBlaubeugen.Tübingen,196–217.

MacdonaldM.C.A.1997.TradeRoutesandTradeGoodsattheNorthernEndofthe«IncenseRoad»inthefirstMillenniumB.C.InAvanzini,A.(ed.),Profumid’Arabia.Attidelconvegno.Rome,333–350.

Madjid,Ahmad,1984.Knigapol’zobosnovahipravilahmorskojnauki.Kriticheskijtekst,perevod,kommentarij,issledovanieiukazateliT.A.Shumovskogo.II.Moscow.

deMaigret,A.,1997.TheFrankincenseRoadfromNajrāntoMa’ān:aHypotheticalItinerary.InAvanzini,A.(ed.),Profumid’Arabia.Attidelconvegno.Rome,315–332.

Majcherek,G.,1995.GazanAmphorae:TypologyReconsidered.‘HellenisticandRomanPotteryintheEasternMediterranean–AdvancesinScientificStudies.InMeyza,H.,andMlynarczyk,J.(eds.),ActsoftheIINieborówPotteryWorkshop.Nieborów,18–20December1993.Warsaw,163–178.

Mazar,E.andMazar,B.,1989.ExcavationsintheSouthoftheTempleMount.TheOphelofBiblicalJerusalem.Jerusalem.

Mouton,M.,1992.Lapéninsuled’Omandelafindel’âgeduFeraudébutdelapériodesassanide(250av.–350ap.J.-C.).Thèsededoctorat.UniversitédeParisI(Panthéon-Sorbonne).

Müller,W.W.,1979.ArabianFrankincenseinAntiquityAccordingtoClassicalSources.StudiesintheHistoryofArabia.Vol.I.SourcesfortheHistoryofArabia.Riyadh,79–92.

Müller,W.W.,1984.SurveyoftheHistoryoftheArabianPeninsulafromtheFirstCenturyA.D.totheRiseofIslam.StudiesintheHistoryofArabia.VolumeII.Pre-IslamicArabia.Riyadh,125–131.

Munro-Hay,S.C.H.,1989.ExcavationsatAksum.AnAccountofResearchattheAncientEthiopianCapitalDirectedin1972–4bytheLateDr.NevilleChittick.London.

Munro-Hay,S.C.H.,1996.Aksumiteoverseasinterests.InReade,J.(ed.),TheIndianOceaninAntiquity.London,403–416.

Naumkin,V.V.,andSedov,A.V.,1993.MonumentsofSocotra.Topoi,3/2,569–623.

Negev,A.,1986.TheLateHellenisticandEarlyRomanPotteryofNabateanOboda.FinalReport.Jerusalem.

Orton,N.P.,1991.RedPolishedWareinGujarat:ACatalogueofTwelveSites.InBegley,V.anddePuma,R.P.(eds),RomeandIndia.TheAncientSeaTrade.Madison,46–81.

Palma,B.,andPanella,C.,1968.Anfore.OstiaI.LetermedelNuotatore.Scavodell’ambienteIV.Roma.

Panella,C.,1970.Anfore.OstiaII.LetermedelNuotatore.Scavodell’ambienteI.Roma,102–156.

Panella,C.,1973.Anfore.OstiaIII.LetermedelNuotatore.Scavodell’ambienteVetdiunsaggionell’area.Roma.

Panella,C.,1977.Anfore.OstiaIV.LetermedelNuotatore.Scavodell’ambienteXvedell’areaXXV.Roma,116–265.

Panella,C.,andFano,M.,1977.LeanforeconansebifideconservateaPompei:contributoadunaloroclassificazione.Méthodesclassiquesetméthodes

formellesdansl’étudedesamphores.Rome,133–177.

Peacock,D.P.S.,1984.TheAmphorae:TypologyandChronology.InFulford,M.G.,andPeacock,D.P.S.,ExcavationsatCarthage:theBritishMission.Vol.I,2.TheavenueduprésidentHabibBourguiba,Salambo:thepotteryandotherceramicobjectsfromthesite.London,116–140.

Peacock,D.P.S.,andWilliams,D.F.,1986.AmphoraeandtheRomanEconomy:anIntroductoryGuide.London-NewYork.

Pirenne,J.,1975.TheIncensePortofMoscha(KhorRori)inDhofar.JournalofOmanStudies,1,81–96.

Potts,D.T.,1998.NamordWareinSouthernArabia.ArabiaanditsNeighbours.InPhillips,C.S.,Potts,D.N.andSearight,S.(eds),EssaysonprehistoricalandhistoricaldevelopmentspresentedinhonourofBeatricedeCardi.Brepols(AbielII.NewResearchontheArabianPeninsula),207–220.

Pucci,G.,1985.Terrasigillataitalica.Enciclopediadell’arteantica.Classicaeorientale.Atlantedelleformeceramiche.II.CeramicafineromananelbacinoMediterraneo(tardoellenismoeprimoimpero).Roma,361–406.

Ar-Rafik,1966.An-Nafi”aladurubmanzumatayal-mallahBaTa’i’.Ta’lifMuhammad‘Abdal-QadirBaMatraf.Al-Mukalla,82–83.

Rao,S.R.,1966.ExcavationsatAmreli.AKshatrapa-Guptatown.Baroda.

RicercheaPompei,1984.RicercheaPompei:L’insula5dellaRegioVIdalleoriginial79d.c.I(campagnediscavo1976–1979).Rome.

Riley,J.A.,1979.TheCoarsePotteryfromBerenice.InLloyd,J.A.(ed.),ExcavationsatSidiKhrebishBenghazi(Berenice).Vol.II,Tripoli,91–497.

Riley,J.A.,1981.Thepotteryfromthecisterns1977.1,1977.2and1977.3.InHumphrey,J.H.,(ed.),ExcavationsatCarthage1977conductedbytheUniversityofMichigan.VolumeVI.AnnArbor,85–124.

Robin,Chr.,1984.Lacivilisationdel’Arabieméridionaleavantl’Islam.InChelhod,J.(ed.),L’ArabieduSud.Histoireetcivilisation.1.Lepeupleyéméniteetsesracines.Paris,195–224.

Robin,Chr.,1991.L’ArabieduSudetladateduPéripledelaMerÉrythrée(nouvellesdonnées).Journalasiatique,279,no.1–2,1–30.

Robin,Chr.,1992.Cités,royaumesetempiresdel’Arabieavantl’Islam.L’ArbieantiquedeKarib’îlàMahomet.Nouvellesdonnéessurl’histoiredes

Arabesgrâceauxinscriptions.Aix-en-Provence,45–54.

Robin,Chr.,1992a.Quelquesépisodesmarquantsdel’histoiresudarabique.L’ArbieantiquedeKarib’îlàMahomet.Nouvellesdonnéessurl’histoiredesArabesgrâceauxinscriptions.Aix-en-Provence,55–70.

Robin,Chr.,1997.ArabieMéridionale:l’étatetlesaromates.InAvanzini,A.(ed.),Profumid’Arabia.Attidelconvegno.Rome,37–56.

Robinson,H.,1959.PotteryoftheRomanPeriod.Princeton(TheAthenianAgora.V).

Salles,J.-F.,1984.Céramiquesdesurfaceàed-Dur,ÉmiratsArabesUnis.ArabieOrientale,MésopotamieetIranMéridionaledel’âgeduferaudébutdelapériodeislamique(Réuniondetravail,Lyon,1982,Maisondel’Orient).SousladirectiondeR.BoucharlatetJ.-F.Salles.Paris,241–270.

SallesJ.-F.1993.ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSeaandtheArab-PersianGulf.Topoi,3/2,493–524.

Schenk,H.,2001.ThedevelopmentofpotteryatTissamaharama.InWeisshaar,H.J,Roth,H.andWijeyapala,W.(eds),AncientRuhuna:SriLankan-GermanarchaeologicalprojectintheSouthernProvince.Vol.I.MainzamRhein,59–196.

Schmitt-Korte,K.,1974.DieBemaltenabatäischeKeramik,Vebreitung,TypologieundChronologie.PetraunddasKönigreichderNabatäer.München,70–93.

Schmitt-Korte,K.,1984.NabateanPottery.ATypologicalandChronologicalFramework.StudiesintheHistoryofArabia.Pre-IslamicArabia.Riyadh,7–40.

Sciallano,M.,andSibella,P.,1994.Amphores.Commentlesidentifier?Aix-en-Provence.

Sedov,A.,1992.NewArchaeologicalandEpigraphicalMaterialfromQana’(SouthArabia).ArabianarchaeologyandEpigraphy,3/2,110–137.

Sedov,A.V.,2003.NotesonstratigraphyandpotterysequenceatRaybanIsettlement(WesternwādīHad ramawt).Arabia.Revuedesabéologie.1.173–196.

Sedov,A.V.,2005.DrevnijHadramaut.Ocherkiarheologiiinumizmatiki(AncientHadramawt.EssaysonArchaeologyandNumismatics).Moscow.

Sedov,A.V.,2005a.TemplesofAncientHadramawt.ArabiaAntica3.Shihab,HasanSalih.,1984.‘Ulumal-’arabal-bahriya(Dirasatmukarana).Al-Kuwait.

Shirinskij,S.S.,1977.NovijpamjatnikjuznoarabskojarhitekturiIv.don.e.(AnewmonumentoftheSouthArabianarchitectureofthe1stcenturyB.C.).Istorijaikulturaantichnogomira(HistoryandCultureoftheClassicalWorld).Moscow,202–205.

Sidebotham,S.E.,1986.RomanEconomicPolicyintheErythraThalassa30BC–AD217.Leiden.

Sidebotham,S.E.,1989.PortsoftheRedSeaandtheArabia-IndiaTrade.L’Arabiepréislamiqueetsonenvironnementhistoriqueetculturel.ActesduColloquedeStrasbourg24–27juin1987.Éd.parT.Fahd.Leiden,195–223.

Singh,H.N.,1982.HistoryandarchaeologyofBlack-and-RedWare(Chalcolithicperiod).Delhi.

Slane,K.W.,1991.ObservationonMediterraneanAmphorasandTablewaresFoundinIndia.InBegley,V.,anddePuma,R.P.(eds),RomeandIndia.TheAncientSeaTrade.Madison,204–215.

Slane,R.W.,1996.OtherAncientCeramicsimportedfromtheMediterranean.InBegley,V.,TheAncientPortofArikamedu.NewExcavationsandResearches1989–1992.Vol.1.Pondichéry/Paris,351–368.

Sprenger,A.,1864.DiePost-undReiseroutendesOrients.AbhandlungenfürdieKundedesMorgenlandes,BandIII,no.3.Leipzig.

Tchernia,A.,1993.Romeetl’Inde:l’archeologietouteseule?(Begley,V.,anddePuma,R.D,1991.RomeandIndia.TheAncientSeaTrade).Topoi,3/2,525–534.

Tchernia,A.,1997.WindsandCoins:FromtheSupposedDiscoveryoftheMonsoontotheDenariiofTiberius.InDeRomanis,F.,andTchernia,A.(eds),Crossings.EarlyMediterraneanContactswithIndia.NewDelhi,250–276.

Tchernia,A.andZevi,F.,1972.AmphorasvinairesdecampanieetdetarraconaiseàOstie.Recherchessurlesamphoresromaines.Rome,35–67.

Toll,N.,1943.TheGreenGlazedPottery.InRostovtzeff,M.I.,Bellinger,A.R.,Brown,F.E.andWelles,C.B.(Eds),TheExcavationsatDura-Europos

ConductedbyYaleUniversityandtheFrenchAcademyofInscriptionsandLetters.FinalReportIV.Pt.I,fasc.1.NewHaven.

Tomber,R.,2004.AmphoraefromtheRedSeaandtheircontributiontotheinterpretationoflateRomantradebeyondtheEmpire.InEiring,J.,andLund,J.,TransportamphoraeandtradeintheEasternMediterranean.Mon.DanishInst.Athens,5,393–402.

Vinogradov,Ju.G.,1989.Grecheskajanadpis’izJuzhnojAravii(GreekInscriptionfromSouthArabia).Vestnikdrevnejistorii,2,162–167.

Wellsted,J.R.,1838.TravelsinArabia.VolumeII,London.

Wheeler,R.E.M.,1954.RomebeyondtheImperialFrontiers.London.

Wheeler,R.E.M.,etal.1946.Arikamedu:anIndo-RomanTrading-stationontheEastCoastofIndia.AncientIndia.BulletinoftheArchaeologicalSurveyofIndia,2,17–124.

Whitcomb,D.,1989.EvidenceoftheUmayyadPeriodfromtheAqabaExcavations.InBakhit,M.A.,andSchick,R.(eds),TheFourthInternationalConferenceontheHistoryofBiladal-ShamduringtheUmayyadPeriod.Vol.2.Amman.

Whitehouse,D.,andWilliamson,A.,1973.SasanianMaritimeTrade.Iran,vol.XI,29–49.

Will,E.L.,1991.TheMediterraneanShippingAmphorasfromArikamedu.InBegley,V.,anddePuma,R.P.(eds),RomeandIndia.TheAncientSeaTrade.Madison,151–156.

Will,E.L.,1996.MediterraneanShippingAmphoraeatArikamedu,1941–50Excavations.InBegleyV.,TheAncientPortofArikamedu.NewExcavationsandResearches1989–1992.Vol.1.Pondichéry/Paris,317–350.

Wissmann,H.von,1964.Himyar,AncientHistory.LeMuséon,77,3–4,429–497.

Wissmann,H.von,1977.DasweihrauchlandSa’kalān,SamārumundMoscha.Mit.BeiträgenvonW.W.Müller.Wien.

Zarins,J.,1997.PersiaandDhofar:AspectsofIronAge,InternationalPoliticsandTrade.InYoung,G.D,Chavalas,M.W.,andAverbeck,R.E.(eds),CrossingBoundariesandLinkingHorizons.Bethesda,Md.,615–689.

Chapter5:Frankincenseinthe‘Triangular’Indo-Arabian-RomanAromaticsTrade

SunilGupta

ThispaperendeavourstoshowthatarapidincreaseinthesouthArabianfrankincenseexportstotheRomanworldcreatedtheproblemofreciprocalsuppliesfortheRomans.Therewasaneedtoprovidemorethanthetraditionalelitegoods(wine,finecloth,statuary)totheHadramawt.ThisforcedtheRomanstoaugmenttheirexportstoArabiawithIndianfoodstuffandcloththathadasteadydemandinthearidpeninsula.Inparticular,theRomansexchangedIndianessentialsforfrankincenseattheharbourofKanê,takingadvantageoftheoldtradeinIndianbasicgoods(cereals,sesameoil,clothandiron)operationalalongthearcfromwesternIndiatothesouthernRedSea.

TherapidgrowthofthesouthArabianincensetradewiththeMediterraneanduringtheBC–ADtransitionwasaconsequenceofdirectRomanmaritimecontactwithYemenandthesouthernOman(Dhofar)regions.Thesailingguideofthe1stcenturyAD,PeriplusMarisErythraei,informsusthatmyrrhandfrankincense,twoaromaticresinsfromtreesnativetosouthArabia,wereexportedfromharboursabouttheGulfofAdentoRomanEgypt.SouthArabianincensetradewiththenorthernRedSearegionwasextantsincethe2ndmillenniumBCwhenPharaonictradingmissionsfirstventuredtothelegendarylandofPunt,mostprobablythepresentdayYemen(Meeks2003,53–80;Gupta2004,133–160).TherearerepeatedreferencestothemyrrhandfrankincenseofPuntinEgyptianhieroglyphicrecordsofthe2nd–1stmillenniumBC(Schoff1912,120–126;Kitchen1993,587–608).Intheearly1stmillenniumBC,caravanroutesemanatingfromsouthArabiacutacrosstheArabianpeninsulartothenorthernRedSearegionandthePersianGulf.Myrrhandfrankincenseconsignmentsmovedalongtheseroutes.TherockcutcityofPetrainJordan,capitaloftheNabataeankingdom,grewrichwiththeflowoftheoverlandincensetradefromsouthArabiaintheBC–ADtransition.Theconquestof

PtolemaicEgyptbytheRomansin30BCextendedthefrontiersoftheempiretotheRedSeacoastandopenedaccesstotheresourcesoftheIndianOceanlands,includingthemyrrhandfrankincenseofsouthArabia.

OurconcernhereiswiththesouthArabianfrankincensetradeanditsimplicationsfortheflourishingseacommercebetweentheRomanworldandtheIndiansubcontinentintheearlycenturiesAD.WhilefrankincenseexportstotheMediterraneanregionandthePersianGulflittoralarefairlywellrecordedinGreco-Romanhistoricalsourcesofthisperiod,thetextualrecordsaremostlysilentontheissueoffrankincensesuppliestotheIndiansubcontinent.ThePeriplusMarisErythraei,compiledbyananonymousmarinerinthemid1stcenturyAD,hasasolitaryreferencetotheimportoffrankincensetotheharbourofBarbarikonontheestuaryoftheriverIndus(PME39;Casson1989,75,191).WhileIndiantextualrecordsoftheearlyhistoricperiodmentionanumberofaromatics,thereisnoreferencetomyrrhorfrankincense.Onlyonesourcecomesclose.TheancientIndianeconomictreatise,theArthasastra(broadlydatedbetween3rdcenturyBCto3rdcenturyAD),mentions(Indian)aloe(Arth.2.11.57–58)and‘aloefromacrosstheseas’(Arth.2.11.59)initstreasurylist.ThelattermustsurelybetheArabianaloementionedinthePeriplus(section28)asamajorexport,togetherwithfrankincense,fromtheportofKanê.‘It(Kanê)exportslocalwares,namelyfrankincenseandaloe’(Casson1989,67).Kartunnen(1998,151–2)distinguishesbetweentheIndianandArabiantypesofaloe,‘Thenamesagallochumandaloerefertotwodifferentproducts,theIndianwoodofExcoecariaagallocha(so-calledeagle-wood,alsoknownasAloexylonaagallochumandAquilariaagallocha,OIAagaru,aguru,MIAagulu)andtheArabianleafofAloevera(A.barbadensis)andAloeperryi,alsocalledmedicinalAloe’.Thesearomatics,onearesinandotheraleaf,grewtogetherintheHadramiterritoriesandthereiseveryreasontobelievethatfrankincensecamewithaloetoIndiaasthePeriplus(section27)mentionsfrankincenseandaloeasmajorexportsoftheHadramawt.Recently,RussianarchaeologistsexploringtheislandofSocotraofftheYemencoastfoundfrankincenseandaloetreesgrowinginabundance(NaumkinandSedov1993,Photo2–1).AsIshalldiscuss,frankincensebecameamajorfixtureina‘triangular’tradeinvolvingRomans,IndiansandArabiansintheArabianSea.

FrankincensewasgrownineasternYemen(Hadramawt),southOman(Dhofar),ontheislandofSocotraoffYemenandtheSomaliancoast(discussionsinSchoff1912,120–143;Casson1989,162–167).MostofthefrankincenseexportswereroutedthroughtwomajorportsoftradeofthekingdomofHadramawt,KanêEmporiumandMoscha(seePMEsections28and

32)(Fig.5.1).Thetwoportsserviceddifferentfrankincenseproducingregions.KanêEmporiumreceivedthefrankincenseproducedintheHadramawtValleyandfromMoscha,thefrankincensefromthecoastaltractsoftheDhofar,isolatedfromtheHadramawtbyhighmountainsoftheQararange(Fig.5.1).AccordingtotheauthorofthePeriplusthefrankincenseintheDhofarregionwascalledSachaliticfrankincense(PME29,32;seecommentariesbySchoff1912,129–130;seedescriptionsoftheDhofarcoastinFiennes1992).Infact,theroyaltyofHadramawtspecificallydevelopedMoschaforthetradeinSachaliticfrankincense,sendingmilitaryofficersandsettlerstoopenthemosquitoriddencoastinthelate1stcenturyBC(Pirenne1975,81–96;Beeston1976,39–42).TheinitiationoftradeinSachaliticfrankincense,overandabovetheHadramivariety,musthavemadelargeamountsofthearomaticavailableforforeignmarkets.

Fig.5.1.MapoftheArabianSeashowingthe‘triangular’trade.

TheportsofKanêandMoschahavebeenidentifiedwiththesitesofBir‘Alī(HuṣnalGhurāb)andKhorRori(Fig.5.1)(Schoff1912,116;Casson1989,161;vanBeek,1958,142;Avanzini,1994,55;Avanzinietal.,2002).ArchaeologicalexcavationsatthesitesofKanê(modernBi’r‘Alī)andMoscha(modernKhorRori)havebroughttolightstructures(warehouseatKanêandseafortatMoscha)andRoman,IndianandParthianwares.WorkatBi’r‘Alīis

summarized,forexample,bySedov(1992,110–37;1996,11–35andchapter4above)andSallesandSedov(2002)whileforMoscha/KhorRori(seeAvanzini(2002)),allwithreferencestoearlierwork.ItappearsthatKhorRoriwasfortifiedinthelate1stcenturyBCandcontinueduntil5thcenturyAD.ThepresenceofRomanamphoraeingoodnumbersatBi’r‘AlīandKhorRori,togetherwithconspicuousamountsofpotteryfromtheIndiansubcontinentandthePersianGulfregioncorroboratethePeriplus’conceptionofKanêandMoschaas‘international’portsoftrade(Fig.5.2).ThecomponentofRomanceramicsdominatedthepotterycorpusfromtheKanêexcavations,constitutingalmost75%ofthetotalwaresregisteredbytheRussian-Yemenexcavationteam(Sedov1992,116).ThesituationatKhorRoriwassimilar,exceptthatRomanpotterywasinhundredsandnotthousandsasatKanê/Bi’r‘Alī(SedovandBenvenuti2002,11–12).TheIndianpotteryatKhorRoricomprisedmainlycookingvessels(SedovandBenvenuti,11–12).Somespecifictypes,characterizedbycoarselyfiredredfabric,werecirculatinginawidearcfromwesternIndiathroughtheGulfofAdenregionrightuptotheEgyptiancoast.AlsopresentontheHaḍhramīcoastarefinewaresinspiredbytheIndianRedPolishedWare(RPW)tradition(Sedov1996,11–35).TheoriginoftheRPWhasbeenassociatedwiththeRomanterrasigillatatradition.ArchaeologistshavebeenatpainstodistinguishbetweenanArabianimitationofsigillataandIndianRedPolishedWareexcavatedfromKanêandKhorRori(YuleandKervran1993,69–106).Theinferencethatcanbedrawnisthatasyncreticredwaretradition,inspiredbyfineRomanredwares,hadgrownonbothsidesoftheArabianSeaduringtheBC–ADtransition.TheexoticceramicspointtothecomingtogetherofArabian,RomanandIndianmercantileinterestsattheHadramawtports.CrucialinformationinthePeripluspointstothishappening.Therelevant

information,concernedwithtradeactivityatMoscha,iscontainedinsection32ofthePeriplus,

‘…thosesailingbyfromLimyrikeorBarygazathatpassedthewinter(sc.AtMoscha)becauseoftheseasonbeinglate,byarrangementwiththeroyalagentstakeon,inexchangeforcottonclothandgrainandoil,areturncargooffrankincense…’

(Casson1989,71)

Fig.5.2.IndiancookingwaresfromKamrej,KhorRori.

WhoweretheshipperscomingfromIndiaand‘sailingby’Moscha?Schoff(1912,140–141)hasnothingtosayontheidentityofshipsexchangingwheatforfrankincense.Hisuseoftheterm‘returning’insteadof‘sailingby’issuggestiveofRomanshipsontheirwaybacktoEgyptafterdeliveringconsignmentsinIndia.Presumably,someofthesereturningshipswinteredatMoscha(Schoff1912,34–5)andCasson(1989,71),whosetranslationisexcerptedabove.ThestatementthatlatecomerswinteredatMoschasuggeststhatnormallytheporttheyweresailingtowouldhavebeenfurther,namelyKanê.Furthermore,Casson(1989,172–3)assumesthesailorstobeIndian.Salles(1993,516)isoftheopinionthattheshipperswhotookfoodconsignmentsfromBarygazatotheArabianPeninsulawereArabsandPersians.Inmyopinion,thevesselsmakinglandfallatMoschabelongedtoArabo-Persians,Indians,Romans;allimportantplayersinthemaritimetradeoftheArabianSea.ThisisindicatedbythesubstantialdepositionofRomanamphoraeandIndiancookingwaresatMoscha/KhorRori,besidestheArabianandParthianceramics.ThePeriplus(section30)mentionsthatPersian,IndianandGreekexpatriatemerchantsresidinginthenearbyislandofSocotra.ThesamesituationmusthaveobtainedatMoschaandKanê.

ThePeriplusinformsusthatsomeoftheclothandgrainandsesameoiltradedatMoschawassourcedinwesternIndia.ThisisestablishedbythereferencetoBarygazaasoneofthesourcesoftheconsignmentsreachingMoscha.ThebasicgoodstradedatMoscha/KhorRoriarethesamesetofessentialsthePeriplusmentionsasthetraditionalproductsofSyrastrene(Saurashtra)inwesternIndia.OfthegoodsofSyrastrene,section41ofthePeriplusinforms,‘Theregion,veryfertile,producesgrain,rice,sesameoil,ghee,cottonandtheIndianclothsmade

fromit,thoseofordinaryquality’(Casson1989,77).AsimilarsetofgoodswereshippedfromthegreatharbourofBarygaza(modernBharuch,westernIndia)totheinhabitantsofSocotraisland,theSomali‘farside’portsandtheAksumiteportofAdulisnearthesouthernRedSea(PME6,14,31,32).TheinternalevidenceofthePeriplussuggeststhatMoschawasintegraltoamaritimenetworksupplyingIndianessentialgoodsfromOmanthroughtheGulfofAdenanduptothesouthernRedSeaduringtheBC–ADtransition.

Fig.5.3.ThesiteofKamrej.

TheevidencefrommyrecentexcavationsatKamrej,anearlyhistoricportonthewestcoastofIndia,corroboratestheinformationprovidedbythePeriplus(Guptaetal.2004,9–33).EarlyhistoricKamrej,locatedonthebanksoftheriverTapisome40kmupstreamoftheGulfofKhambhat,hasbeenidentifiedasthesettlementofKammonimentionedinthePeriplus(Gupta1993,119–127)(Fig.5.3).WediscoveredlargequantitiesofricegrainsclosetoakilnproducingthetypeofIndiantransportvesselsfoundatMoschaandQuseir.RiceismentionedinthePeriplusasoneofthebasicexportsfromwesternIndia(Fig.5.4).Whitefibrousmaterialembeddedinthesectionsclosetotheriversideissuspectedtoberemnantsofcotton(Fig.5.5),anothermajoritemofexporttotheArabianpeninsula.Alsoalargenumberofironfurnacescametolight.IhavemadetheassertionthatKamrejwasamajorironmakingcenterexportingironandsteeltoEthiopia(Gupta1993,119–127).ThisprojectionhasbeengivencredibilitybytheidentificationbyTomber(2005)ofanamphora-likehandle

foundatKamrejaspartofanAksumitevesseldatingtothe4thcenturyAD(Fig.5.6).ThisisthefirstAksumitevesseloftheEarlyHistoricperiodtobefoundinIndia.ThematerialindicatorsforlongdistancetradeatKamrejstronglycorroboratethecriticalreferencesinthePeriplustotheIndiantradeinessentialsinthewesternIndianOceansphere.ThistradeextendedfromwesternIndiatothesouthernRedSea,formingapowerfulmaritimenetwork.Thetradewasold,rootedintheantiquityoftheBronzeAge.TheHarappanandLateHarappanceramicdepositioninOmanhasbeenassociatedwiththeexportoffoodfromagriculturallyrichwesternIndiatothesemi-aridLowerGulfregion(Cleuziou1992,93–103).TheHarappan–EarlyHistoricparallelismsuggeststhatthe‘food’networkswerestillenduringafterthecollapseoftheHarappanCivilization.Infact,thetradeinessentialsstillcarrieson,withdhowsladenwithflourandonionsregularlysettingsailfromwesternIndiatotheGulf(Sahani1997,9–18).Clearly,twodistinctnetworksarevisibleinthewesternIndianOceanduringthetimeofthePeriplus,theoldtradeconduitsdealinginessentialsandtherobustandnewIndo-Romancommodityexchangefocusedonhighvaluecommodities.

Fig.5.4.RicefromKamrejexcavations.

Fig.5.5.ClothremainsfromKamrej.

Fig.5.6.AksumitesherdfromKamrej.

ItmusthavemadesenseforRomanshippersreturningtoEgyptfromIndiatotakeadvantageoftheIndianfoodsupplylinestotheGulfofAdenregion.Liquidstocklikesesameoilandperishableslikegrain/wheat/ricebroughtfromwesternIndiatoMoschaandKanêmusthavegeneratedahighdemandforcontainerwares.Inthiscontext,theamphorae,asreusablecontainersessentiallyconstructedforseatransport,musthavecomeingooduse.Aspointedout,themajorityofforeignwaresintheLowerPeriodatKanêaretypicallycontainersforwine.ThebulkoftheamphoraefragmentshavebeenidentifiedastheDressel2–4,apopularcontainerforwineinthe1stcenturyBCto2ndcenturyAD(PeacockandWilliams1986).Similarly,theDressel2–4formwasthedominanttypeatMoscha/KhorRori.InwesternIndia,aDressel2–4amphora‘continuum’hasbeendelineatedattheEarlyHistoricsiteofNevasa(Guptaetal.2001,7–18)(Fig.5.7).ItisnotfarfetchedtoimagineascenariowhereRomanshipperscarryingwineamphoraetoIndiaheldbackpartorwholeoftheiramphoraeaftersellingoffthewineatIndianportsandfilledtheexcesscontainerswithsesameoilandwheatforArabianmarkets.Thecirculatingamphoraewouldhavebeenconstantlyreplenishedasthebrokenoneswerediscarded.NumerousbrokenamphoraereusedasabuoyancyaidwerefoundintheharbourfrontatQuseirinEgypt,butthesecouldderivefromawreckatthemouthoftheharbour(Peacocketal.2000;2001;2006).ThelargeamphoradepositionatKanêandKhorRoriwasprobablyformedbyaccumulationofdiscardscreatedbyconstantexchange,breakageandreplenishmentofstock.ThelargenumbersofIndianstoragejarsatKhorRorisuggestthesameprocess.

Fig.5.7.Dressel2–4amphoraefromNevasa.

Animportantthemeemergingfromthearchaeo-historicalevidenceisthestrongHadrami,ascomparedtotheHimyarite,engagementwithIndo-Romanseatradedynamics.TheconspicuousRomanpresenceontheHadramicoast,togetherwithdeeplinkageswithIndiavisibleinthearchaeologicalrecord,areexpressiveofthebroader‘Indo-Roman’schemeintowhichHadramawthadbeendrawn.ThehistoricalandmaterialindicatorssuggestthatthedramaticriseindemandforsuppliesoffrankincensefromthesouthArabiancoastforcedtheRomanstothinkofothersupplystrategiesforthetrade.Thisdevelopedasthe‘triangular’tradeinvolvingsouthArabians,RomansandIndiansinauniquerelationship.Wehaveinstancesofsuchtradeinothertimes,themostdramaticbeingthesubstitutionofopiumforthegoldtheBritishwerepayingtheChineseforteaandothergoodsinthe19thcentury(Vinacke1960,34–5;Fairbanketal.

1989,448–57;Perkins1999,368–9).

‘Whilethefirsttradewasentirelyonesided,Chineseproductsbeingpaidforinspecieorbullion,anexchangeofcommoditieswasgraduallybuiltup….itwasonlyafteropiumbegantofigurelargelyintheimportsthatspeciewasnolongerneededtosettleabalanceadversetotheforeigners’

(Vinacke1960,34–5)

TheportofCalcutta(modernKolkata)ineasternIndiawasdevelopedbytheBritishasthesupplyrouteforIndianopiumtoChina,savingtheBritishtreasuryofa‘drainofwealth’.TheseeventssparkedtheinfamousOpiumWarsinthe19thcentury.Nearlytwomillenniaago,PlinysharedthesentimentsofthecolonialBritish,complainingintheRomansenateoftheadversebalanceofRomantradewithIndiaandoftheIndianpracticeofdrainingtheRomansoftheirgoldinreturnforspicesanddiaphanouscloth.Giventhesituation,theRomanscouldnotaffordtosupplylargequantitiesofgoldandsilvercoinstosouthArabiansinreturnforincense.TheRomanswerealreadypumpingtheirspecieintoIndia.ItisinterestingtonotethatalthoughlargequantitiesofcoinwereimportedintoKanê(Casson1989,67)overallimportsintoIndiawereonafargreaterscalethanthosetoArabia(cf.Turner1989;Sidebotham1989).NeithercouldtheyconquersouthArabiamilitarily,asGallus’abortedmissionof25–16BCproved.ThestrategyofmakingcheapIndianessentialspayforfrankincensesuppliestolucrativemarketsintheMediterraneanmusthaveseemedareadyandworthwhilesolution.The‘aromaticsforfood’trade,asitregularised,musthavecontributedinparttotheheavydepositionofMediterraneanamphoraeandIndiantradepotteriesintheHadramiports.

Bibliography

Albright,F.P.,1982.TheAmericanArchaeologicalExpeditiontoDhofar,Oman1952–53.WashingtonD.C.,PublicationoftheAmericanFoundationforStudyofMan.

Avanzini,A.,1994.TheRedSeaandArabia,inAncientRomeandIndia.InR.M.Cimino(ed.).AncientRomeandIndia.53–59.Delhi-Rome

Avanzini,A.,2002.KhorRoriReport1.Pisa.

Avanzini,A.,Buffa,V.,Lombardini,A.,Orazi,R.andSedov,A.1999–2000.

ExcavationsandRestorationoftheComplexofKhorRoriMID’sInterimReport(1999–2000),EVO22–23(1999–2000),189–228.

Beeston,A.F.L.,1976.TheSettlementatKhorRori,JournalofOmanStudies,2,39–42.

Casson,L.,1989.PeriplusMarisErythraei.Princeton.

Cleuziou,S.,1992.TheOmanPeninsulaandtheIndusCivilization,AReassessment,ManandEnvironment,17(2),93–103.

Cleveland,R.L.,1960.The1960AmericanExpeditiontoDhofar,BulletinoftheAmericanSchoolofOrientalResearch,159,14–26.

Fairbank,J.F.,Reischaner,E.O.,andCraig,A.M.,1989.EastAsia,TraditionandTransformation.Delhi.

Fiennes,R.,1992.AtlantisoftheSands.London.

Gupta,S.,1993.TheLocationofKammoni(Periplus43),ManandEnvironment,(JournaloftheIndianSocietyforPrehistoricandQuaternaryStudies),18,119–127.

Gupta,S.,2004.MonsoonEnvironmentsandtheIndianOceanInteractionSphereinAntiquity,3000BC–AD300.InY.YasudaandV.Shinde(eds.)MonsoonandCivilization,133–160.Delhi.

Gupta,S.,Williams,D.,andPeacock,D.,2001.Dressel2–4AmphoraeandRomanTradewithIndia,theevidencefromNevasa.JournalofSouthAsianStudies,17,7–18.

Gupta,S.P.,SunilGupta,TejasGarge,RohiniPandey,AnujaGeetaliandSonaliGupta,2004.OnthefastTrackofthePeriplus,ExcavationsatKamrej–2003.JournalofIndianOceanArchaeology,1,67–79.

Kitchen,K.A.,1993.TheLandofPunt.InT.Shaw,Sinclair,P.andOkpoko,A.(eds)TheArchaeologyofAfrica.LondonandNewYork.587–608.

Meeks,D.,2003.LocatingPunt.InD.O’ConnorandS.Quirke(eds)MysteriousLands.London,InstituteofArchaeology,UCL.53–80.

Naumkin,V.V.,andSedov,A.V.,1993.MonumentsofSocotra,Topoi,3,569–622.

Peacock,D.,andBlue,L.,2006.MyosHormos–Quseiral-Qadim,Romanand

IslamicportsontheRedSea.Volume1,Surveyandexcavations1999–2003.Oxford.

Peacock,D.,Blue,L.,Bradford,N.andMoser,S.,2000.MyosHormos/QuseiralQadim,ARomanandIslamicPortontheRedSeaCoastofEgypt.InterimReportsofExcavations.Southampton,UniversityofSouthampton.

Peacock,D.,Blue,L.,Bradford,N.,andMoser,S.,2001.MyosHormos/QuseiralQadim,ARomanandIslamicPortontheRedSeaCoastofEgypt.InterimReportsofExcavations.Southampton,UniversityofSouthampton.

Peacock,D.,andWilliams,D.,1986.AmphoraeandtheRomanEconomy.AnIntroductoryGuide.LondonandNewYork.

Perkins,D.,1999.EncyclopaediaofChina.London.

Pirenne,J.,1975.TheIncensePortofMoscha(KhorRori)inDhofar.JournalofOmanStudies,1,81–96.

Sahani,L.,1997.EthnoarchaeologyofHarappanSeaTrade.ManandEnvironment,22(1),9–18.

Salles,J-F.,1993.ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSeaandtheArab-PersianGulf.Topoi,3(2),493–523.

Salles,J-F,andSedov,A.,2002.Qani,leportantiqueduHadhramawtentrelaMediterranée,l’Afriqueetl’Inde,Fouillesruses,1985–94.Leiden.

Schoff,W.H.,1912.ThePeriplusoftheErythraeanSea.(reprint1995).NewDelhi.

Sedov,A.V.,1992.NewArchaeologicalandEpigraphicalmaterialfromQana’(SouthArabia).ArabianArchaeologyandEpigraphy,3,110–137.

Sedov,A.V.,1996.Qana’(Yemen)andtheIndianOcean,theArchaeologicalEvidence.InH.P.RayandJ-F.Salles(eds)TraditionandArchaeology,EarlyMaritimeContactsintheIndianOcean,11–35.Delhi.

Sidebotham,S.E.,1986a.RomanEconomicPolicyintheErythraThalassa(31BC–217AD).Leiden.

Tomber,R.,2005.AksumiteandotherRedSeaCeramicsfromKamrej.JournalofIndianOceanArchaeology,2,99–102.

Sedov,A.V.,andBenvenuti,C.,2002.ThePotteryofSumhuram,generaltypology.InA.Avanzini(Ed)KhorRoriReport1.Pisa.177–148.

Turner,P.,1989.RomanCoinsfromIndia.InstituteofArchaeology.London.OccasionalPaperNo.12andRoyalNumismaticSocietySpecialPublicationNo.22.

Yule,P.,andKervran,M.,1993.MorethanSamadinOman,IronAgepotteryfromSuharandKhorRori.ArabianArchaeologyandEpigraphy,4,69–106.

Vinacke,H.M.,1960.AHistoryoftheFarEastinModernTimes.London.

Chapter6:IncenseinMithraicRitual:TheEvidenceoftheFinds

JoannaBird

ThispaperwasoriginallypublishedinRomanMithraism:theevidenceofthesmallfinds,editedbyMarleenMartensandGuyDeBoe,Brussels2004.Wearegratefultotheeditorsandpublishersforpermissiontoincludeithere.1

SummaryThepaperdiscussestheevidencefortheuseofincenseinMithraicritual.Thiscomesmainlyfromfindsmadeinmithraea,andincludesbothsmallerobjects,suchaspotteryvesselsandironaltar-shovels,andmoresubstantialmonuments,suchassculptures,mosaicsandwall-paintings.Theevidenceindicatesthatincensewasanimportantelementintherites,andthatthefourthgradeofinitiation,theLion,wasinstrumentalinitsuse.Thecommonestfindsarepotterycensersorthuribles,ofwhichthreetypeshavebeenidentified;thedecorationonsomeofthesevesselsisofparticularrelevance.Onespecifictypeofincense,theconesofPinuspinea,mayhavebeenusedinritualsassociatedwiththegod’sbirth.

Bythelater1stcenturyAD,theperiodwhenMithraismbegantospreadintothewesternRomanprovinces,thecustomofburningincensewasalreadymorethan3000yearsold.IntheRomanworlditwasanintrinsicfeatureofpublicanddomesticreligiousritual,ofreligiousandceremonialprocessionsandofpurificatoryandfuneraryrites,anditwasalsousedincelebrationssuchasweddings,triumphsandfeasts(Atchley1909,46–60).Aswellasthearomaticgumswhichformtheusualbaseforincense,spices,scentedwoodsandperfumedoilscouldbeadded,andforsomeritesverypreciseandelaborateformulaewereprescribed(Miller1998,26).Mythandlegendsurroundedthesourceandcollectionofincenseandspices,whichwereallbelievedtocomefromArabia,alandopentothefullfierypowerofthesun.Thishotdryorigin

wasseenasendowingthemwiththeirfragranceandincorruptibility,qualitieswhichfittedthemfortheirroleasafoodandsacrificeforthegods,andasamediumofcommunicationbetweengodsandmen(Detienne1997,especially6–19).Infact,whilefrankincense,myrrhandbalsamarenativetosouthArabia,manyotherperfumesandspiceswerebroughtfrommuchfurthereast,partofacomplexandcostlytradeinluxurygoodsforwhichArabiaandtheRedSeaweremajorpointsofentry(Miller1998,especially98–109,map5).

ThatincenseplayedanimportantroleinMithraicritualisdemonstratedbyoneofthepaintedinscriptionsonthewallsoftheSantaPriscamithraeuminRome.Twosuperimposedlayersofpaintingshowprocessionsofmembersofthefourthgradeofinitiation,theLion,bringingofferingstotheFatherofthecommunity.ThefiguresareidentifiedasLionsbytheinscriptionsabovetheirheads,andtheirgiftsincludeanimals,acockerel,loaves,candlesand,carriedbytheLionsNiceforus,HeliodorusandPhoebus,threelargecraters(Vermaseren1956/1960,nos481,1–6,and482,1–8).Aninscriptiononthelowerlayerofpainting,abovethemealofSolandMithras,reads:accipethuricremospateraccipesancteleones/perquosthuradamosperquosconsumimuripsi(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.485).WhilethepreciseMithraicsenseofthelastphrase,‘bywhomweareourselvesconsumed’,maybeopentointerpretation,theearlierpart–‘receivetheincense-burners,Father,receivetheLions,holyone,throughwhomweofferincense’–clearlyimpliesthattheLionsofferedincenseonbehalfofall.FortheLionstoberesponsiblefortheburningofincensewouldbeappropriate,sincethegradewasunderthetutelageofJupiterandwasassociatedwithfire;TertulliandescribestheLionsas‘ofadryandfierynature’(aridaeetardentisnaturae:AdversusMarcionem,1.13.4),andintheSantaPriscapaintingstheyaredressedinred.Inadditiontoitsmorecustomaryuseasanofferinginitsownright,incensewouldhavebeenacomponentinMithraicfirerituals:theseareindicatedbyanumberoffinds,includinganinscribedstonebasinfromKönigshoffenwithtracesofpitchinside(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1370;Clauss2000,fig.84)andanaltarfromHeddernheimmithraeumIwithabowlcutintothetopinwhichafirecouldbeignitedfrombelow(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1095;Huld-Zetsche1986,no.3).ThemithraeumnearSanMartinoaiMontiinRomecontainedseventorchesoffir-woodcoatedwith‘tar’(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.356).

TheattributesoftheLiongradeshownonthemosaicfloorofthemithraeumofFelicissimusatOstiaconsistofJupiter’sthunderbolt,asistrumorrattle,andavatillum,afire-oraltar-shovel(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.299,8;Becatti1954,pl.25,4;Clauss2000,fig.101).TheSantaPriscawall-paintingsalsoinclude

superimposedprocessionsofthesevengrades,andonbothlayerstheLioniscarryingwhatisprobablyavatillum,withtheinscriptionaboveNamaLeonibustutelaIovis:‘HailtotheLions,undertheprotectionofJupiter’(Vermaseren1956/1960,nos480,and484).Tworeliefsshowingmembersofthegradewearingtheirlionmasksandcarryingaltar-shovelshavebeenrecoveredfrommithraeumIIIatHeddernheim(Vermaseren1956/1960,nos1123and1126/1134;Huld-Zetsche1986,nos.33and39/61;fortherestorationofVermaseren1956/1960,nos1126/1134asonesculpture,Wamser2000,406,Katalog179c).AsecondmosaicfromOstia,fromthemithraeum‘degliAnimali’,showsashaggy-hairedfigure,perhapswearingalionmask,holdingavatillumandasickle,whichontheFelicissimusmosaicisanattributeofthefifthandseventhgrades,thePersianandFather(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.279;Becatti1954,pl.18,1;Clauss2000,figs102,104).InthemithraeumatCarrawburghonHadrian’sWallremainsofanironaltar-shovelwerefoundwhichheldtracesofacharcoalcomposedofpine-cones–asourceofincense,discussedfurtherbelow–andhazel-wood(RichmondandGillam1951,20,87,pl.15B,fig.4).

Anumberofmithraeainthenorth-westernprovinceshavenowproducedevidencefortheburningofincense.ThisusuallyconsistsofthepotteryvesseltypeknowninBritainasatazzaandinGermanyasaRäucherkelchorRäucherschale;ithaslongbeenidentifiedasanincenseburnerfromitsoccurrenceinreligiousandfunerarycontextsandfromthetracesofsootorburningthatarefrequentlyfoundontheinterior.2Boththeform,acarinateddishorbowlonapedestalfoot,andthedecoration,‘pie-crust’frillingorheavybandsofnotchedorroulettedornament,aredistinctiveandcharacteristic.Thepotswereusuallymadeinalight-coloured,relativelycoarsefabricwhichwasprobablydeliberatelyselectedtopreventcrackingwhenhotcharcoalwasplacedinside.Somemithraeahavenowproducedsignificantnumbersofthesevessels(Schatzmann1997,35;2004,13),andoveronehundredcamefromtheritualpitfoundatthemithraeumatTieneninBelgium(Martens2004a,32–34,fig.5,4).AlidfromTienenhasappliedandinciseddecorationshowingaman’sheadwithalion’smane,acraterandasnake(thelion,snakeandcratertriadisdiscussedfurtherbelow),andisheavilysoot-stainedunderneath;itisoftherightdimensionstohavebeenusedwithanincense-burnerofthistype(Martens2004a,34,fig.9,2).ItisperhapsrelevanttonoteherearelieffromthemithraeumatKönigshoffenwhichshowstheMithraicwingedgod(unusuallyhuman-headedratherthanlion-headed)accompaniedbyalion;theanimal’sheadisbentoverasnake-entwinedcraterandthereisanupturnedpot,

presumablythelidofthevessel,ontheground(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1326).Thewingedgodwasassociatedwithfire,andarelieffromRomeshowshim,lion-headed,holdingapairoftorchesandignitinganaltarfirewithhisbreath(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.383;Clauss2000,fig.121);theKönigshoffenimagemaythusreflecttheroleoftheLiongradeintheritualsoffireandincense.

Fig.6.1.1:handledtazzafromFriedberg(afterHorn1994).2:pierced-rimvesselfromZeughausstrasse,Köln(afterBinsfeld1960–61).3:pierced-rimvesselfromKölnmithraeumI(afterBehrens1952).4:pierced-rimvesselfromMainz(aftervonPfeffer1960andHuld-Zetsche1984).5:pierced-rimvesselfromStockstadtmithraeumII(afterSchleiermacher1928andaphotograph

courtesyofM.Marquart,MuseenderStadtAschaffenburg).

Alargerdeeperversionoftheform,requiringtheadditionoftwohandles,wasrecoveredfromthemithraeumatFriedberg(Fig.6.1:1).Itisdecoratedwithappliedmotifs,ascorpionandathree-rungedladderononefaceandasnaketwiningupeachhandle;thenumberofrungsindicatesthatitwasavotiveofferingfromaninitiatewhohadattainedthethirdgrade,theSoldier(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1061;Schwertheim1974,no.47,l,Taf.10;Bird2001,304,306,fig.29.3).3AfragmentofwhatisprobablyavesselofsimilarformcomesfrommithraeumIIIatHeddernheim;itisinafinepalefabricwithnarrowroulettedlinesandred-paintedlatticedecoration,andhasanappliedsnakeclimbinguptowardstherim;thesnakeisdecoratedwithincisedrings(Huld-Zetsche1986,no.53,Abb.28).Asecondfragment,alsofromHeddernheimbutitsprecisefindspotunknown,consistsoftherimandpartofonehandlewithacrestedsnake’sheadonthetop;itisinawhite-slippedfabricwithfrilledrimandrowsofrouletting,andthesnakeisdecoratedwithincisedlinesandtheremainsofredpaint.Theinteriorissoot-stained(Huld-Zetsche1986,no.64,Abb.29).

Asecond,muchsmaller,groupofpotteryvesselsprobablyalsofunctionedascensers.Thesearetwo-handledjarsorcraterswithabroadinnerrimthatispiercedwithbetweenfiveandeightholes;theiroccurrenceinmithraeastronglysuggestsaritualpurpose,anduseascensersorthuribleswouldfitboththeunusualshapeandtheassociateddecoration(Bird2001,304;Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger1985,364–365).Theincenseandglowingcharcoalwouldhavebeenplacedinsidethepot,withalidcoveringthecentralopeningsothatthescentedsmokewouldseepfromtheholes.Althoughnolidshavebeenfoundinassociationwiththepots,theinnerlipisshapedtocarryone,andalidfoundinBreitestrasse,Köln,decoratedwithanappliedsnakeandofapproximatelytherightsize,showsthesortoflidthatmightbeexpected(Ristow1974,no.36,Taf.20,Abb.24).Analternativepossibilityisthatthescentedsmokedriftedoutofthecentralopeningwhiletheholesintherimheldslendertapers.Thiswouldproduceawreathoflight,recallingthepiercedradiatecrownsoncertainimagesofMithras-Solwhichcouldbeilluminatedduringtherituals(Clauss2000,125–126),buttheoccurrenceofthisandothersimilartypesofpierced-rimpotfromnon-Mithraiccontextsshowsthatthiswasnotpartoftheprimarydesign(cf.Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger1985).

Atleastfivepierced-rimcensershaveeitherbeenrecoveredfrommithraeaorbeardistinctivelyMithraicdecoration;theyaredescribedindetailinBird(2001).ThemostsignificantcomesfromtheprobablemithraeumonZeughausstrasse,Köln(Fig.6.1:2).Ithasalionononehandleandasnake

windingfromthebaseofthishandle,alongthebackofthepotanduptheotherhandle,originallytotherim.ThefrontcarriesbarbotineandpainteddecorationshowingSol-MithrasstandingbetweenCautesandCautopatesandcastingincenseonaflamingaltar;hislefthandholdsaroundobjectwhichmaybeasmalljarfortheincense,butitisdecoratedwithcrossedbandsandsomayrepresentthecelestialglobe(Fig.6.2).Bothfacesareornamentedwithpaintedstars,reinforcingthecosmicimagery;onthebackthestarsareplacedbetweenthecoilsofthesnake(Binsfeld1960–61,Abb.4;Ristow1974,no.14,Taf.16,Abbn18,19;Schwertheim1974,no.15,a,Taf.5;Bird2001,303,fig.29.1,1).ThefigureofSol-Mithrasclearlyassociatesthepotwiththeofferingofincense,andalsoshowsthatincensewascastonaltarfiresinmithraea,aswascustomaryintheRomanworld(Atchley1909,46–56,90–91,andillustrationopposite319).Amotifofsevenflamingaltarsoccursonanumberofcultreliefs,suchasthatfromthemithraeumnearSantaLuciainSelgeinRome(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.368;Clauss2000,fig.50).Inthiscontext,thelionontherimofthepotwouldseemtorefertotheroleoftheLiongradeintheritual.

Fig.6.2.DetailofthevesselshownonFig.6.1:2,withSol-Mithrasofferingincense;thealtarislargelymissing(afterRistow1974).

Asecondofthesepots,fromtheRichmodmithraeum(mithraeumI)inKöln,alsocarriesasnakeandliononthehandleswitharavenontherimbetweenthem,probablyindicatingavotivegiftfromaninitiateofthefirstgrade,theRaven(Fig.6.1:3)(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1020;Behrens1952,Abb.3;

Ristow1974,no.9,Taf.13,Abb.14;Schwertheim1974,no.10,b;Bird2001,303,306,fig.29.1,2).Athirdexample,fromMainz,isinfinered-paintedWetterauware;onefacecarriesasceneofMithrassurroundedbystarsandpursuingthebull,theotherhasahillylandscapeofpineorcypresstreespaintedamongthewindingsofanappliedsnake(Fig.6.1:4).Ascorpionsitsontherim,suggestingthatthiswasanofferingfromamemberofthesamegradeastheFriedbergpot(vonPfeffer1960;Schwertheim1974,no.94,a,Taf.23;Huld-Zetsche1984,no.12,Taf.8;Bird2001,303,306,fig.29.1,3).Themotifsonthehandleshavebrokenaway,butthedifferentialfiringofsurfaceandcorehaslefttheshapeofalion’sfrontpawsdiscernibleabovethehandleononeside.Althoughthehandleseemsrathersmallforalionmount,theterrasigillatacraterhandlefromTienenalsohasarelativelylargelionappliedtoit,withasnakeonthecompanionhandle(Martens2004a,34,fig.9,1;Thomas2004,204,fig.7).ThelesscompletescaronthesecondhandleoftheMainzcenserwouldhavebeenleftbytheheadofthesnakeonthewall.4

Afourthpierced-rimcenserwasrecoveredfrommithraeumIIatStockstadtamMain.Unfortunatelythispotdidnotreachmuseumcare,andonlyadrawing,publishedin1928,andaratherdarkphotographnowsurvive.Fig.6.1:5isbasedonthephotograph,whichshowsfouranimalsattherim.Thetwoonthehandlesarelarger,anditistemptingtosuggestthattheyarecouchedlionsbutthedetailsarebynomeansclear;atleastoneofthecreaturesbetweenthemisalongsnake,itsbodymarkedbyincisedlines(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1220;Schleiermacher1928,Abb.8;Ulbert1963,Abb.7;Schwertheim1974,no.117,h;Bird2001,303–4,fig.29.1,4;photographcourtesyofM.Marquart).AfurtherexamplecomesfromthemithraeumatDieburg;itissimilarinshapetothepaintedonefromMainzbutslightlylarger,withlesselaboratelymouldedrimandhandle.Ithasnoappliedanimalsattherim,buttheupperwallapparentlybearsveryfainttracesofreddishpaint(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1269;Behrens1952,Abb.2;Schwertheim1974,no.123,r;Bird2001,304).Finally,avesselofwhatseemstobeasimilarforminterrasigillata,decoratedwithanelaboratelyscalysnakeandcarryingpartofaninciseddedicationabovebarbotinefiguresofMithras,CautesandLuna,wasfoundatthemithraeumatBiesheiminAlsace(PétryandKern1978,fig.6,A;Bird2001,304,306,fig.29.1,5;Thomas2004,204,fig.8).

AfurthertypeofpotteryincenseburnerisattestedfrommithraeaatRome.Thisisasmallaltar-shapedvesselsome15cmhigh,itssquaretophollowedfortheburningofincense;thereisusuallyalampattachedateachside,thoughoccasionallyonlyonelamphasbeenadded.Thetypeismanufacturedinabeige

fabric,oftenwithareddishslip,anddatesfromthelater1stcenturytothe3rd;itsdistributionsuggestslocalproduction.FindsfrommithraeaincludethreefromtheCastraPeregrinorummithraeum,wheretheywerestillinsituinnichesinthepodiumwalls,andothersfromtheCryptaBalbiandSantaPriscamithraeaandprobablythemithraeumnearPortaMaggiore.ExamplesfoundamongthedumpedmaterialattheTermediNuotatoreatOstiamayhavecomefromthenearbymithraeumofFelicissimus(Saguì2004,173,fig.15).

Anothergroupofceramicobjectsmayhavebeenusedwithtazzetodisperseincenseinaparticularlydramaticway.Theseare‘lampchimneys’,hollow,open-basedsquareorcirculartowersofpotteryortile;theynormallystandaround50cmhighandarebuiltupintierswithopeningsoneachlevel.Theyvaryconsiderably,fromsimpleversionswitharchedortriangularopeningsandfrilledorroulettedbandsbetweenthelayerstomuchmoreelaboratearchitecturalstructures(forarangeoftypes,seeLoeschcke1909,Abb.19;Lowther1976,GroupA).Placedoveralamporglowingcenser,theywouldbeilluminatedfrominside,recallingstructuressuchassignal-towersandlight-houseswhereguidancewasprovidedbysmokeorfirebeacons.Althoughonlyonehasbeenrecordedfromamithraeum,asoot-stainedfragmentofasquaretowerfromHeddernheimmithraeumIII(Huld-Zetsche1986,14–15,no.54),theyhavebeenfoundelsewhereintemplesofbothorientalandCelticdeities(Henig1984,159,fig.80).Atallbarrel-shapedvesselwithtworowsofovoidholesintheside,foundinthemithraeumatRudchester,mayhaveservedasimilarfunction,withitsopenendatthebase(GillamandMacIvor1954,fig.12).

Inuse,bothtypesofpotterycenserswouldhavebeenplacedonaltarsorside-tables,asshowninthereconstructionsofmithraeaIIandIIIatHeddernheim(Huld-Zetsche1986,Abbn12,14).Neithercouldhavebeensafelysuspendedorswungwhenfullofhotcharcoalandincense,andcomparablevesselsthatcouldbesoused,suchaschurchcensersandmosquelamps,haveatleastthreesuspensionringstoprovidestability(forexample,BritishMuseum1921,fig.68;Campbell1987,no.12;BloomandBlair1997,figs149and213).AneccentricandrathercrudelyworkedMithraicrelief,nowatMannheimbutlikelytohavecomeoriginallyfromLadenburg,showswhatisprobablyamemberoftheLiongradeplacingacenseronanaltar,echoingtheimageofSol-MithrasofferingincenseontheKölnpot(Fig.6.3:A).Thefigureissmallcomparedtotheothersontherelief,suggestingthatheisamortalamongheavenlybeings,andhisratherformallycurledhairmaybeanindicationofalionmask(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1275;Schwertheim1974,Taf.36,no.138).

Thedistributionofthecenserswithpierced-rimscoincideswithanareawhereanumberoftauroctonyreliefsshowavariationfromtheusualarrangement.Whilethesnakenormallyleapsupwiththehoundtodrinkthebull’sblood,onthesereliefsitisplacedintheforegroundwiththeadditionalimagesofacraterandalion,atriadwhichrecallsthepotsthemselveswiththeirlionandsnakemounts.Thesymbolismofthecraterandthesnakewascomplexandcloselylinked(Gordon1998,248–258),butononelevelatleastthelionintroducesaratherdifferentaspect.Water,whichthecraterisusuallyunderstoodtorepresent,wasinimicaltothefieryLionsandPorphyrywritesthattheirhandsandtongueshadtobepurifiedwithhoneyinstead(Deantronympharum,15).PerhapsinthisareaofGermanytheLiongradehadattainedaparticularprominenceorinfluence,whichmightaccountforthepresenceoflionsonthereliefs(Huld-Zetsche1989).Itmightalsobesuggestedthatthecratersonatleastsomeofthesereliefs–andperhapsevenonotherimagessuchastheSantaPriscaprocessions–wouldhavebeenunderstoodtocontainasubstancemoreappropriatetothem:honey,orevenincense.5

Whilethecontentsofmostcraterimagescannotbeidentified,thatonthetauroctonyfrommithraeumIIIatHeddernheimisclearlyfilledwithagranularsubstancewhichwouldbestbeinterpretedasincense(Fig.6.3:B)(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1118;Schwertheim1974,no.61,a;Huld-Zetsche1986,no.28;Huld-Zetsche1994,Abbn88aand88b);thisisalsothemithraeumwhichyieldedthetworeliefsofthelionscarryingaltar-shovels,perhapsindicatingaparticularemphasisonfireandincenseritual.Ontheanalogyofthiscrater,IngeborgHuld-ZetschesuggeststhattheritualpotfromtheBallplatzmithraeuminMainz,whichisdecoratedwithsevenbarbotinefiguresandhasasnakeandaraven,andperhapsoriginallyalion,ontherim,mayhavebeenusedtostoreincense(Huld-Zetsche2004,220).6ThecrateronthetauroctonyfromHeidelberg-Neuenheimalsoshowsunusualfeatures:itishandleless,apparentlytheonlyimageofacratertobeso,andverysimilarinshapetothetazzatypeofincense-burner(Fig.6.3:C)(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1283;Schwertheim1974,Taf.40,no.141,a).AfurtherfindwhichmayberelevantisasamianjarfromthemithraeumatMühlthal,whereatauroctonysceneisshownwhichincludesthelion,snakeandcrater(Fig.6.3:D).Herethecraterhastwoglobularobjectsonitsrim,perhapsanattempttoindicategrainsofincenseinthedifficultbarbotinetechnique(Garbsch1985,398–401,Abbn8and9,Taf.C;Wamser2000,407,Katalog180,b;Bird2001,306).ComparisonwiththeGermantauroctoniesshowsthatthesmallfigureanditsaltarontheLadenburgreliefoccupythesamepositionrelativetothesnakeandcraterastheactuallionon

thesereliefs,confirmingitslikelyidentityasaLionofferingincense;theseparate‘real’lionatthetopleftofthescenemaybereinforcingthegradeconnection.

OnefurtherdistinctivetypeofincensethatisattestedfrommithraeacamefromthelargeconesoftheMediterraneanStonePine,Pinuspinea.Thepine-cone,appearingdryanddeadbutcarryingitsseedswithinit,wasasymbolofrebirthinanumberofmysteryreligions,andconesorimagesofconesappearregularlyinfunerarycontexts.Theyburnwithapungentandinvigoratingscent,andtheiruseinsacrificeisrecordedinseveralEgyptianpapyriofthe2ndand3rdcenturiesAD(RichmondandGillam1951,6–7,especiallynote2).TheconnectionbetweenconesandincenseisdemonstratedbyaseriesofvotivepotterylampstandsmadeatCnidusinAsiaMinor,whichoftenincludeasmallincenseburnerstandingonapine-cone(Bailey1983),whilealampintheformofapine-conewasfoundinthemithraeumatLinz(Karnitsch1956,no.229;Schatzmann1997,35,note156).Theconeswouldhavebeenimportedintothenorthernprovincesforuseasincenseandfortheculinaryvalueoftheirseeds,andbothconesandbranches,completewithneedles,werefoundamongthemixedcargoofamid-1stcenturyBCwreckatLaMadrague,nearToulon(Tchernia,PomeyandHesnard1978,117–118,pl.6,nos1–3).AnincisedtextaddedtoaninscriptionfromPotociinDalmatiaapparentlyrecordsthegiftbyoneRumanusMarcianusoftwopine-treesandtenfig-treestoamithraeum,probablytoprovideconesforincenseandfruitandnutsfortheritualmeals(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1891/1892;Clauss2000,141,fig.35).

Fig.6.3.A:snakeandcraterwithwhatmaybeamemberoftheLiongradeplacinganofferingonanaltar,fromtheLadenburg/Mannheimtauroctony(afterSchwertheim1974).B:lion,snakeandcraterfromtheHeddernheimIIItauroctony(afterHuld-Zetsche1986;1994).C:lion,snakeandcraterfromtheHeidelberg-Neuenheimtauroctony(afterSchwertheim1974).D:lion,snakeand

craterfromasamianbeaker,Mühlthal(afterGarbsch1985).

Alargepine-coneisshowninthelefthandofCautesonatauroctonyfromTîrgşorinMoesiaInferior(Fig.6.4:A)(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.2306)andtwofurther,moredamaged,Dacianreliefs,fromApulumandprobablyfromConstantia,mayalsoshowcones,inthehandsofCautesandCautopatesrespectively(Vermaseren1956/1960,nos1973and2302).However,althoughthereareoccasionalfindsofstoneandmarblemodelsofconesfrommithraea,includingagroupoffourfrommithraeumIVatAquincum(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1772)andsingleexamplesfromLambaesis(Clauss2000,126)andfromtheSantaPriscaandCastraPeregrinorummithraeainRome(VermaserenandvanEssen1965,343no.25,pl.78,no.3;Clauss2000,126),realconesofP.pineahaverarelybeenrecorded.ApartiallyburntonewasfoundonthefirstflooroftheWalbrookmithraeuminLondon(Shepherd1998,155,161),butthebestevidencecomesfromthemithraeumatCarrawburgh.Hereinthefirstshrineacompleteconewasfoundagainstthebackwall,and

therewasalsoastonebunkerinthenavewhichcontainedacharcoalmadefrompine-conesandhazel-wood.Theshrinewaslaterextended,andfromPhaseIIBcametwocompletecones,placedontheheathermattinginsidetheentrancetothecultniche,and,onthewestbench,thealtar-shovelnotedabovewithitsremainsofpine-conecharcoal.Inthe4thcenturythreealtarswereplacedatthenicheend,andthevotivedepositbeneaththemincludedabeakercontainingtwolargepiecesoftheconecharcoalandsomechickenbones(RichmondandGillam1951,6–8,20,35–36,86–87,figs2,4,pls.2B,3A,15B).

AstatuefromtheportofRusicadeinNumidiashowsamemberoftheLiongradewearingalionmaskandcarryingakey;hehasalargepine-conebesideeachfoot,showingthatthegradewasresponsibleforthistypeofincensetoo(Fig.6.4:B)(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.25).TheimageofMithras’rock-birthfromtheSanClementemithraeuminRomehastherockintheshapeofapine-cone(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.344;Clauss2000,fig.92),andthereareotherswheretherockisworkedinawaythatisperhapsintendedtosuggestthescalesofacone,suchasthosefromKölnmithraeumII(Clauss2000,fig.23)andHeddernheimmithraeumI(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1088;Huld-Zetsche1986,no.4),whileapanelfromthecult-reliefatHeddernheimIshowsMithrasapparentlyemergingfromapine-tree(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1083.1;Huld-Zetsche1986,no.1,Abb.10;Clauss2000,fig.33).Mithrasmostfrequentlyappearsfromtherockholdingoneortwotorches,buttherockitselfisoccasionallyshownasfiery,asonafrescofromDuraEuropos(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.42.5)andonacult-reliefpanelfromMoesiaSuperior(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.2237;Clauss2000,fig.97);asnake-entwinedrockfromRusicadeispiercedwithholestoshowthelightfromalampinanicheattheback(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.127;Clauss2000,fig.96).ThemedicalwriterDioscoridesrecommendedtheburningofpine-conestoeasechildbirth(Demateriamedica,1.69.1),andperhapstheburningofconesinmithraeawaspartofaspecificritualconnectedwiththebirthofthegod.Theconesalsorecallthelandscapeinwhichthecultscenestakeplace;coniferoustreesresemblingcypressorpineappearregularlyinthebackgroundoftauroctonyreliefs,aswellasonthepaintedcenserfromMainzdiscussedabove.Thiscompleximageryanditscosmicsignificancemaybereflectedonasmalljardecoratedinbrownbarbotinewithpine-treesandstars,fromtheprobablemithraeumonZeughausstrasse,Köln(Ristow1974,no.15,Taf.17,Abb.20).

IncenseclearlyplayedasignificantroleinMithraicritual,andtheevidenceforitsusecomesfromawiderangeoffinds:fromsubstantialitemssuchassculptures,mosaicsandwall-paintingstomorehumbleobjectssuchaspottery

censers,ironaltar-shovelsandpine-cones.ManyofthesealsoappeartoemphasisetheroleoftheLiongradeintherelevantrituals.Intheconfinedspaceofamithraeumthecombinationofincensewiththeresinouspitchfromthefireswouldhaveproducedarichandintoxicatingatmosphere,enhancingthespiritualexperienceoftheinitiates.TheanalysisundertakenontheTienenpotterytoidentifytracesoffood-stuffsorothersubstancesleftonthesurfaceshowshowmuchcannowbelearnedfromsuchexamination(Martens2004a,32,34).Itwouldbeofgreatinterestifburntresiduesoncensersandaltarsandanysurvivingcharcoaldepositsinmithraeacouldbeanalysed,todeterminewhichofthemanyscentedgums,oilsandspiceswhichmadeupincenseintheancientworldwereusedbytheworshippersofMithras,andwhetheranyparticulararomaticswerepreferred.

Fig.6.4A:Cautesholdingapine-cone,fromtheTîrgşortauroctony(afterVermaseren1960).B:maskedLionwithpine-cones,fromRusicade(after

Vermaseren1956).

AcknowledgementsIwouldliketothankDavidBird,whohasreadandcommentedonthetext,andBrendaDickinson,RichardGordonandIngeborgHuld-Zetsche,whohavegivenmeanumberofhelpfulsuggestionsandreferences.IamindebtedforphotographstoIngeborgHuld-Zetsche,toMichaelKlein(Mittelrheinisches

LandesmuseumMainz),toMarcusMarquart(MuseenderStadtAschaffenburg)andtoCorneliusUlbert.IamalsogratefultoMarleenMartensandhercolleaguesfortheirgenerouspermissiontoreprinttheTienenpaperhere.

Notes1 TheoriginalpublicationofthispaperwasinavolumeonMithraicstudiesthatfollowedaconferenceatTieneninBelgiumin2001.Theneedtorearrangethenotestofittheformatofthepresentvolumehasprovidedanopportunitytomakeafewadditions,notablytheinclusionoftheRomecenser-lampstandsdescribedbyLuciaSaguìintheTienenvolumeandsomeupdatingofnotes4and6.

2 ExamplesoftheformareillustratedbyGose(1950),types443–448.Miniatureversionsofitappearassmallcensersonothercultpottery,suchasthethreealternatingwithsnake-entwinedhandlesonajarfromPockinginBavaria(Ulbert1963,Abb.1;Wamser2000,406,Katalog180c)andthevesselcomposedofatazzaandthreesmalljarsonaring-basefromLondon(Merrifield1995,p1.7).

3 Ogawa(1978)suggeststhatthiswasacraterforhoney,butheseemsnottohavebeenawareofitsclosesimilaritytoincense-burners;norarethereanymotifsamongthedecorationtoindicateaspecificlinkwiththetwoMithraicgrades,theLionandthePersian,whichaccordingtoPorphyry(Deantronympharum,15)werepurifiedwithhoney.

4 Itseemsprobablethatsignificantsherdsofcultpotteryweredeliberatelyseparatedanddeposited,andtheMainzrimmountsmaybeanexampleofthis,asmaythesevensnakesandtworavensfoundattheBallplatzmithraeuminMainz(Huld-Zetsche2004,222–223).AtBornheim-Sechtemindividualsherdsofalargelead-glazedcrater,respectivelyshowingalion,asnakeandthetorchbearerCautes,wererecoveredfromthreeseparateritualdepositsdatingtotwodifferentphases(Wulfmeier2004,91–93).ThefindsfromMainzandfromBornheim-SechtemarediscussedfurtherinUlbert,WulfmeierandHuld-Zetsche2004.AtTienentheterrasigillatalionandsnakesherds,thesoot-stainedliddecoratedwithlion,snakeandcrater,andotherpottery,includingsherdsofalead-glazedcraterwithaheadofMithrasandanapparentlyuniquespoutedvessel,wereallfoundinagroupofcontemporarypitsprobablyfilledafterafeastcelebratingthesummersolstice(Martens2004a,30–45;2004b).

5 AsmallergroupoftauroctoniesfromDacia(forexampleVermaseren1956/1960,nos1935,1958,1972,allfromApulum)havethesnakeinitsusualpositionwiththehound,whilethelionandcraterareplacedatoneside,behindCautesand,onVermaseren1956/1960,1958,outsidethecavealtogether.Whethertheywouldhavebeen‘read’inthesamewayastheGermanreliefsisimpossibletosay.

6 ArimandhandlefragmentofasamianjarfrommithraeumIVatAquincumcarriesahand-modelledlion,withlargeheadanddisproportionatelysmallbodyandtail.Therimdiameteris20cm,andtheshapeoftherimandtheangleofthehandleindicateawide-bodiedjarsimilartotheBallplatzpot(Vermaseren1956/1960,no.1772;Nagy1943,550,Abb.26,whereitwasoriginallyidentifiedasadog;photographsandinformationcourtesyofIngeborgHuld-Zetsche).AfurthervesselofsimilarsizeandshapetotheBallplatzpotcomesfromtheprobablemithraeumonZeughausstrasse,Köln,andmayhaveservedthesamepurpose.Ithasafrilledrimandanelaboratelyincisedandpaintedcrestedsnakeoneachhandle(Ristow1974,no.13,Tafn14–15,Abbn15–17).

BibliographyAtchley,E.G.C.F.,1909.Ahistoryoftheuseofincenseindivineworship.AlcuinClubCollections,13,London.

Bailey,D.M.,1983.ACnidianreliefwaresherdfromLondon.AntiquariesJournal,63.2,374–376.

Becatti,G.,1954.ScavidiOstia,II:imitrei.Rome.

Behrens,G.,1952.RömischeKultgefässe,Germania,30,111–112.

Binsfeld,W.,1960–61.NeueMithraskultgefàsseausKöln,KölnerJahrbuchfürVor-undFrühgeschichte,5,67–72.

Bird,J.,2001.Censers,incenseanddonorsinthecultofMithras.InHigham,N.J.(ed.),ArchaeologyintheRomanEmpire:atributetothelifeandworksofProfessorBarriJones.BritishArchaeologicalReportsInternationalSeries940,Oxford,303–310.

Bird,J.,2004.IncenseinMithraicritual:theevidenceofthefinds.InMartensanddeBoe2004,191–199.

Bloom,J.,andBlair,S.,1997.Islamicarts.London.

BritishMuseum,1921.AguidetotheearlyChristianandByzantineantiquities.secondedition,London.

Campbell,M.,1987.MetalworkinEngland,c.1200–1400,andentriesinCatalogue.InAlexanderJ.andBinskiP.(eds),Ageofchivalry.ArtinPlantagenetEngland1200-1400.London,162–168,193–540.

Clauss,M.,2000.TheRomancultofMithras.translatedR.Gordon,Edinburgh.

DetienneM.,1977.ThegardensofAdonis,translatedJ.Lloyd,Hassocks.

Garbsch,J.,1985.DasMithraeumvonPonsAeni.BayerischeVorgeschichtsblätter,50,355–462.

Gillam,J.P.,andMacivor,I.,1954.ThetempleofMithrasatRudchester.ArchaeologiaAelianafourthseries32,176–219.

Gordon,R.L.,1998.ViewingMithraicart:thealtarfromBurginatium(Kalkar),GermaniaInferior.Antigüedad:ReligionesySociedades,1,227–258.

Gose,E.,1950.GefässtypenderrömischenKeramikimRheinland.BeiheftederBonnerJahrbücher1,Bonn.

Henig,M.,1984.ReligioninRomanBritain.London.

Horn,H.G.,1994.DasMainzerMithrasgefäss.MainzerArchäologischeZeitschrift,1,21–66.

Huld-Zetsche,I.,1984.DerrömischeFasanenkrugausMainz.ZurfigürlichenBemalungderWetterauerWare.ArchäologischeBerichteausRheinhessenunddemKreisBadKreuznach2,Mainz.

Huld-Zetsche,I.,1986.MithrasinNida-Heddernheim.ArchäologischeReihe6,FrankfurtamMain.

Huld-Zetsche,I.,1989.NeueszumMithraskultinNida.Unpublishedlecturetext.DeutscherKongressfürArchäologie,FrankfurtamMain.

Huld-Zetsche,I.,1994.Nida–einerömischeStadtinFrankfurtamMain.SchriftendesLimesmuseumsAalen,48,Stuttgart.

Huld-Zetsche,I.,2004.DerMainzerKratermitdensiebenFiguren.In:MartensandDeBoe2004,213–227.

Karnitsch,P.,1956.DerheiligeBezirkvonLentia.HistorischesJahrbuchderStadtLinz8,189–285.

Loeschcke,S.,1909.AntikeLaternenundLichthäuschen.BonnerJahrbücher,

118,370–430.

Lowther,A.W.G.,1976.Romano-Britishchimney-potsandfinials.AntiquariesJournal,56.1,35–48.

Martens,M.,2004a.ThemithraeuminTienen(Belgium):smallfindsandwhattheycantellus.InMartensandDeBoe2004,25–56.

Martens,M.,2004b.TheritualdepositsofthetempleofMithrasatTienen.JournalofRomanArchaeology17,333–353.

Martens,M.,andDeBoe,G.,(eds)2004.RomanMithraism:theevidenceofthesmallfinds.ArcheologieinVlaanderenMonographie,4,Brussels.

Merrifield,R.,1995.RomanmetalworkfromtheWalbrook–rubbish,ritualorredundancy?TransactionsoftheLondonandMiddlesexArchaeologicalSociety,46,27–44.

Miller,J.I.,1998.ThespicetradeoftheRomanEmpire,Oxford.

Nagy,T.,1943.BerichtdesArchäologischenInstitutsvonBudapestüberdieForschungenderJahre1938–1942,BudapestRégiségei13,537–558.

Ogawa,H.,1978.MithraicladdersymbolsandtheFriedbergcrater.InDeBoer,M.andEdridge,T.A.(eds),HommagesàM.J.Vermaseren.Receuild’étudesoffertparlesauteursdelasérieÉtudesPréliminairesauxReligionsOrientalesdansl’EmpireRomainàMaartenJ.Vermaserenàl’occasiondesonsoixantièmeanniversairele7avril1978,ÉtudesPréliminairesauxReligionsOrientalesdansl’EmpireRomain68.2,Leiden,854–873.

Pétry,F.,andKern,E.,1978.UnmithraeumàBiesheim(Haut-Rhin).Rapportpréliminaire.CahiersAlsaciensd’Archeologie,d’Artetd’Histoire,21,5–32.

Richmond,I.A.,andGillam,J.P.,1951.ThetempleofMithrasatCarrawburgh.ArchaeologiaAelianafourthseries,29,1–92.

Ristow,G.,1974.MithrasimrömischenKöln.ÉtudesPréliminairesauxReligionsOrientalesdansl’EmpireRomain42,Leiden.

Saguì,L.,2004,IlmitreodellaCryptaBalbieisuoireperti.InMartensandDeBoe2004,167–178.

Schatzmann,A.,1997.ArchäologieandmithräischerKultalltag.ZurProblematikfunktionellerBereicheimInnernvonMithrasheiligtümern.Unpublishedseminarpaper,AbteilungfürUr-undFrühgeschichte,UniversitätZurich.

Schatzmann,A.,2004.MöglichkeitenundGrenzeneinerfunktionellenTopographievonMithrasheiligtümern.InMartensandDeBoe2004,11–21.

Schleiermacher,L.,1928.DaszweiteMithräuminStockstadtamMain.Germania,12,46–56.

Schwertheim,E.,1974.DieDenkmälerorientalischerGottheitenimrömischenDeutschland.ÉtudesPréliminairesauxReligionsOrientalesdansl’EmpireRomain40.Leiden.

Shepherd,J.D.,1998.ThetempleofMithras,London.ExcavationsbyWFGrimesandAWilliamsattheWalbrook.EnglishHeritageArchaeologicalReport12,London.

Tchernia,A.,Pomey,P.andHesnard,A.,1978.L’épaveromainedeLaMadraguedeGiens(Var).GalliaSupplement,34.

Thomas,M.,2004.KultgefässeinTerraSigillataausRheinzabern.InMartensandDeBoe2004,201–212.

Ulbert,C.,Wulfmeier,J.-C.andHuld-Zetsche,I.,2004.RitualdepositsofMithraiccult-vessels:newevidencefromSechtemandMainz.JournalofRomanArchaeology,17,354–370.

Ulbert,T.1963.RömischeGefässemitSchlangen-undEidechsenauflagenausBayern.BayerischeVorgeschichtsblätter,28,57–66.

Vermaseren,M.J.,1956/1960.CorpusinscriptionumetmonumentorumreligionisMithriacae,twovolumes.TheHague.

Vermaseren,M.J.,andVanEssen,C.C.,1965.TheexcavationsinthemithraeumofthechurchofSantaPriscainRome.Leiden.

VonPfeffer,W.,1960.KultgefässmitaufgemalterMithrasdarstellung.Germania,38,145–148.

Wamser,L.,(ed.)withFlügel,C.,andZiegaus,B.,2000.DieRömerzwischenAlpenandNordmeer.ZivilisatorischenErbeeinereuropäiscbenMilitärmacht,Mainz.

Wulfmeier,J.-C.,2004.Ton,Steine,Scherben–SkulpturenundReliefkeramikenausdemMithraeumvonBornheim-Sechtem.InMartensandDeBoe2004,89–94.

Zabehlicky-Scheffenegger,S.,1985.TöpfemitgelochtemEinsatzvomMagdalensberg.InProArteAntiqua.FestschriftfürHedwigKenner,

SonderschriftendesÖsterreichischenArchäologischenInstitutesinWien,18.2,Vienna/Berlin,361–366.

Chapter7:IncenseandthePortofAdulis

DavidPeacockandLucyBlue

Adulis,nowinEritrea,wasbyanystandardsoneofthegreatportsoftheancientworld.ItlayontheRedSearoutetoIndiaandwasamajorstoppingplaceforprovisioningandtrade(Fig.7.1).ItwasconnectedbyaninlandroutetotheEthiopianHighlands,includingtheAksumitecapital,Aksum,fromwhencecamethefinestluxuriesAfricahadtooffer.AsincensewasgrowninneighbouringlandsifnotEritreaitself,theportwouldpresumablyhaveplayedapivotalroleinthedistributionnetwork.Theobjectofthisnoteistoexaminetheevidence,bothliteraryandarchaeologicalforthispossibility.

Fig.7.1.Adulis:locationmap.

TheoriginsofAdulisarehardtoestablish.Paribeni(1907)foundpre-Aksumitepotterywhichhethoughtrepresentedarchaicactivity,althoughrecentradiocarbondatesonassociatedshellsuggestthatthismaybelong,atleastinpart,totheRomanperiod(PeacockandBlueforthcoming).However,theMonumentumAdulitanuminscriptionsrecordedinthe6thCenturyADbyCosmasIndicopleustes,butnowlost,indicatethatthesitewasoperationalbythetimeofPtolemyIII(247–222BC).Wedonotknowwhatformittook,buttheerectionofstelebearingGreekinscriptionshintsatmonumentalitywhichinturnpointstoasophisticatedtownratherthanabeachingplace.

However,itisintheRomanperiodthatAdulisfirstfullyemergesasanimportantportoftrade.ThePeriplusoftheErythreanSea,amid-firstcenturyADsailors’log,givesdetailsofitslocationandofthegoodswhichcouldbetradedthere.

…20stadesfromtheseaisAdulisafair-sizedvillage.FromAdulisitisajourneyofthreedaystoKoloê,aninlandcitythatisthefirsttradingpostforivory,andfromthereanotherfivedaysfromthemetropolisitself,whichiscalledAxômitês;intoitisbroughtalltheivoryfrombeyondtheNilethroughwhatiscalledKyêneion,andfromtheredowntoAdulis.Themassofelephantsandrhinocerosesthatareslaughteredallinhabittheuplandregions,althoughonrareoccasionstheyarealsoseenalongtheshorearoundAdulisitself.Infrontoftheportoftrade,thatis,towardstheopensea,ontherightareanumberofotherislands,smallandsandy,calledAlalaiu;thesefurnishtortoiseshellthatisbroughttotheportoftradebytheIchthyophagoi

(Casson1989,53)

ItisthoughtthatKoloêwouldequatewithQohaitointheEritreanHighlands,AxômitêswouldofcoursebeAksumandtheAlalaiumustbetheDahlakislands.ThereissomedebateaboutthelocationofKyêneion(Casson1989,107).ThecuriousthingisthatAdulisisreferredtoelsewhereas‘alegallylimitedportoftrade’andyetitis20stades(3.3km)fromthesea.ThePeriplustellsusthatshipsusedtomooroffDiodorusIsland,butbecausetheislandwasconnectedtothelandbyacausewayitwasoverrunbybarbariansandwasthereaftermovedtoanoffshoreislandcalledOreinê(hilly).ThiscanbenoneotherthanDese,theonlyhillyislandinthearea.

AsaresultofrecentfieldworkwenowknowthattherewasaRomanperiodharbouronDese,andDiodorusIslandseemstohavebeenasmallskerrysome6.5kmsouth-eastofAdulisneartheGalalahills(PeacockandBlueforthcoming).Thishasbeenascertainedthrougharchaeologicalfieldwalkingandsedimentologicalsurvey.Notonlyhastheidentificationof1stcenturyADceramicsandinthecaseofDeseIsland,1stcenturybuildingremains,confirmedtheexistenceofactivitiesintheseareas,butsedimentologicalanalysishasalsodeterminedthelocationandnatureofthecoastduringthisperiod.ItisabundantlyclearfromthePeriplusthattheseweremajorportsofcallonthelonghauldowntheRedSeaandacrosstheIndianOceantoIndia,presumablytotakeonwateraswellastotrade.Themaincentreofhabitationwaslocatedinlandforreasonsthatareunclear,however,thissituationisfarfromunique:thelocationofharboursatsomedistancefromthemainsettlementhadbeen

practicedforcenturiespriortotheRomanperiod(Raban1985)andcontinuedtobeobservedthroughtheRomanperiodasOstiaandPortusthegreatharboursofRome,toprovidebutoneexample,demonstrate.

AdulisismentionedinPliny’sNaturalHistory(VI,29),datingto1stcenturyADandtheGeographyofClaudiusPtolemy(IV,7.8;viii,16.11),writteninthe2ndcenturyAD.Thereafter,thesourcesaresilentuntilthelateAntiqueera.ProcopiusofCaesarea,whowroteHistoryoftheWarsinthe6thcentury,referstoAdulisasamajorportofarrivalforjourneysacrosstheRedSea(I,xix,17–22).ItappearsthereforethattherewasastronglinkwiththeincensegrowinglandsofArabiaanditwouldbesurprisingiftheportwasnotinvolvedinthetrafficofincensetosomeextent.

TheportofAdulisinthelaterperiodwasknownasGabaza.ItmayhavebeenasubstantialaffairbecauseaGeezdocumentTheMartyrdomofStArethasrelatesthatKingKalebamassedafleetof70shipshere(Pereira1899).15camefromAyla(Aqaba),20fromClysma(Suez),7fromIotabe(?Tyran),2fromBerenike,7fromFarasan,and9fromIndia,while10weremadeatAdulisitself.Thelistisinterestingbecauseitsuggeststhatdespitethedistance,thepredominantconnectionswerewithSuezandAqabaduringthe6thcentury.ThesiteofGabazawasoriginallyidentifiedbySundström(1907)becausequantitiesofAksumitepottery,likethatfromAdulis,werefoundneartheGalalahills(althoughhemistakenlycalledthem‘Gamez’,thenameofthenextrangeofhillstothewest).Recentsurveyhasconfirmedtheidentificationofthe6thcenturyADharbourofGabazaandalsolocatedtheearlier1stcenturyADRomanmooringonasmallskerryattheseawardextentoftherockyoutcrop.Sedimentologicalanalysisofthelow-lying,progradingalluvialsedimentstotheeastoftheGalalahillshasconfirmedthatthisregionwasinfactinundatedwithseawaterduringantiquity.Specificanalysisofthesedimentshasyettobeundertakentoconfirmtheexactdateofinundationandthesubsequentprocessofsedimentation,buttheidentificationof1stcenturyADceramicremainsonthemostsouth-westerlyoftheGalalahills,indicatesthatthisareawasutilisedasananchorageduringthisperiod.ThefactthatthisoutcropwasconnectedtothemainlandbyacausewayalsoconcurstothedescriptionoftheRomanmooringpresentedinthePeriplus.Shelteralongthisessentiallybarrenandexposedcoastline,wouldthushavebeenprovidedintheleeoftheGalalahills.

Themostimportantsourceforthe6thcenturyisananonymousEgyptianmonkknownasCosmasIndicopleustes(theIndianvoyager)whowroteatreatisecalledChristianTopography,essentiallytoprovethattheworldwasflat

ratherthanspherical.InapreviouslifehehadbeenatraderengagedincommercewithIndiaandsoheknewtheports,includingAdulis,intimately.AmongstotherthingsheincludedthefirstregionalmapoftheAdulisarea(Fig.7.2)showingthetowninrelationtoAksumandtwocoastalplacesSamidiandthe‘customsofGabaza’,certainlytheport.Henaturallycommentsonincenseandspiceswhichwereclearlyanimportantobjectoftrade.

TheregionwhichproducesfrankincenseissituatedattheprojectingpartsofEthiopia,andliesinland,butiswashedbytheoceanontheotherside.HencetheinhabitantsofBarbaria,beingneartohand,goupintotheinteriorand,engagingintrafficwiththenatives,bringbackfromthemmanykindsofspices,frankincense,cassia,calamus,andmanyotherarticlesofmerchandise,whichtheyafterwardssendbyseatoAdulê,tothecountryoftheHomerites,toFurtherIndiaandPersia

(McCrindle1897;Wolska-Conus1968,356)

Fig.7.2.CosmasIndicopleustes’mapoftheAdulisarea.FromWolska-Conus

1968.

ThecountryoftheHomeriteswouldbeYemen,andtheproductionregionmustbethehighlandsofwhatisnowknownasSomaliland.ItisofparticularinterestthatCosmasmentionsthisarea,butnotthemainproductionregionofsouthernArabia.ItispossiblethatbythisperiodArabianincensewentacrossthedesertonceagain,alongthetraditionalroutetoGaza,andCosmasknewonlyoftheseabornetrade,oritmaybethatatthisperiodSomalilandhadovertakensouthernArabiainimportance.ThislatterviewissupportedtosomeextentbytheevidencefromQani’whichsuggeststhatinthisperiodtheportwasashadowofitsformerself,althoughclearlystillinexistence(chapters3and4above).Theothercommoditiesareofinterest.Cassia(Cinnamomumcassia)issometimesknownasFalseCinnamonanditisabarksimilarinappearanceandtastetotrueCinnamon,whichoriginatedinChina.Itisaspicewhichisoftenusedasaflavouring,butalsohasmedicinalattributesasatonic,carminativeorstimulantandinthetreatmentofnauseaanddiarrhoea.Itgrowsinhotwetclimates.Calamus(AcoruscalamusorSweetFlag)isagrasswitharoot,whichwheningested,hashallucinogenicproperties.Itisahardysemi-aquaticplantgrowingalmostanywhereinthenorthernhemispherewherethereisamplewaterandsunshine.BothCalamusandCassiawereknowninBiblicaltimesaskeyingredientsof‘holyanointingoil’(Exodus30,22–25).

TheexportofthesecommoditiestoAdulisisofparticularinterest.CalamusaswellasfrankincensecouldbeneededinchurchliturgyandthiswouldhavebeenwhyCosmaswasinterestedinthem.Aduliswascertainlywellendowedwithchurches:threehavebeenexcavated,twobyParibeni(1907)andonebytheBritishMuseumin1868(Munro-Hay1989).However,aboveallAduliswasatradecentre,anditisprobablethatmuchoftheincensewouldmerelyhavebeenintransitelsewhere.ThisisconfirmedbyCosmaswhostatesthat

OnthecoastofEthiopia,twomilesofffromtheshore,isatowncalledAdulê,whichformstheportoftheAxômitesandismuchfrequentedbytraderswhocomefromAlexandriaandtheElaniticGulf.

(McCrindle1897;Wolska-Conus1968,364)

ThelatteristheGulfofAqabaattheheadoftheRedSea.Wehaveyettofind

tracesofAlexandriantraders,butthemaritimeconnectionwithSuez,referredtoabovemaywellhavebeenontheroutetoAlexandria.ThecanalconnectingtheRedSeaandtheNilewasoperationalatthisperiodandfromaboutAD170itwouldhavebeenpossibletosailbetweenAlexandriaandClysma(Jackson2002,76).HoweverthetradersfromAqabaarewellrepresentedinthearchaeologicalmaterial.Thesurfaceofthesiteislitteredwithpottery,thebulkofwhichare6th–7thcenturyamphorae,costrelsandcoarsewarefromthekilnsatAqaba(Melkawi,‘AmrandWhitcomb1994;Tomber2004).ItseemsprobablethatincensetradedthroughAduliswouldhavefounditswaytoAqaba,thencetotheregionofmodernJordanandIsrael.

EvidenceofRomantradewithAdulisishardtofind,buttwofragmentsofobsidianfromQuseiral-Qadimseem,onthebasisofchemicalanalysis,tocomefromEritreaandmaywellhavebeenobtainedviaAdulis(Chapter3above).ThereisnoproofthatSomalilandincensewasbeingtakentoQuseir,butitisapossibility.Interestingly,theTiberianencyclopaedistCelsus,calleditCalamusAlexandrinus,suggestingthatatthisperiodAlexandriawasamaindistributioncentre(Miller1969,94).

Theevidenceisscantandlargelyinferential,butclearlyinthe6thcenturyAduliswasinvolvedintheSomaliincensetrade.Theremainingproblemistheextentofthisinvolvement,butherewemustawaitnewevidence.

IncensefromArabiaandpossiblySomaliland,notonlytravellednorthwardsbutalsoeastwardstowardsChina,althoughRomanperiodworkssuchastheHouHanShuandtheWeilue(Hill2003;2004)donotsingleoutDaQin(Rome)asaspecialsource.TotheChinese‘alltheperfumesofArabia’wouldhavebeenthe‘perfumesofDaQin’orlater‘theperfumesofPo-ssu’(LeslieandGardiner1996,204–5).ThereareparticularindicationsthatfrankinsenceandstoraxwereimportedtoChina.ThelatterwasbroughtbyanembassyofAD519fromFu-nan,alargestateoccupyingpartsofCambodiaandThailand,butwasclearlyknownearlier,accordingtoLeslieandGardiner(1996,204).Liang-ShuwritingintheseventhcenturysuggeststhattheRomanspreparedstoraxbymixingthejuiceofvariousfragranttrees(includingthestoraxtree)andsqueezingoutabalsam.ThedregsweresoldontoothercountriesandwhenitarrivedinChinaitwasnotsoveryfragrant(Hill2004).

Bibliography

Casson,L.,1989.ThePeriplusMarisErythraei.Princeton.

Hill,J.E.,2003.TheWesternRegionsAccordingtotheHouHanshu.http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/index.html.

Hill,J.E.,2004.ThePeoplesoftheWestfromtheWeiluebyYuHuan.http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/index.html.

Jackson,R.B.,2002.AtEmpire’sEdge.ExploringRome’sEgyptianFrontier.Yale.

Leslie,D.D.,andGardiner,K.H.J.,1996.TheRomanEmpireinChineseSources.Rome.

Melkawi,A.,‘Amr,K.,andWhitcomb,D.,1994.TheexcavationoftwoseventhcenturypotterykilnsatAqaba.AnnalsDepartmentofAntiquitiesJordan,37,447–68.

McCrindle,J.W.,1897.TheChristianTopographyofCosmasanEgyptianMonk.LondonHaklyutSociety.

Miller,J.I.,1969.TheSpiceTradeoftheRomanEmpire.Oxford.

Munro-Hay,S.,1989.TheBritishMuseumexcavationsatAdulis,1868.AntiquariesJournal,69,43–52.

Paribeni,R.,1907.Richerchenelluogodell’anticaAdulis.MonumentiAntichi,18.

Peacock,D.P.S.andBlue,L.K.,Forthcoming.TheEritro-BritishexpeditiontoAdulis.

Pereira,F.M.E.,1899.HistoriadosMartyresdeNagran.VersãoEthiopica.Lisbon.

Raban,A.,1985.TheancientharboursofIsraelinBiblicaltimes.InRaban,A.,(ed.)HarbourArchaeology.ProceedingsoftheFirstInternationalWorkshoponAncientMediterraneanHarbours.CaesareaMaritima24–28.6.1983.BARInternationalSeries,257,11–14.Oxford.

Tomber,R.,2004.AmphoraefromtheRedSeaandtheircontributiontotheinterpretationofLateRomantradebeyondtheEmpire.InEiring,J.,andLund,J.,TransportAmphoraeandTradeintheEasternMediterranean.Mon.DanishInst.Athens,5,393–402.

Sundström,R.,1907.ReportonanexpeditiontoAdulis.ZeitschriftfürAssyriologie,20,171–82.

Wolska-Conus,W.,1968.LaTopographiechrétienne.SourceschrétienneIII.

Paris.

Chapter8:FrankincenseandMyrrhToday

MyraShackley

IntroductionFrankincensetreeshavespecificenvironmentalrequirements;theygrowinonlyafewregionswithinsouthernArabiaandtheHornofAfrica,preferringaridclimateswithmoistureprovidedbymorningmists.Thetreesrequirelimestone-richsoils,andmostarefoundgrowingonsteephillsides,cliffsordriedupriverbedsinthevalleysbeneath.ThemainsourceofcontemporaryfrankincenseisBoswelliasacracarterii(Boswelliathurifera)harvestedintheDhofarregionofsouthernOmanandpartofYemen,withlesserquantitiesofresinfromBoswelliafrereana,mainlysourcedfromSomalia.Thisrestrictioningrowthareashasmeantthatthecontemporaryharvestandtradeinfrankincenseresinhasextremelycloseparallelswiththeancienttrade.Indeed,thesamecouldbesaidoftheusestowhichtheresinisputinthemodernworld,confirmingtheviewthatthetradeinfrankincensehasremainedessentiallyunchangedfor5000years.Differentareasproducedifferentresinquality;thetradeseemsagreedthatatpresentthebestqualityfrankincensecomesfromDhofar.Estimatingtheworld’sannualproductionisdifficultsincemuchresinisharvestedandexportedillegallytoavoidtaxation,withthetradebeingincreasinglydominatedbypowerfulcartelsintheUnitedArabEmirates.However,afigureof5000tonnes/yearisprobablyaboutright,althoughitisprobablethattentimesthisamountisharvestedlocallyanduseddomesticallythroughouttheMiddleEast.Inthemodernworldfrankincensehasthreemajoruses:

Burntasanmajorcomponentofchurchincense.(Incenseisstillusedinmanydifferentkindsofreligiousservices,especiallyinEasternOrthodoxChristianrites).Distilledtoproduceanessentialoilfortheperfume,cosmeticsandaromatherapytrade(theessentialoildistilledfromfrankincenseresinisusedasaningredientinperfume,soaps,cosmeticandhair-careproducts).

Intraditionalmedicineandasafumigant.(FrankincenseisuseddomesticallyinMiddleEasternhouseholdsforfumigationandperfumingclothingandutensils.Therawgumischewedforteethandalsousedasatraditionalremedyformanycomplaints,withfrankincensesmokebeingespeciallyfavouredforcoughsandbronchialinfections).

Interestinfrankincenseanditsroleintheancientworldhasalsogeneratedaculturaltourismindustrybasedaroundsitesassociatedwiththeancienttrade,combinedwithanopportunitytowatchthemodernharvestandbuyitsproducts.Thesetopicsareconsideredinmoredetailbelow.

ContemporaryFrankincense–TradeandHarvestSouthernOman

Thecontemporaryharvestoffrankincenseisconcentratedintwomainareas,theDhofarregionofsouthernOmancentringonthetownofSalalah,andeasternSomalia.InDhofar,thefrankincensetreesclusterthefringesoftheNejddesertandthedrylowerreachesofthejebelsoftheDhofarregion.ThetreesareharvestedeitherbylocalvillagersorbyimportedSomalilabourersworkingundercontract.Resinisstoredin40kgsacksandtransportedtoSalalahbyjeeporcamelforprocessingandsubsequentexport.Muchofthetradegoesunreported,includingsubstantialquantitiesofresinthatareproducedandexportedwithoutthebenefitofanyofficialrecords.Inthisregiontreesmaybethepropertyofspecifictribalgroupsorfamilies(mainlytheBaytKathirandal-Mahratribesinwhoseterritoriesthebesttreesgrow)butsomeresintradecartelsalsoseemtobeoperating.InOman,thefreshlyharvestedgumresinissortedintofourprincipalvarietiesaccordingtocolourandquality.Lightpastelshadesarethemostpopular,andaparticularlydesirablevarietyisneversoldcommerciallybutreservedfortheexclusiveuseoftheOmanirulingfamily.Theexactquantityexportedisunknown,thoughunlikelytobemorethanafewhundredtonnes/year.InOmancollectionbeginsinwinter,peaksinspringandendswiththesummermonsoon.SmallovalsofbarkareshavedfromtheBoswelliasacrausingasmallputty-knifeshapedtoolcalledaminquaf(spellingsvary)andtheresinoozesslowlyfromthewoundsintotear-likedropswhichgraduallyhardenandarescrapedoffthetrees.Yieldscanvaryfrom1–3kg/treewiththebestbeingobtainedinarainyyearorfromtreeswhicharenotregularlytapped,hencetheuniversalpracticeof‘resting’frankincensetreesforayearevery5–6years.Thefirstandsecondscrapingswhicharemadeat2weekintervalsproduceonlylow-qualityresin,withthethirdscrapingproducingthe

bestquality,lightandclearincolour.Therawresinissometimesreferredtoas‘alluban’(fromtheArabicformilk)awordwhichhasbeenanglicisedtoolibanum,anothernameforfrankincense(Wahabetal.1987).AnyvisitortosouthernOmanisstruckbythelargenumberoffrankincensetrees,manyapparentlyunused.Localpeopleestimatethatatleasttentimestheamountofresincouldbeproducediftherewasamarket,althoughthereisaproblemwithovergrazingoffrankincensetreesbygoatsandcamels.AtpresentmostOmaniincenseisexportedviaMuscat.

Somalia

ResinisproducedinSomaliabymuchthesamemethods,witharound80%oftopgradeSomalifrankincensebeingexportedtoSaudiArabia,EgyptandYemenwithasmalleramountgoingthroughtotheEmirateswhereitistranshippedtoEuropeortheFarEast.SomaliaincenseisgenerallyshippeddirectlytomajorgumtradingcentresatRiyadhandJeddahwheretherawproductiscleanedandsortedforresaletolocaloutletsinSaudiArabiawhereitissoldfordomesticusebythegramorkilo.Consumptionpeaksduringthehaj.FrankincenseoflesserqualityismainlyexportedviatheUAEtoEuropeforprocessingforuseintheperfumerytrade,withsomegoingtoChina(againviatheUAE)forincorporationintraditionalmedicines.AlthoughmostSomaliresincomesfromBoswelliasacra(sn.Certerii)(andisknownlocallyasbeyo),some(calledmaydi)comesfromBoswelliafrereanaandisconsideredbySomalistobeofbetterquality;itsmajormarketisasachewingguminSaudiArabia(Chiavarietal.1991).BothvarietiescomefromtreesnativetonorthernSomalia,foundonsteepcoastalescarpmentsupto750mabovesealevelfromtheGulfofBerberainSomalilandtoaroundtheHorninPuntland.Gumcollectorsharvestandstoreungradedresinindrycavesbeforeshippingittocoastalmerchants,justasinOman.Subsequentsortingandpackingtakesplaceforeventualexport,usuallyviaGulfmerchantswhocontroldemandandprice.ConsiderabledisruptiontothetradehasresultedfrompoliticaluncertaintyinSomalia,witharesultthatthefrankincenseexporttradeisthoughttobeoperatingatonlyafractionofitsformervolume(Farah1988).AsinOmanitisprobablethatthereisextensiveillicittradeingum,toavoidtaxationandgainbetterexchangerates.Noreliableestimatesexistforcurrentproductionbutitisunlikelytoexceed2000metrictonnes.However,actualproductionisverymuchhigherasmostSomalifamilieshaveatreeortreesusedfortheirpersonalconsumption.Thereare7gradesofmaydi,whichmustbestoredatintermediatealtitudessincethegummeltsunderhotRedSeacoastalconditionsandgetstoo

hardifleftathighaltitude.Beyoandmaydiproducedifferentoilswhichhavetobedistilledseparately,withthelatterbeingfavouredbysomemanufacturersofaromatherapyoilssinceithasaveryintensepurearoma.Somaliproducershaveproblemswiththeperceivederraticnatureoftheirproductionandpoorqualitycontrol.TheyalsolackdirectaccesstointernationalandSaudimarketsmakingthemheavilydependantonGulftranshipment,especiallythroughtheUAE(Coulter1987;Chaudhry1993).

Otherproductionareas

YemenwastraditionallythemainfrankincenseproductioncentreoftheancientworlduntiltheFirstWorldWar,andAdenwasthemaintradingcentreforfrankincensegumsfromSomalia,aswellasfortheexportofYemenifrankincense.Thistradehasallbutdiedout,withSomaliexportersusingOmaniandUAEports.AlthoughdomesticYemeniresinharvestingstillcontinues,verylittleisexported.AttemptstointroducethetreestoKenyaandelsewhereinAfricahavemetwithlittlesuccess,norcanthetreebegrowncommercially.SmallerquantitiesoffrankincensefromBoswelliapapyrifera(Del.)HochstareharvestedinEthiopia,EritreaandSudanmainlyfordomesticuse.BoswelliaserraRoxb.growsindryregionsofnorthwestIndiaandotherBoswelliavarietieselsewherebuthavenoroleinthecommercialtrade(Demissew1993).InglobaltermsitisthoughtthatEuropeandemandforfrankincenseremainsroughlysteadywhilethatofthePeople’sRepublicofChinahasincreased.GermanyisapparentlynowimportingsignificantamountsofEthiopianincensegumwiththedirecttradebetweenSomaliaandSaudiArabiacontinuingtoflourish.Bestestimatessuggestaglobalexporttradeofanywherebetween3–5000tonnes/year,butbecauseoftheillegalnatureofmuchofthefrankincensetrade,itispossiblethatthisfigurecouldbeveryinaccurate.

Processingtheresin

AnumberofEuropeancompaniesarealsoinvolvedintheimportandprocessingoffrankincense,generallythosewhichproduceawiderangeofotherflavourings,fragrancesandessentialoils.Processingcompanieseitherimportandprocessrawmaterialsthemselvesorarrangeforprocessingviaanetworkofcontractors,thenmanufacturingawiderangeofaromaticproducts.Thisprocessisseparatefromthemanufactureofliturgicalincensewhichisusuallycarriedoutbyrelativelysmall-scaleproducerswhosupplychurchsuppliersandchurchrequisiteshopsdirectly.IntheUK,forexample,muchofthechurchincense

usedbyallChristiandenominationsispreparedbytheBenedictinemonksofPrinknashAbbeywhoimportfrankincenseandthencombineitwithotheringredientsincludingfragrancesindifferentproportions,packageandmarkettheproductunderimpressivechurchsoundingnamessuchas‘basilica’or‘cathedral’.Pricesvarywiththepercentageoffrankincenseusedinthemixture.

Commercialprocessorsaremoreusuallyconcernedwiththeproductionofessentialoilsandwillusuallyworkwithalargevarietyofbasicingredients.WithinEuropetherearelessthanadozensuchmanufacturersinvolvedinthedistillationoffrankincenseoil,anditisestimatedthatthetotalworldmarketforfrankincenseoilisaround30–50tonnes/year.Assuminga10%yieldfromtheresin(seldomachieved)thissuggestsaglobaldemandof300–500tonnesofrawmaterialforoilproduction.However,thisrepresentsonlyafractionofthetotalworldmarketforthegumwhichisdominatedbyitsdomesticuseintheMiddleEastforchewing,aromaticandmedicinalpurposesandtheliturgicalincensetrade.Inpracticecommercialmanufacturersonlyexpecta6%yieldofoilfromresin,unlessthematerialisespeciallyhighquality.FrankincenseoilisexpensivetomanufacturecomparedwithotheressentialoilsandsomeEuropeanprocessorshaverelocatedthisoperationtoIndiawheretheprocessisfarcheaper(£65–70kgcomparedwith£90–100intheUK).Thus,muchEuropeanfrankincenseisnowimportedfromtheMiddleEastviaIndiawhereitisprocessed.ByfarthemajorityofessentialoilsdistilledinEuropeareproducedinGrasseinthesouthofFrance,thecentreoftheperfumeindustry,usingatwo-stagedistillationprocessinvolvingsolventextractionandwaterdistillation.Someprocessorsusegas-cooledmassspectroscopytoensurequalitycontrol.Thisismuchmorecomplexthantheprocedureusedforotheressentialoils.Notallcontractdistillerswilldealinfrankincenseastheprocessissostickyandtheequipmentrequiresextracleaning,maintenanceandrenewalofvitalparts.OneUKdistillernotedthatatpresentthequalityofimportedresinfromOmanproduced150–200kgofoilfromashipmentofjustover2tonnes.OverallreductionininternationalfreightchargeshaschangedtheshapeoftheexportroutesfromOmanasimportationfromtheMiddleEast(evenviaIndia)addsonlyafewpencetothepriceofthefinishedoilmakingitmorecosteffectivetoprocessinAsia.Comparedwithotheressentialsofthearomaticsperfumeindustry(suchasaloevera)frankincenseisexpensivetobuyandexpensivetoprocess.Manufacturersputpressureonsupplierstodeliverahighqualityproduct,whichrequiresnotonlygoodqualityresinbutalsoresinfreefromtwigsandbits,shippedreliablyatacompetitiveprice.Whenproducedtheoilhasaverygoodshelflifesothatitcanbestoredforalongtime,meaningthat

manufacturerscanbechoosyabouttheirsuppliers,whichisnotthecasewith,forexample,freshfloweressenceswhichrequireinstantprocessing.Somecommercialdistillingoperationsarecurrentlyusingmoremyrrhthanfrankincense–theresinismoreexpensivebuttheoiliseasiertoproduce.

FrankincenseinWorshipChurchincenseismadeoffrankincenseblendedwithothersubstancesindifferentproportionstoproduceapleasantly-scentedandcombustibleincenseofslightlydifferentodours,whichisburntoncharcoalinacenser.IncenseisusedonlyoccasionallyintheliturgiesoftheAnglicanandRomanCatholicChurches,butisusedforeverydivineliturgyintheEasternCatholicchurches.ThesmokeofincensetraditionallysignifiedtheprayersofthefaithfulrisingtowardsGod;itsburningsymbolisedthezealofthefaithfulandthecloudofincensebecameasymbolfortheunseenrealityofGod.Today,incenseisusuallycontainedwithinacenser(thurible)whichisswungonchainsinthedirectionofthecongregation,gospelbook,altarandclergyatdifferenttimesaccordingtotheappropriaterite.GrainsoffrankincensearealsotraditionallyinsertedintothePascalcandleandmaybeputintoconsecratedaltars.Frankincensealsoappearsinthetraditionaloilsusedforanointingandembalming.TheuseofincenseforliturgicalpurposeswascommoninJewishritualwhereitwasusedinconnectionwithofferingsofoil,fruits,wineoranimalsacrifices.ItisnoteasytosaywhenitsusewasintroducedintotheChristianchurchbutthisdoesnotseemtohavehappeneduntilatleastAD400,althoughitsuseintheTempleandreferencestoitintheNewTestament(e.g.Luke1:10)meanthatearlyChristianswouldhavebeenfamiliarwithitsuse.TheearliestauthenticreferencetoitsuseintheservicesofthechurchisfoundinPseudo-Dionysiusandinthe5thcenturyliturgiesofStsJamesandMark.IntheRomanchurchincensationofthegospelatMasswascommonfromthe11thcentury,andinconnexionwiththeelevationandbenedictionoftheBlessedSacramentfromatleastthe14thcentury.Today,incenseisusedatSolemnMass,solemnblessing,specificfunctionsandprocessions,somechoralofficesandabsolutionsofthedeadinRomanCatholicrites,butisusuallyconfinedtoHighMassandBenedictionwithintheAnglicanCommunion.

InthelasttwentyyearstheuseofincensehasdeclinedinRomanCatholicchurches,partlyasaresultofliturgicalrevisionsfollowingthesecondVaticanCouncil(Sullivan1918).WithintheAnglicanCommunionintheUKitsuseisrestrictedto‘high’churchworship(mostcathedralsandsomechurcheswhichbelongtothemorecatholicwingoftheAnglicanCommunion)anduntilrecently

incenseusehasbeenoutoffavourasevangelicalAnglicansoutnumberedcatholicAnglicans,atleastwithintheChurchofEngland.However,thereissomeevidencethatitsuseisnowincreasingaspartofarevivalofinterestinancientliturgicalpracticesandintheuseofsensoryaidssuchasaromaticstofacilitateprayerandcontemplation.SomeMethodistchurcheshaveevenbeguntouseincense–apracticeunheardofadecadeago.ChurchincenseistestedforpuritybyanumberofagenciesincludingtheInternationalFragranceAssociationcreatedin1973inBrussels,butdespitethistherehavebeenseveralrecenthealthscaresaboutitspotentialtoxicityiftoomuchsmokeisbeeninhaled.AdoctorintheIrishgovernmentwarnedthatthehealthofaltarboysandgirlsmightbeputatriskbyexcessiveincenseuseonthegroundsthatincensesmokecontributesunacceptablelevelsofpolyaromatichydrocarbonsintopoorlyventilatedchurches.Thepro-incenseCatholicfactionsaysthatthisisrubbishandnotestheexistenceofa‘protestantcough’usedbymembersofthecongregationtoprotestwhenamorecatholicriteinvolvingincenseisbeingused.Itiscurioustonotethatthereisaprevailingbeliefthatliturgicalincenseisbadforthosewithchestcomplaints,wheninfactfrankincensewastraditionallyusedtotreatexactlythoseconditions.

PerfumesCosmeticsandMedicinesPerfumeoilsandunguentshavebeenusedforthousandsofyears,andintheMiddleEastextensiveusehasalwaysbeenmadeofmyrrhandfrankincenseintheirproduction,oftencombinedwithfloweressences.OnthewallsofthetempleatEdfua2000yearoldEgyptianformuladedicatedtoHathorincludesfrankincenseinaperfumerecipe,andtheSongofSolomonreportstheQueenofSaba(Sheba)asbeing‘perfumedwithmyrrhandfrankincense’.ItisoftensuggestedthattheartofperfumerywasdevelopedsystematicallywithintheArabworld,especiallyduringthereignoftheUmayyadandAbbasidcaliphates,andthatatasteforperfumeswasbroughtbacktoEuropebytheCrusaders(Groom1981).EventuallytheskillsofcommercialperfumeproductionweretransmittedfromArabSpaintosouthernFrance,withthetownofGrassecomingtodominatetheindustryuntilthepresentday.Perfumeisbigbusiness;theglobalperfumeindustryisestimatedtohaveavalueofover1billiondollars.Today’sperfumeindustryusesahugevarietyofnaturalandsyntheticsubstanceseithersinglyorincombination,toproducescentsperfumes,cosmetics,bodycreamsandlotions,hairpreparationsandairfresheners.Massproductionofperfumesbeganinthe19thcenturyasadirectresultofimprovementsinorganicchemistrywhichenabledcertainsyntheticperfumeproductstobeusedinplaceofexpensiveorhardtofindnaturalcommodities.Today,about2600chemicals

areusedtomakeperfumeofwhich95%aresyntheticcompoundsderivedfrompetroleum.Therestarenaturalplantoilsandfloweressences.Frankincenseandmyrrhproducetheheaviestandlongestlastingfragrancesofanyessentialoil.However,partoftheintrinsicvalueoffrankincensetotheperfumeandaromaticbusinessisthatsofarithasprovedimpossibletoreplicateartificiallytoanysatisfactorylevel.Thebalanceofingredientscontrolsnotonlythesignatureofthefragrancebutalsothetimethatitwilllastontheskin.Perfumeswithahighproportionof‘oriental’essentialoilssuchasfrankincenseastheirbasenotesareextremelylonglastingwiththeuseronlyrequiringaverysmallamount(Verghese1988).

Bycontrast‘natural’perfumesaremadewithoutsyntheticingredientsusingupto25%ofessentialoils,dilutedincarrieroils(oftenjojobaoil)aswellasalcoholorwater.Inthewesternworldnaturalperfumesaretypicallyproducedinsmallquantitiesbyspecialistcompanies,butintheMiddleEasttheyarestillmadelocallyfromlocalingredientstoproduceproductswhoserecipeshaveremainedunchangedforthousandsofyears.IntheperfumesuqofSalalahinOman,forexample,perfumeblendersutiliselocally-harvestedfrankincenseasthebaseforawidevarietyofnaturalperfumes,manyofwhicharecreatedtomatchthepersonaltasteofthewearer.Otheringredientsmightincludesandalwood,attar,rosewater,myrrhandmanyotheraromaticoilsandresinsblendedtogether.Rawfrankincenseisalso‘cooked’withsugartoproduceasolidblockcalledbokhur,fromwhichpiecesarebrokentobeburntinsmallclaydomesticincenseburnerstoperfumeandfumigateclothesandrooms–apracticewidespreadintheMiddleEast.Omanalsoproducesacommercialfrankincenseperfumebilledasthemostexpensivefragranceintheworld.‘Amouage’wasdevelopedtocapitaliseandpromoteOman’sfrankincensetradeanditsreputationforcraftsmanshipinmetalworking.TheperfumeisdevelopedfromoilsderivedfromthebestqualityfrankincensefromDhofarandcontains140ingredientsincludingtuberose,rose,jasmine,lilyofthevalley,somefruitessence,patchouli,sandalwood,ambergrisandmusk.ItissoldinflasksdesignedbyAsprey’sofLondonwhichareproducedlocallybytraditionalsilversmiths.Oftenbilledasthemostexpensiveperfumeintheworld,large(120ml)flasksretailformorethan$5000.In1995tocelebrateOman’sSilverJubileeyearthecompanyproducing‘Amouage’broughtoutanewfrankincense-basedfragrancedcalled‘Ubar’afterthesemi-mythicalfrankincensetradingcityofsouthernOman.

Aromaticessencesfromplantsareincreasinglybeingusedinaromatherapywheretheirspecificsmellsaresupposedlyrelatedtospecificphysicaland

psychologicalaffects.Frankincenseoilsarealsosoldwiththeessentialoilblendedwithothersubstances,oftenJojobaoil,insmallquantitiestoburnoruseinthebath.InSomaliathechewingoflow-gradefrankincenseresiniscommontohelpteeth,gumsandbreath,withfrankincensealsobeingaddedtonightfirestodetersnakesandinsects.TearsofgoodqualityresinareutilisedinAfricatotreatbackache,cough,polioandchestproblemsandalsousedasanincenseinmosques.Frankincenseandmyrrhhavelongbeenusedaspainkillersastheyapparentlyaffectthebrainsopiodreceptors.Theingredientssesquiterpenes-furano-eudesma-1,3–dieneandcurazeneproduceananalgesiceffect,butinthewestthishasnowbeenreplacedbycommerciallypatenteddrugs(Tucker1986).However,traditionalmedicinesaremakingacomebackandthereisincreasedinterestintheuseoffrankincenseandmyrrhasantimicrobialagentsforinfections,coughsandworminfestations(WattsandSellar1996).Frankincenseisalsousedintraditionalmedicineasananti-inflammatoryforurinary,respiratoryanddigestiveproblems.Boswellicacid,aby-productoftheextractionofthedistilledresin,isbeingusedtotreatarthritis.

FrankincenseTourismSeveralMiddleEasterncountries,notablyOman,EgyptandYemen,activelypromotetourismtositesassociatedwiththeirancientfrankincensetrade.Others,includingsomeoftheGulfStatessuchasDubaiandAbuDhabi,includevisitstothesuq(market)wherefrankincenseisstillsold,asmajorattractions(Gabr2000).JordanandSaudiArabiabothincludemajorculturalheritagesites(PetraandMed’ainSalah)associatedwiththefrankincensetrade,althoughtheformerisnotusuallymarketedonthatbasisandthelatterisseldomvisitedbyinternationaltouristsbecauseofvisarestrictions.AlthoughSomalia(plusEritrea,Djibouti,SudanandpartofNorthKenya)werealsosignificantintheancienttradeandstillproducesubstantialamountsofresintoday,noarchaeologicalsitesassociatedwiththetradearepromotedforvisitorssincetourismaccesstothecountryisextremelylimited.BoththeancientandmoderntradeinfrankincenseinvolvedmajorEuropeancitiesincludingRomeandAthens,aswellastradingportssuchasAlexandria,GazaandIstanbul(Fig.8.1).Allthesecitiesincludemajorculturalheritageattractionsbutnonearespecifictothefrankincensetrade.Frankincensetourism,therefore,isreallyaMiddleEasternphenomenon.

Itispossibletoenvisagehowthesedifferentelementsoffrankincensetourismcouldbepackagedtogether.Highlightsofamoderntourfollowingtheancientitinerary(Fig.8.2)couldincludetheDeirelBahritemplenearLuxor(Egypt),

andtheSinaidesertincludingthespectacular6thcenturyfortifiedmonasteryofSt.KatherineatthefootofMountSinaiwhichistheregion’smajorculturalattraction(Shackley1998).SinaiwascrossedbyancientfrankincensecaravanroutesfromGazatoPetra,andpossiblybyacoastalRa’sMohammed-AqabarouteheadingtowardsPetra(Fig.8.1).InOmanvisitorscouldseethecontemporaryfrankincenseharvestinDhofar,thesiteofShisr,claimedasthelostfrankincense-tradingcityofUbud(Fiennes1992),andtheimpressiveruinsofthe3rdmillenniumfrankincenseportofKhorRori(nowaWorldHeritageSite)andMarbatcastle(Kashoob1999).TherestoredcastleofNizwaisthecentreoftheculturaltourismtrade,withnearbyBahlaFortwithits15gatesand132watchtowersnowclosedforrestoration.Dhows,similartothoseusedintheancienttrade,arestillbeingbuiltatSurharbour.SaudiArabiahasmanyattractionsrelevanttofrankincense,includingtheAsirregioninthesouthwest,targetofacampaignin25BCbytheRomanGeneralAeliusGalluswhowassenttoconquertheincense-producingregions.NajrānisclosetothecurrentYemeniborderandhasa4000yearhistoryasatradingcentre;itwasthelastimportantstoponthefrankincenseroutebeforethecaravansbranchedeastorwest.ThemostspectaculararchaeologicalsiteinSaudiArabia,Med’ainSaleh,wasthemodelforPetraandisjustbeginningtoappearontouristitineraries.YemeniscurrentlyreceivingECassistancewiththedevelopmentofitsculturaltourism,withparticulareffortbeingtargetedatcombatinganegativemediaimage,improvingstafftrainingandtourguiding.TheWorldHeritagecitiesofShibam,Sana’ā’andZabidwereallassociatedwiththefrankincensetradeandthecountryismarketedasa‘cross-roadsofthespice,incense,myrrhandgoldroutesandthemeetingpointoftheFarEastandMediterranean’.HighlightsincludeMārib,thecapitalofthekingdomofSabawhichcontrolledYemenfor800years,wherevisitorscanseetheremainsoftheoldestdamintheworld.TheprosperityofSabaderivedfromtheincensetrade,andvisitorscanstilltracetheancientroutethroughWadiHadramawtandthedesertcityofShibamandShabwa,thelatterbeinganimportantcentreforcaravansofincensewhichhadtopay1/10ofitsloadsasgiftsforpriestsoftemples.Bi’r‘Alī,nowacoastalvillage,wasoncethemajorportthroughwhichfrankincensewasexportedwithroadsleadingfromtheretoallthenorthernandeasternroutes.However,althoughitisundeniablethatsouthernArabiaalreadyhasmanydestinationsandtourismproductsassociatedwiththeancientfrankincensetrade,thereisalmostnointra-regionalcooperationandasurprisinglylowgrowthrateforinternationaltourism,partlybecauseofpoliticalinstability(Hazbun2000).Althoughfrankincensetourismdoesexist,therouteswhichitfollowsarefragmentedbypoliticalborders,andatpresentnoinitiativesexisttoovercometheserestrictions

andemulatetheprecedentssetbytheWTOSilkRoadinitiative(UNESCO1998;2000).

ConclusionPartoftheinterestinfrankincenseasacommodityinthe21stcenturycomesfromthefactthateverythingfromitsharvestingtoutilisationseemstohavechangedsolittleoversuchanimmenseperiodoftime.Thedistributionareasofthetreeshasnotchanged,norhasthemethodofharvesting.However,therehasundeniablybeenadramaticreductioninthevolumeofresinharvestedandasignificantshiftintheusetowhichtheresinisput.Probably50%oftoday’sharvestgoestowardstheperfume,aromaticandmedicinetrade,whereasthiswouldhavebeennegligibleinclassicaltimes.However,today’sliturgicaluseofincenseisonlyafractionofthatusedintheclassicalandpre-classicalworlds.Partofthefascinationoffrankincensecomesfromitsexclusivity;thetreesonlygrowinarestrictedarea,cannotbegrowncommerciallyandtheoilcannotbeartificiallyreplicatedwithanydegreeofsuccess.Frankincenseisalwaysassociatedinpeople’smindswiththegiftsofthethreeKingstoaninfantJesus,andthuswithwealthandexclusivity.Itisanintenselyromanticcommodity–easytoenvisagecamelcaravansofpreciousresinscrossingthedesertsofsouthernArabiaunderthecontrolofNabateantraders.Thisromanticismunderpinstheideaoffrankincensetourism,offeringthevisitortheopportunitytoexplorethematerialremainsofcitiesassociatedwiththatmostglamorousofnaturalcommodities.Itseemsunlikelythatthislevelofinterestwilldiminishinthefutureandincreasinglypossiblethatnewmedicinaluseswillbefoundforfrankincenseresinatatimewhenmanyareturningagaintotraditionalremedies.Thefrankincensetradeisstillbigbusiness,althoughnowcontrolledbypowerfulcartelsintheUAE,andthefactthatsomuchofitisillegalonlyaddstotheattraction–reinforcinganimageofthefascinatingandthemysterious.

Fig.8.1.Ancientfrankincenseroutes.

Fig.8.2.Modernfrankincensetouristroutes.

Bibliography

Chiavari,G.,Galletti,G.C.,Piccaglia,R.,andMohamud,M.A.,1991.DifferentiationbetweenresinsfromBoswelliacarteriiandBoswelliaFrereana(frankincense)ofSomaliorigin.JournalofEssentialOilResearch,3(3)185–186.

Chaudhry,K.A.,1993.Themythsofthemarketandthecommonhistoryoflatedevelopers.PoliticsandSociety,21(3)245–274.

Coulter,J.,1987.MarketstudyforfrankincenseandmyrrhfromSomalia.UnpublishedstudyundertakenfortheEuropeanAssociationforCooperation.

Chatham,UK;NaturalResourcesInstitute.

Demissew,S.,1993.AdescriptionofsomeessentialoilbearingplantsinEthiopiaandtheirindigenoususes.JournalofEssentialOilResearch,5(5),465–479.

Farah,A.Y.,1988.ThemilkoftheBoswelliaforests:frankincenseproductionamongthepastoralSomali.Thesis,LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience,UniversityofLondonUK.

Fiennes,R.,1992.AtlantisoftheSands.London.

Gabr,H.,2000.Heritageandarchitecturalpreservationfortouristdevelopment;reflectionsonthehistoricBastakiadistctinDubai.InRobinson,M.Evans,N.,Long,P.,Sharpley,R.,andSwarbrookeJ.(eds).TourismandHeritageRelationships:global,nationalandlocalperspectives.Gateside.197–211.

Groom,N.,1981.FrankincenseandMyrrh.AStudyoftheArabianIncenseTrade.London.

Hazbun,W.,2000.Enclaveorientalism;thestate,tourism,andthepoliticsofpost-nationaldevelopmentintheArabWorld.InRobinson,M.Evans,N.,Long,P.,Sharpley,R.,andSwarbrookeJ.(eds)Management,MarketingandthePoliticalEconomyofTravelandTourism.Gateside.191–207.

Kashoob,A.,1999.TowardsasolutionfortheseasonalityprobleminDhofarunpublishedMScThesis,SchoolofManagementStudiesfortheServiceSector,UniversityofSurrey.

Sullivan,J.F.,1918.Theexternalsofthecatholicchurch.NewYork.

Tucker,A.O.,1986.Frankincenseandmyrrh.EconomicBotany,40(4),425–433.

UNESCO1998.http://www.unesco.org/culture/silkroads/html_eng/exhibition.htm.

UNESCO2000.http://www.unesco.org/whc/reporting/arab.

Verghese,J.,1988.Olibanuminfocus.PerfumerandFlavorist,13(1),1–12.

Wahab,S.M.A.,Aboutabl,E.A.,El-Zalabani,S.M.,Fouad,H.A.dePooter,H.L.andEl-Fallaha,B.,1987.Theessentialoilofolibanum.PlantaMedica,53(4),382–384.

Watt,M.andSellar,W.,1996.FrankincenseandMyrrh.SaffronWalden.