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Food Chemistry
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
H.-D. Belitz· W. Grosch
ood Chem·stry Translation from the Fourth German Edition by M. M. Burghagen, D. Hadziyev, P. Hessel, S. Jordan and C. Sprinz
Second Edition with 460 Figures and 531 Tables
, Springer
Professor Dr.-Ing. H.-D. Belitz t Professor Dr.-Ing. W. Grosch Institut fUr Lebensmittelchemie der Technischen Universitiit Miinchen and Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fUr Lebensmitte1chemie, Miinchen LichtenbergstraBe 4 D-85748 Garching, FRG
Translators:
First edition Professor Dr. D. Hadziyev
Second edition: Peter Hessel (chapters 0 and I) Christiane Sprinz (chapter 2) Dr. Sabine Jordan (chapter 3) Dr. Margaret Burghagen (chapters 4-23)
ISBN 978-3-540-64692-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Belitz, H.-D, (Hans-Dieter) [Lehrbuch der Lebensmitte1chemie. English] Food chemistry / H.-D. Belitz, W. Grosch. - 2nd ed. / translation from the fourth German edition by M.Burghagen ... let al.] Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-540-64692-1 ISBN 978-3-662-07281-3 (eBook) DOl 10.1007/978-3-662-07281-3
1. Food-Analysis. I. Grosch, W. (Werner) II. Title. TX545.B3513 1999 664'.07-dc21 99-10777
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1987 and 1999 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1999
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Cover design: de 'blik, Berlin Typesetting: Fotosatz-Service Kohler GmbH, 97084 Wiirzburg Production: ProduServ GmbH, Verlagsservice, Berlin SPIN: 10680543 (soft) 10685705 (hard) 52/3020 - 5 432 I 0 - Printed on acid-free paper
In Memoriam Joseph Schormiiller (1903-1974) Professor of Food Chemistry at the
Technische Universitiit Berlin
Preface to the Second English Edition The second edition of "Food Chemistry" is a translation of the fourth German edition of this textbook. The text has been corrected only in a few places, e. g., most of the production data are presented for the year 1996. The preparation of this edition was greatly delayed due to the deaths of Professor Dr. H.-D. Belitz in March 1993 and of Professor Dr. D. Hadziyev, who translated the first edition, in July 1995. H.-D. Belitz worked on the preparation of the second edition. Dr. Margaret Burghagen translated most of the extensive changes incorporated into this new edition and revised the entire text. I am greatly indebted to her for her excellent work. It was a pleasure to work with her. I gratefully acknowledge the help of my colleagues who made valuable criticisms and contributed to the improvement of the text. I particularly thank Dr. M. C. Kuhn, Holland. I would also like to thank Mrs. R. Jauker for assistance in completing the manuscript and for proofreading and my son B. Grosch for assistance in preparing the index.
Garching, January 1999 w'Grosch
Preface to the First English Edition
The two German editions of the "Lehrbuch flir Lebensmitte1chemie" were so well accepted not only as a university textbook, but also as a first comprehensive source of information for people in science, industry, official food control and administration, that the publishing house, Springer-Verlag (Heidelberg), decided to edit an English version. The first English edition is actually the second German edition which was revised for this purpose. We are specially thankful to our colleague Prof. Dr. D. Hadziyev for the translation of the book.
Garching, December 1986 H.-D. Belitz, W, Grosch
Preface to the Fourth German Edition
For the fourth edition, all the chapters have been carefully revised and updated. Furthermore, one chapter and various sections have been added and others have been reworked. Some of the changes that have been made are:
The relationships between the water content and reactivity of food have been presented in terms of the kinetics of phase transitions. The formation of mutagenic compounds from amino acids by thermal reactions has been discussed in greater detail.
- Technologically important properties of proteins, such as the formation of foams, gels and emulsions, have been summarized.
- The chapter on enzymes contains revised sections on the relationships between structure and catalytic activity and on the temperature dependency of the reaction rate. In the chapter on carbohydrates, the Maillard reaction and the section on starch have been discussed in greater detail and a section on halodeoxy sugars has been added. The chapter on aroma substances and the sections on the aroma substances of individual foods have been completely revised. The chapter on food additives has been modified to include new sweeteners (suo san, guanidines, alitame, sucralose) and a more detailed presentation of emulsifiers. Dioxins have been included in the chapter on food contamination. The chapters on individual foods contain more detailed presentations of analysis (meat, fats, fruit), various constituents (cereal proteins, legume proteins, proteinase inhibitors, phenolic compounds) and of some technical processes (micelle and gel formation in the case of milk and baking process and ageing of baked products). A short chapter on drinking water, mineral and table water has been added. The references included in each chapter have been updated.
We would like to thank all our readers who have helped us with their constructive criticism in the preparation of this manuscript. For the completion and proofreading of the manuscript, we are indebted to Mrs. R. Berger, Mrs. Ch. Hoffmann, Mrs. I. Hofrneier, Mrs. G. Nominacher-Ullrich and Mrs. K. Wiist. We are very grateful to Springer Verlag for their consideration of our wishes and for the pleasant cooperation.
Garching, June 1992 H.-D. Belitz, W. Grosch
Preface to the First German Edition
The very rapid development of food chemistry and technology over the last two decades, which is due to a remarkable increase in the analytical and manufacturing possibilities, makes the complete lack of a comprehensive, teaching or reference text particularly noticeable. It is hoped that this textbook of food chemistry will help to fill this gap. In writing this volume we were able to draw on our experience from the lectures which we have given, covering various scientific subjects, over the past fifteen years at the Technical University of Munich. Since a separate treatment of the important food constituents (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, flavor compounds, etc.,) and of the important food groups (milk, meat, eggs, cereals, fruits, vegetables, etc.,) has proved successful in our lectures, the subject matter is also organized in the same way in this book. Compounds which are found only in particular foods are discussed where they playa distinctive role while food additives and contaminants are treated in their own chapters. The physical and chemical properties of the important constituents of foods are discussed in detail where these form the basis for understanding either the reactions which occur, or can be expected to occur, during the production, processing, storage and handling of foods or the methods used in analyzing them. An attempt has also been made to clarify the relationship between the structure and properties at the level of individual food constituents and at the level of the whole food system. The book focuses on the chemistry of foodstuffs and does not consider national or international food regulations. We have also omitted a broader discussion of aspects related to the nutritional value, the processing and the toxicology of foods. All of these are an essential part of the training of a food chemist but, because of the extent of the subject matter and the consequent specialization, must today be the subject of separate books. Nevertheless, for all important foods we have included brief discussions of manufacturing processes and their parameters since these are closely related to the chemical reactions occurring in foods. Commodity and production data of importance to food chemists are mainly given in tabular form. Each chapter includes some references which are not intended to form an exhaustive list. No preference or judgement should be inferred from the choice of references; they are given simply to encourage further reading. Additional literature of a more general nature is given at the end of the book. This book is primarily aimed both at students of food and general chemistry but also at those students of other disciplines who are required or choose to study food chemistry as a supplementary subject. We also hope that this comprehensive text will prove useful to both food chemists and chemists who have completed their formal education. We thank sincerely Mrs. A. Modl (food chemist), Mrs. R. Berger, Mrs. I. Hofmeier, Mrs. E. Hortig, Mrs. F. Lynen and Mrs. K. Wiist for their help during the preparation of the manuscript and its proofreading. We are very grateful to Springer Verlag for their consideration of our wishes and for the agreeable cooperation.
Garching, July 1982 H.-D. Belitz, W. Grosch
Table of Contents
o Water ..
0.1 Foreword
0.2 0.2.1 0.2.2
0.3 0.3.1 0.3.2 0.3.3 0.3.4 0.3.5
0.4
1
1.1
l.2 l.2.1 l.2.2 l.2.2.1 l.2.2.2 l.2.3 l.2.3.1 l.2.3.2 l.2.3.3 l.2.3.4 l.2.4 l.2.4.1 l.2.4.2 l.2.4.2.1 l.2.4.2.2 l.2.4.2.3 l.2.4.2.4 l.2.4.3 l.2.4.3.1 l.2.4.3.2 l.2.4.3.3 l.2.4.3.4 l.2.4.3.5 l.2.4.3.6 l.2.4.3.7 l.2.4.4 1.2.5
l.2.5.1
Structure. Water Molecule Liquid Water and Ice
Effect on Storage Life Water Activity . . . . Water Activity as an Indicator Phase Transition of Foods Containing Water WLF Equation . Conclusion
Literature ...
Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins
Foreword
Amino Acids General Remarks Classification, Discovery and Occurrence Classification ...... . Discovery and Occurrence ... . Physical Properties ....... . Dissociation . . . . . . . . . . . . Configuration and Optical Activity Solubility ............ . UV Absorption ......... . Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . Esterification of Carboxyl Groups Reactions of Amino Groups Acylation ............ . Alkylation and Arylation .... . Carbamoyl and Thiocarbamoy1 Derivatives Reactions with Carbonyl Compounds Reactions Involving Other Functional Groups Lysine ........... . Arginine .......... . Aspartic and Glutamic Acids Serine and Threonine Cysteine and Cystine Methionine Tyrosine ...... . Reactions of Amino Acids at Higher Temperatures Synthetic Amino Acids Utilized for to Increasing the Biological Value of Food (Food Fortification) Glutamic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 1 2
3 3 5 5 6 7
7
8
8
9 9 9 9
11 12 12 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 21 21 23 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 25
29 31
XII Table of Contents
1.2.5.2 1.2.5.3 1.2.5.4 1.2.5.5 1.2.5.6 1.2.5.7 1.2.6
1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.2.1 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.4.1 1.3.4.2 1.3.4.3 1.3.4.4 1.3.4.5
1.4 1.4.1 1.4.1.1 1.4.1.2 1.4.1.3 1.4.1.4 1.4.1.5
1.4.2 1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 1.4.2.2.1 1.4.2.2.2 1.4.2.2.3 1.4.2.2.4 1.4.2.3 1.4.2.3.1 1.4.2.3.2 1.4.2.3.3 1.4.2.4 1.4.3 1.4.3.1 1.4.3.2 1.4.3.3 1.4.3.4 1.4.3.5 1.4.3.6 1.4.4 1.4.4.1 1.4.4.1.1 1.4.4.1.2 1.4.4.1.3 1.4.4.1.4 1.4.4.2 1.4.4.3 1.4.4.4 1.4.4.5 1.4.4.6
Aspartic Acid Lysine .... Methionine Phenylalanine Threonine .. Tryptophan Sensory Properties
Peptides ..... . General Remarks, Nomenclature Physical Properties Dissociation . . . . Sensory Properties Individual Peptides Glutathione .... Carnosine, Anserine and Balenine Nisin ..... . Lysine Peptides Other Peptides
Proteins .... Amino Acid Sequence Amino Acid Composition, Subunits Terminal Groups Partial Hydrolysis ......... . Sequence Analysis ........ . Derivation of Amino Acid Sequence from the Nucleotide Sequence of the Coding Gene Conformation ................... . Extended Peptide Chains ............. . Secondary Structure (Regular Structural Elements) ~-Sheet Helical Structures . . . . . Reverse Turns ...... . Super-Secondary Structures Tertiary and Quaternary Structures Fibrous Proteins . . . Globular Proteins .. Quaternary Structures Denaturation . . . . Physical Properties Dissociation . . . . . Optical Activity . . . Solubility, Hydration and Swelling Power Foam Formation and Foam Stabilization Gel Formation ... Emulsifying Effect Chemical Reactions Lysine Residue Reactions Which Retain the Positive Charge Reactions Resulting in a Loss of Positive Charge Reactions Resulting in a Negative Charge Reversible Reactions ........ . Arginine Residue .......... . Glutamic and Aspartic Acid Residues Cystine Residue . . Cysteine Residue . Methionine Residue
31 31 31 33 33 33 33
34 34 35 35 35 37 37 38 38 39 39
39 40 40 41 42 43
45 48 48 49 50 51 52 53 53 53 53 56 56 58 58 60 60 61 62 63 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 69
1.4.4.7 1.4.4.8 1.4.4.9 1.4.4.10 1.4.4.11 1.4.5 1.4.5.1 1.4.5.2 1.4.5.2.1 1.4.5.2.2 1.4.5.2.3 1.4.5.2.4 1.4.6 1.4.6.1 1.4.6.2 1.4.6.2.1 1.4.6.2.2 1.4.6.2.3 1.4.6.3 1.4.6.3.1 1.4.6.3.2 1.4.6.3.3 1.4.7 1.4.7.1 1.4.7.2 1.4.7.3 1.4.7.3.1 1.4.7.3.2
1.5
2
2.1
2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.2.1 2.2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7
2.3 2.3.1 2.3.1.1 2.3.1.2 2.3.2 2.3.2.1 2.3.2.2 2.3.2.3 2.3.3 2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2
Table of Contents XIII
Histidine Residue . Tryptophan Residue Tyrosine Residue Bifunctional Reagents Reactions Involved in Food Processing Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions Foreword ..... . Proteolytic Enzymes Serine Peptidases . Cysteine Peptidases Metalo Peptidases . Aspartic Peptidases Chemical and Enzymatic Reactions of Interest to Food Processing Foreword ...... . Chemical Modification Acylation ...... . Alkylation . . . . . . . Redox Reactions Involving Cysteine and Cystine Enzymatic Modification Dephosphorylation ......... . Plastein Reaction .......... . Associations Involving Cross-Linking Texturized Proteins Foreword Starting Material Texturization Spin Process . . . Extrusion Process
Literature
Enzymes
Foreword
General Remarks, Isolation and Nomenclature Catalysis ....... Specificity ...... Substrate Specificity Reaction Specificity Structure ....... Isolation and Purification Multiple Forms of Enzymes Nomenclature .. Activity Units .. Enzyme Cofactors Cosubstrates ... Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Adenosine Triphosphate Prosthetic Groups Flavins ....... Hemin ....... Pyridoxal Phosphate Metal Ions ..... Magnesium, Calcium and Zinc Iron, Copper and Molybdenum
69 69 69 70 70 74 74 74 75 76 76 78 79 79 79 80 82 82 82 82 83 86 87 87 87 87 88 88
88
92
92
92 92 93 93 94 94 94 96 96 97
97 100 100 100 101 101 102 102 103 103 104
XIV Table of Contents
2.4 2.4.1 2.4.1.1 2.4.1.2 2.4.1.2.1 2.4.1.2.2 2.4.1.2.3 2.4.2 2.4.2.1 2.4.2.2 2.4.2.3 2.4.2.4 2.4.2.5 2.4.3
2.5 2.5.1 2.5.1.1 2.5.1.1.1 2.5.1.1.2 2.5.1.2 2.5.1.2.1 2.5.1.2.2 2.5.1.3 2.5.2 2.5.2.1 2.5.2.2 2.5.2.2.1 2.5.2.2.2 2.5.2.2.3 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.4.1 2.5.4.2 2.5.4.3 2.5.4.4 2.5.5
2.6 2.6.1 2.6.1.1 2.6.1.2 2.6.1.3 2.6.2 2.6.3
2.7 2.7.1 2.7.1.1 2.7.1.2 2.7.1.2.1 2.7.1.2.2 2.7.1.2.3 2.7.1.2.4 2.7.2 2.7.2.1 2.7.2.1.1 2.7.2.1.2
Theory of Enzyme Catalysis Active Site . . . . . . . Active Site Localization Substrate Binding . . . Stereospecificity . . . . "Lock and Key" Hypothesis Induced-fit Model ..... . Reasons for Catalytic Activity Steric Effects - Orientation Effects Structural Complementarity to Transition State Entropy Effect . . . . . . . . General Acid-Base Catalysis Covalent Catalysis . . . . . . Closing Remarks ..... .
Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions Effect of Substrate Concentration Single-Substrate Reactions Michaelis-Menten Equation Determination of K", and V Two-Substrate Reactions Order of Substrate Binding Rate Equations for a Two-Substrate Reaction Allosteric Enzymes Effect of Inhibitors Irreversible Inhibition Reversible Inhibition Competitive Inhibition Non-Competitive Inhibition Uncompetitive Inhibition Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity Influence of Temperature . . . . Time Dependence of Effects Temperature Dependence of Effects Temperature Optimum Thermal Stability Influence of Water . . .
Enzymatic Analysis . . Substrate Determination Principles End-Point Method . . . . Kinetic Method ..... Determination of Enzyme Activity Enzyme Immunoassay ..... .
Enzyme Utilization in the Food Industry Technical Enzyme Preparations Production . . . . . . Immobilized Enzymes Bound Enzymes . . . Enzyme Entrapment . Cross-Linked Enzymes Properties ..... Individual Enzymes Oxidoreductases Glucose Oxidase Catalase .....
105 106 106 107 107 108 109 110 110 111 111 112 114 117
117 117 117 117 120 121 121 122 124 125 126 126 126 127 127 128 130 131 131 133 134 136
136 136 136 138 139 139 140
141 141 141 141 141 143 144 144 145 145 145 145
2.7.2.1.3 2.7.2.1.4 2.7.2.1.5 2.7.2.2 2.7.2.2.1 2.7.2.2.2 2.7.2.2.3 2.7.2.2.4 2.7.2.2.5 2.7.2.2.6 2.7.2.2.7 2.7.2.2.8 2.7.2.2.9 2.7.2.2.10 2.7.2.2.11 2.7.2.2.12 2.7.2.2.l3 2.7.2.2.14 2.7.2.2.15 2.7.2.3
2.8
3
3.1
3.2 3.2.1 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 3.2.1.3 3.2.2 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.3 3.2.2.4 3.2.2.5 3.2.3 3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.2.3.2.1 3.2.3.2.2 3.2.3.2.3 3.2.3.2.4 3.2.4
3.3 3.3.1 3.3.1.1 3.3.1.2 3.3.1.3 3.3.1.4 3.3.1.5 3.3.2 3.3.2.1 3.3.2.2
Table of Contents XV
Lipoxygenase ....... 145 Aldehyde Dehydrogenase . 145 Butanedio1 Dehydrogenase 145 Hydro1ases . . . . . 146 Proteinases ........ 146 a- and ~-Amy1ases 147 G1ucan-1,4-a-D-G1ucosidase (G1ucoamy1ase) 147 Pullu1anase (Isoamylase) . 148 Endo-1,3(4)-~-D-Glucanase 148 a-D-Galactosidase . . . . . 148 ~-D-Galactosidase (Lactase) 148 ~-D-Fructofuranosidase (Invertase) 148 a-L-Rhamnosidase ...... 148 Cellulases and Hemicellulases 148 Lysozyme ..... 149 Thioglucosidase . . 149 Pectolytic Enzymes 149 Lipases 149 Tannases . 150 Isomerases 150
Literature 150
lipids .. 152
Foreword 152
Fatty Acids 153 Nomenclature and Classification 153 Saturated Fatty Acids . 153 Unsaturated Fatty Acids 154 Substituted Fatty Acids 157 Physical Properties 158 Carboxyl Group . . . . 158 Crystalline Structure, Melting Points 158 Urea Adducts . 160 Solubility 160 UV-Absorption 160 Chemical Properties 161 Methylation of Carboxyl Groups 161 Reactions of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 161 Halogen Addition Reactions 161 Transformation ofIsolene-Type Fatty Acids to Conjugated Fatty Acids 161 Formation ofa TI-Complex withAg+ Ions 162 Hydrogenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Biosynthesis of Unsaturated Fatty Acids 162
Acylglycerols ........ 163 Triacylglycerols (TG) . . . . 163 Nomenclature, Classification 163 Melting Properties . . . . 164 Chemical Properties . . . 165 Structural Determination 166 Biosynthesis . . . . . . . 170 Mono- and Diacylglycerols (MG, DG) 170 Occurrence, Production 170 Physical Properties .......... 171
XVI Table of Contents
3.4 3.4.1 3.4.1.1 3.4.1.2 3.4.1.3 3.4.2 3.4.2.1 3.4.2.2 3.4.2.3
3.5 3.5.1 3.5.1.1 3.5.1.2 3.5.2
3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.2.1 3.6.2.2 3.6.3
3.7 3.7.1 3.7.1.1 3.7.1.2 3.7.1.2.1 3.7.1.2.2 3.7.2 3.7.2.1 3.7.2.1.1 3.7.2.1.2 3.7.2.1.3 3.7.2.1.4 3.7.2.1.5 3.7.2.2 3.7.2.3 3.7.2.4 3.7.2.4.1 3.7.2.4.2 3.7.2.4.3 3.7.2.4.4 3.7.3 3.7.3.1 3.7.3.2 3.7.3.2.1 3.7.3.2.2 3.7.3.2.3 3.7.4 3.7.4.1 3.7.4.2 3.7.5 3.7.6
3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2
Phospho- and Glycolipids Classes ......... . Phosphatidyl Derivatives Glycerolglycolipids Sphingolipids ..... . Analysis ........ . Extraction, Removal of Non lipids Separation and Identification of Classes of Components Analysis of Lipid Components
Lipoproteins, Membranes Lipoproteins . Definition ....... . Classification ..... . Involvement of Lipids in the Formation of Biological Membranes
Diol Lipids, Higher Alcohols, Waxes and Cutin Diol Lipids .......... . Higher Alcohols and Derivatives Waxes .... Alkoxy Lipids . . . . . . . . . . Cutin .............. .
Changes in Acyl Lipids of Food Enzymatic Hydrolysis . . . . . . Triacylglycerol Hydrolases (Lipases) Polar-Lipid Hydrolases Phospholipases .......... . Glycolipid Hydrolases ...... . Peroxidation of Unsaturated Acyl Lipids Autoxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundamental Steps of Autoxidation Monohydroperoxides ...... . Hydroperoxide-Epidioxides ... . Initiation of a Radical Chain Reaction Secondary Products . . . . . . . . . . Lipoxygenase: Occurrence and Properties Enzymatic Degradation of Hydroperoxides Hydroperoxide-Protein Interactions .. Products Formed from Hydroperoxides Lipid-Protein Complexes ... Protein Changes . . . . . . . . . Decomposition of Amino Acids Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation Antioxidant Activity . Antioxidants in Food . Natural Antioxidants Synthetic Antioxidants Synergists ...... . Fat or Oil Heating (Deep Frying) Autoxidation of Saturated Acyl Lipids Polymerization ........... . Radiolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microbial Degradation of Acyl Lipids to Methyl Ketones
Unsaponifiable Constituents Hydrocarbons ...... . . Steroids and Steroid Derivatives
171 171 171 173 174 174 174 174 176
177 177 177 177 178
179 179 179 179 180 180
180 180 181 183 183 183 183 184 184 185 188 189 195 199 201 202 202 204 205 206 206 206 207 207 208 210 210 211 213 214 215
215 216 217
3.8.2.1 3.8.2.2 3.8.2.2.1 3.8.2.2.2 3.8.2.3 3.8.2.3.1 3.8.2.3.2 3.8.2.4 3.8.3 3.8.3.1 3.8.3.2 3.8.4 3.8.4.1 3.8.4.1.1 3.8.4.1.2 3.8.4.2 3.8.4.3 3.8.4.4 3.8.4.5 3.8.4.5.1 3.8.4.5.2 3.8.4.6
3.9
4
4.1
4.2 4.2.1 4.2.1.1 4.2.1.2 4.2.1.3 4.2.2 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.4.1 4.2.4.2 4.2.4.3 4.2.4.3.1 4.2.4.3.2 4.2.4.3.3 4.2.4.4 4.2.4.4.1 4.2.4.4.2 4.2.4.4.3 4.2.4.4.4 4.2.4.4.5 4.2.4.4.6 4.2.4.4.7 4.2.4.4.8 4.2.4.5 4.2.4.6
Table of Contents XVII
Stnlcture, ~omenclature Steroids of Animal Food Cholesterol ...... . Vitamin D ....... . Plant Steroids (Phytosterols) Desmethylsterols ..... . Methyl- and Dimethyl Sterols Analysis .......... . Tocopherols and Tocotrienols Stnlcture, Importance Analysis .......... . Carotenoids ........ . Chemical Stnlcture, Occurrence Carotenes ..... Xanthophylls Physical Properties Chemical Properties Precursors of Aroma Compounds Use ofCarotenoids in Food Processing Plant Extracts ..... Individual Compounds Analysis .
Literature
Carbohydrates
Foreword
Monosaccharides Stnlcture and ~omenclature ~omenclature
Configuration ....... . Conformation . . . . . . . . Physical Properties ..... Hygroscopicity and Solubility Optical Rotation, Mutarotation Sensory Properties ..... . Chemical Reactions and Derivatives Reduction to Sugar Alcohols .... Oxidation to Aldonic, Dicarboxylic and Uronic Acids Reactions in the Presence of Acids and Alkalis Reactions in Strongly Acidic Media Reactions in Strongly Alkaline Solution ... . Cararnelization ................ . Reactions with Amino Compounds . . . . . . . ~-Glycosides, Amadori and Heyns Compounds Initial Stages of the Maillard Reaction Secondary Products of 3-Deoxyosones Secondary Products of l-Deoxyosones Secondary Products of 4-Deoxyosones Reactions Between Deoxyosones and Reductones Strecker Reaction ................ . Inhibition of the Maillard Reaction . . . . . . . . Reactions with Hydroxy Compounds (O-Glycosides) Esters ........................ .
217 217 217 218 218 218 221 221 222 222 223 224 224 225 226 229 229 230 232 233 233 233
234
237
237
237 237 237 238 242 245 245 246 246 249 249 249 252 252 254 256 257 258 259 261 263 265 266 267 267 267 269
XVllI Table of Contents
4.2.4.7 4.2.4.8 4.2.4.9
4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2
4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.2.1 4.4.2.2 4.4.2.3 4.4.2.4 4.4.2.5 4.4.2.6 4.4.3 4.4.3.1 4.4.3.2 4.4.3.3 4.4.3.4 4.4.3.5 4.4.3.6 4.4.3.7 4.4.3.7.1 4.4.3.7.2 4.4.4 4.4.4.1 4.4.4.1.1 4.4.4.1.2 4.4.4.1.3 4.4.4.2 4.4.4.2.1 4.4.4.2.2 4.4.4.2.3 4.4.4.2.4 4.4.4.3 4.4.4.3.1 4.4.4.3.2 4.4.4.3.2 4.4.4.4 4.4.4.4.1 4.4.4.4.2 4.4.4.4.3 4.4.4.5 4.4.4.5.1 4.4.4.5.2 4.4.4.5.3 4.4.4.6 4.4.4.6.1 4.4.4.6.2 4.4.4.6.3 4.4.4.7 4.4.4.7.1 4.4.4.7.2 4.4.4.7.3 4.4.4.8
Ethers .... Halodeoxy Derivatives Cleavage of Glycols . .
Oligosaccharides Structure and Nomenclature Properties and Reactions
Polysaccharides .... Classification, Structure . Conformation ..... . Extended or Stretched, Ribbon-'JYpe Conformation Hollow Helix-Type Conformation Crumpled-Type Conformation Loosely-Jointed Conformation Conformations of Heteroglycans Interchain Interactions Properties ........... . General Remarks ....... . Perfectly Linear Polysaccharides Branched Polysaccharides . . . . Linearly Branched Polysaccharides Polysaccharides with Carboxyl Groups Polysaccharides with Strongly Acidic Groups Modified Polysaccharides . . . . . . . . Derivatization with Neutral Substituents Derivatization with Acidic Substituents Individual Polysaccharides Agar ........ . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Alginates ..... . Occurrence, Isolation Structure,Properties Derivatives Utilization . . . . . . Carrageenans .... Occurrence, Isolation Structure,Properties Utilization . . . . . . Furcellaran Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . GumArabic ..... Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization Gum Ghatti ..... Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization . . . Gum Tragacanth . . . Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization KarayaGum .....
270 270 273
273 273 275
277 277 277 277 278 279 279 279 280 281 281 281 281 283 283 283 283 283 284 284 284 284 284 284 284 284 284 285 285 286 286 286 288 288 288 288 288 289 289 289 290 290 290 290 290 291 291 291 291 291
4.4.4.8.1 4.4.4.8.2 4.4.4.8.3 4.4.4.9 4.4.4.9.1 4.4.4.9.2 4.4.4.9.3 4.4.4.10 4.4.4.10.1 4.4.4.10.2 4.4.4.10.3 4.4.4.11 4.4.4.11.1 4.4.4.11.2 4.4.4.11.3 4.4.4.12 4.4.4.12.1 4.4.4.12.2 4.4.4.12.3 4.4.4.13 4.4.4.13.1 4.4.4.13.2 4.4.4.13.3 4.4.4.14 4.4.4.14.1 4.4.4.14.2 4.4.4.14.3 4.4.4.14.4 4.4.4.14.5 4.4.4.15 4.4.4.15.1 4.4.4.15.2 4.4.4.15.3 4.4.4.15.4 4.4.4.15.5 4.4.4.15.6 4.4.4.15.7 4.4.4.15.8 4.4.4.15.9 4.4.4.16 4.4.4.16.1 4.4.4.16.2 4.4.4.16.3 4.4.4.17 4.4.4.17.1 4.4.4.17.2 4.4.4.18 4.4.4.19 4.4.4.19.1 4.4.4.19.2 4.4.4.19.3 4.4.4.20 4.4.4.20.1 4.4.4.20.2 4.4.4.20.3 4.4.4.21 4.4.4.21.1
Occurrence Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . GuaranGum ..... Occurrence, Isolation Structure,Properties Utilization . . . . . . Locust Bean Gum . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Tamarind Flour ... Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Arabinogalactan from Larch Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Pectin ....... . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Starch ....... . Occurrence, Isolation Structure and Properties of Starch Granules Structure and Properties of Amylose .. Structure and Properties of Amylopectin Utilization ........... . Modified Starches . . . . . . . . Mechanically Damaged Starches Extruded Starches . . Dextrins ...... . Pregelatinized Starch Thin-Boiling Starch Starch Ethers Starch Esters Cross-Linked Starches Oxidized Starches . . Cellulose ..... . Occurrence, Isolation Structure,Properties Utilization . . . . . . Cellulose Derivatives Alkyl Cellulose, Hydroxyalkyl Cellulose Carboxymethyl Cellulose Hemicelluloses Xanthan Gum . . . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . Scleroglucan . . . . . Occurrence, Isolation Structure, Properties Utilization Dextran .. Occurrence
Table of Contents XIX
291 291 292 292 292 293 293 293 293 293 293 294 294 294 294 294 294 294 295 295 295 295 296 296 296 297 302 304 305 306 306 306 306 306 306 307 307 307 308 308 308 308 309 309 309 310 310 311 311 311 312 312 312 312 312 312 312
xx Table of Contents
4.4.4.21.2 4.4.4.21.3 4.4.4.22 4.4.4.22.1 4.4.4.22.2 4.4.5 4.4.5.1 4.4.5.1.1 4.4.5.1.2 4.4.5.1.3 4.4.5.1.4 4.4.5.2 4.4.5.3 4.4.5.4 4.4.5.5 4.4.6 4.4.6.1 4.4.6.2
4.5
5
5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5
5.2 5.2.1 5.2.1.1 5.2.1.2 5.2.1.3 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.5.1 5.2.5.2
5.3 5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.3.1.2 5.3.1.3 5.3.1.4 5.3.1.5 5.3.1.6 5.3.1.7 5.3.1.8 5.3.1.9 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 5.3.2.4
Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP) Structure, Properties Utilization . . . . . . . . . . Enzymatic Degradation of Polysaccharides Amylases a-Amylase ................ . ~-Amylase ................ . Glucan-1,4-a-D-glucosidase (glucoamylase) a-Dextrin Endo-1 ,6-a-glucosidase (pullulanase) Pectinolytic Enzymes .. Cellulases ....... . Endo-1,3( 4 )-~-glucanase Hemicellulases Analysis of Polysaccharides Thickening Agents Dietary Fibers
Literature
Aroma Substances
Foreword Concept Delineation Impact Compounds of Natural Aromas Threshold Value . . . . . Aroma Value Off-Flavors, Food Taints
Aroma Analysis . . . . Aroma Isolation . . . . Distillation, Extraction Gas Extraction . . . Headspace Analysis . . Separation . . . . . . . Chemical Structure .. Enantioselective Analysis Aroma Relevance . . . . Calculation of Aroma Values Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis
Individual Aroma Compounds Nonenzymatic Reactions Carbonyl Compounds Pyranones ....... . Furanones ....... . Thiols, Thioethers, Di- and Trisulfides Thiophenes Thiazoles Pyrroles, Pyridines Pyrazines Phenols ..... . Enzymatic Reactions Carbonyl Compounds, Alcohols Hydrocarbons, Esters Lactones Terpenes ...... .
313 313 313 313 313 313 313 313 314 314 314 314 315 315 315 316 316 316
316
319
319 319 319 319 320 322
324 324 325 326 326 327 327 328 329 329 330
332 332 333 333 333 335 338 339 339 343 344 346 346 348 350 352
5.3.2.5 5.3.2.6
5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2
5.5 5.5.1 5.5.1.1 5.5.1.2 5.5.1.3 5.5.1.4 5.5.1.5 5.5.1.6 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5
5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.2.1 5.6.2.2 5.6.2.3 5.6.3 5.6.3.1 5.6.3.2 5.6.3.3 5.6.3.4 5.6.3.5 5.6.4
5.7
6
6.1
6.2 6.2.1 6.2.1.1 6.2.1.2 6.2.1.3 6.2.2 6.2.2.1 6.2.2.2 6.2.2.3 6.2.3 6.2.3.1 6.2.3.2 6.2.3.3 6.2.4 6.2.4.1 6.2.4.2 6.2.4.3
6.3 6.3.1
Volatile Sulfur Compounds . . . . . . . . Pyrazines ................ .
Interactions with Other Food Constituents Lipids ............. . Proteins, Polysaccharides . . . .
Natural and Synthetic Flavorings Raw Materials for Essences Essential Oils .. Extracts, Absolues Distillates .... Microbial Aromas Synthetic Natural Aroma Compounds Synthetic Aroma Compounds Essences ........ . Aromas from Precursors Stability of Aromas ... Encapsulation of Aromas
Relationships Between Structure and Odor General Aspects . . . . . . . . Important Structural Elements Molecular Geometry Functional Groups . . . . . . . Chirality ........... . Individual Modalities or Qualities Amber-like Compounds . . Musk-like Compounds .. Camphor-like Compounds Caramel-like Compounds Roasted Compounds Prospects
Literature
Vitamins Foreword
Fat-Soluble Vitamins Retinol (Vitamin A) Biological Role ... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . Calciferol (Vitamin D) Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . a-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . . Phytomenadione (Vitamin K I )
Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation
Water-Soluble Vitamins Thiamine (Vitamin B I )
Table of Contents XXI
358 359
360 360 360
363 364 364 364 364 364 364 365 365 367 367 368
368 368 369 369 370 372 373 373 373 374 374 374 375
375
378
378
378 378 378 380 380 380 380 381 381 381 381 382 382 382 382 383 383
383 383
XXII Table of Contents
6.3.1.1 6.3.1.2 6.3.1.3 6.3.2 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.3 6.3.3 6.3.3.1 6.3.3.2 6.3.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.4.1 6.3.4.2 6.3.4.3 6.3.5 6.3.5.1 6.3.5.2 6.3.5.3 6.3.6 6.3.6.1 6.3.6.2 6.3.6.3 6.3.7 6.3.7.1 6.3.7.2 6.3.7.3 6.3.8 6.3.8.1 6.3.8.2 6.3.8.3 6.3.9 6.3.9.1 6.3.9.2 6.3.9.3
6.4
7
7.1
7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6
7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.2.1 7.3.2.2 7.3.2.3 7.3.2.4 7.3.2.5
Biological Role Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) •
Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . Pyridoxine (Pyridoxal, Vitamin B6)
Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . Nicotinamide (Niacin) Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . Pantothenic Acid Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation Biotin ......... . Biological Role .... . Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . FolicAcid ....... . Biological Role .... . Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation . . Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)
Biological Role ...... . Requirement, Occurrence . . Stability, Degradation . . . . L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) Biological Role ..... Requirement, Occurrence Stability, Degradation
Literature ....... .
Minerals
Foreword
Main Elements Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Chloride .. Phosphate
Trace Elements General Remarks Essential Trace Elements Iron Copper ... Zinc .... Manganese Cobalt ...
383 383 383 387 387 387 387 387 387 388 388 388 388 388 388 389 389 389 389 389 389 389 389 389 389 390 390 390 390 391 391 391 391 391
393
395
395
395 395 396 397 397 397 397
397 397 398 398 398 399 399 399
7.3.2.6 7.3.2.7 7.3.2.8 7.3.2.9 7.3.2.10 7.3.2.11 7.3.2.12 7.3.2.13 7.3.2.14 7.3.2.15 7.3.3 7.3.3.1 7.3.3.2
7.4
7.5
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6 8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4
8.7
8.8 8.8.1
8.8.1.1 8.8.1.2 8.8.2 8.8.3 8.8.4 8.8.5 8.8.6 8.8.7 8.8.8 8.8.9 8.8.10 8.8.11 8.8.12 8.8.13 8.8.14 8.8.14.1 8.8.14.2 8.8.14.3 8.8.15 8.8.16
Vanadium Chromium Selenium Molybdenum Nickel Boron . Silicon . Fluorine Iodine . Arsenic Some Nonessential Trace Elements Tin ............. . Aluminium
Minerals in Food Processing
Literature ......... .
Food Additives Foreword
Vitamins.
Amino Acids
Minerals ...
Aroma Substances
Flavor Enhancers Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) 5'-Nucleotides .. Maltol ..... . Other Compounds
Sugar Substitutes
Sweeteners
Table of Contents
Sweet Taste: Structural Requirements and Molecular Biological Aspects ........................ . Structure-Activity Relationships in Sweet Compounds Molecular Biological Aspects of Sweetness Saccharin Cyclamate ...... . Monellin ....... . Thaumatins ..... . Curculin and Miraculin Gymnema silvestre Extract Stevioside . Osladin Phyllodulcin Glycyrrhizin Nitroanilines Dihydrochalcones Ureas and Guanidines Dulcin .. . Suosan .. . Guanidines Oximes Oxathiazinone Dioxides
XXIII
399 399 399 399 400 400 400 400 400 401 401 401 401
401
401
402
402
402
403
403
403
403 403 404 404 404
404
405
405 405 407 407 408 408 409 410 411 411 411 411 412 412 412 413 413 413 413 413 414
XXIV Table of Contents
8.8.17 8.8.17.1 8.8.17.2 8.8.17.3 8.8.18 8.8.19
8.9
8.10 8.10.1 8.10.2 8.10.3 8.10.4 8.10.5 8.10.6 8.10.7 8.10.8 8.10.9 8.10.10 8.10.11 8.10.12
8.11
8.12 8.12.1 8.12.2 8.12.3 8.12.4 8.12.5 8.12.6 8.12.7 8.12.8 8.12.9 8.12.10 8.12.11 8.12.12 8.12.13
8.13
8.14
8.15 8.15.1 8.15.2 8.15.2.1 8.15.2.2 8.15.2.3 8.15.3 8.15.3.1 8.15.3.2 8.15.3.3 8.15.3.4 8.15.3.5
8.16
8.17
8.18
Dipeptide Esters and Amides Aspartame . . . Superaspartame Alitame .... Hernandulcin . Halodeoxy Sugars
Food Colors . . .
Acids ..... . Acetic Acid and Other Fatty Acids Succinic Acid ..... . Succinic Acid Anhydride Adipic Acid . Fumaric Acid Lactic Acid . Malic Acid .. Tartaric Acid Citric Acid . . Phosphoric Acid Hydrochloric and Sulfuric Acids Gluconic Acid and G1ucono-O-lactone
Bases
Antimicrobial Agents Benzoic Acid PHB Esters Sorbic Acid .. Propionic Acid Acetic Acid .. S02 and Sulfite Diethyl (Dimethyl) Pyrocarbonate Ethylene Oxide, Propylene Oxide Nitrite, Nitrate . Antibiotics . . . Diphenyl .... 0-Phenylphenol Thiabendazole, 2-(4-Thiazolyl)benzimidazole
Antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . .
Chelating Agents (Sequestrants)
Surface-Active Agents Emulsions ..... . Emulsifier Action . . . Structure and Activity . Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC), Lyotropic Mesomorphism HLBValue ............... . Synthetic Emulsifiers ......... . Mono-, Diacylglycerides and Derivatives Sugar Esters . . . . . . . . . . . Sorbitan Fatty Acid Esters Polyoxyethylene Sorbitan Esters Stearyl-2-Lactylate ...... .
Thickening Agents, Gel Builders, Stabilizers
Humectants ...
Substitutes for Fat
414 414 415 415 416 416
417
417 417 417 417 417 420 420 420 422 423 423 423 423
423
423 423 424 425 426 426 426 427 427 428 428 429 429 429
429
429
430 430 431 431 432 433 435 435 436 436 436 436
436
436
437
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
9
9.1
9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4
9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2
9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4
9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 9.5.4 9.5.5 9.5.6 9.5.7 9.5.8
9.6
9.7
9.8
Anticaking Agents
Bleaching Agents
Clarifying Agents
Propellants, Protective Gases
Literature ..... .
Food Contamination
General Remarks ..
Toxic Trace Elements Mercury .. . Lead .... . Cadmium .. Radionuclides
Toxic Compounds of Microbial Origin Food Poisoning by Bacterial Toxins Mycotoxins .. .
Pesticides ... . General Remarks Insecticides Herbicides . . . . Fungicides . . . .
Veterinary Medicines and Feed Additives Foreword Antibiotics . . . . Glucocorticoides Sex Hormones . . Psychosomatic Agents Thyreostatica .. Coccidiostatica .... Other Compounds . . .
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Nitrosamines
Table of Contents XXV
437
437
437
437
438
440
440
441 441 442 443 443
443 443 444
446 446 448
· 448 448
· 450 · 450 · 456 · 456 · 456 · 457 · 457 · 457
457
457
459
464
9.9 Cleansing Agents and Disinfectants 465
9.10 Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins (PCDD) and Dibenzofurans (PCDF) 465
9.11
10
10.1 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.1.2.1 10.1.2.1.1 10.1.2.1.2 10.1.2.1.3 10.1.2.1.4 10.1.2.2 10.1.2.3
Literature
Milk and Dairy Products
Milk ................... . Physical and Physico-Chemical Properties Composition . . Proteins ..... Casein Fractions . Micelle Formation Gel Formation Whey Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids ....
469
470
470 470 473 473 473 479 481 483 483
· 484
XXVI Table of Contents
10.1.2.4 10.1.2.5 10.1.2.6 10.1.2.7 10.1.3 10.1.3.1 10.1.3.2 10.1.3.3 10.1.3.4 10.1.3.5 10.1.4
10.2 10.2.1 10.2.1.1 10.2.1.2 10.2.1.3 10.2.1.4 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.3.1 10.2.3.2 10.2.3.3 10.2.3.4 10.2.4 10.2.5 10.2.6 10.2.7 10.2.8 10.2.8.1 10.2.8.2 10.2.8.3 10.2.8.4 10.2.8.5 10.2.9 10.2.10 10.2.10.1 10.2.10.2 10.2.10.3 10.2.10.4 10.2.11 10.2.12
10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 10.3.5 10.3.6
10.4
11
11.1
11.2 11.2.1
Organic Acids Minerals Vitamins .. . Enzymes .. . Processing of Milk Purification ... . Creaming .... . Heat Treatment .. . Homogenization . . . . . . . . Reactions During Heating . . . Types of Milk . . . . . .
Dairy Products Fermented Milk Products Sour Milk ....... . Yoghurt ........ . Kefir and Kumiss Taette Milk Cream. . . . .. . ...... . Butter ...... . ............... . Cream Separation and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . Churning ......... . Packaging ......... . Products Derived from Butter Condensed Milk . . . . . . . Dehydrated Milk Products .. Coffee Whitener . . . . . . Ice Cream .. . Cheese .... . Curd Formation Unripened Cheese Ripening ..... . Processed Cheese . Imitation Cheese Casein, Caseinates, Coprecipitate Whey Products ........ . Whey Powder ................... . Demineralized Whey Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . Partially Desugared Whey Protein Concentrates Hydrolyzed Whey Syrups . . . . . . . . . . . Lactose ................... . Cholesterol-Reduced Milk and Milk Products
Aroma of Milk and Dairy Products . . . . Milk ................... . Condensed Milk, Dried Milk Products . . Sour Milk Products, Yoghurt ...... . Cream, Butter . . . . . . . . Cheese. . . . . . ..... Aroma Defects . . . . . .
Literature
Eggs . ..
Foreword
Structure, Physical Properties and Composition ... General Outline .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
· 486 · 486 · 486 · 486
.. 487 ..... 487 ..... 488
· 488 · 488 · 489 · 490
· 490 · 490 · 492 · 492 · 493 · 493 · 493 · 493 · 494 · 495 · 496 · 496 · 496 · 497 · 498 · 498 · 498
500 500 500 503 505 505 506 506 506 507 507 507 507
508 508 509 509 509 510 511
512
513
513
513 513
11.2.2 Shell. . . . . . . . . 11.2.3 Albumen (Egg White) 11.2.3.1 Proteins....... 11.2.3.1.1 Ovalbumin...... 11.2.3.1.2 Conalbumin (Ovotransferrin) 11.2.3.1.3 Ovomucoid .......... . 11.2.3.1.4 Lysozyme (Ovoglobulin G,) 11.2.3.1.5 Ovoglobulins G2 and G3 • • • • •
11.2.3 .1.6 Ovomucin . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3.1. 7 Flavoprotein . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3.1.8 Ovoinhibitor......... 11.2.3.1.9 Avidin ........... . 11.2.3.1.1 0 Ficin Inhibitor (Cystatin C) . 11.2.3.2 Other Constituents ..... . 11.2.3.2.1 Lipids ............ . 11.2.3.2.2 Carbohydrates ........ . 11.2.3.2.3 Minerals ............. . 11.2.3.2.4 Vitamins... . ......... . 11.2.4 Egg Yolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4.1 Proteins of Granules .......... . 11.2.4.1.1 Lipovitellins.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Table of Contents
11.2.4.1.2 Phosvitin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4.2 Plasma Proteins ............. . 11.2.4.2.1 Lipovitellenin . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4.2.2 Livetin..... . ........... . 11.2.4.3 Lipids..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4.4 Other Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4.4.1 Carbohydrates.................... 11.2.4.4.2 Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4.4.3 Vitamins..... . . . . . . . 11.2.4.4.4 Aroma Substances . . . . . . .
11.3
11.4 11.4.1 11.4.2 11.4.2.1 11.4.2.2 11.4.2.3 11.4.3 11.4.4 11.4.5
11.5
12
12.1
12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.2.3
Storage of Eggs
Egg Products . General Outline Technically-Important Properties Thermal Coagulation Foaming Ability . . . Emulsitying Effect . Dried Products Frozen Egg Products Liquid Egg Products
Literature
Meat . ..
Foreword
Structure of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle ...... . Smooth Muscle ..... .
XXVII
514 515 515 516 516 516 517 517 517 517 518 518 518 518 518 518 518 519 519 520 520 520 521 521 521 521 521 521 521 521 521
521
522 522 522 522 522 523 523 524 525
525
527
527
527 527 531 531
12.3 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.2.1
Muscle Tissue: Composition and Function 532 Overview ................. 532 Proteins .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Proteins of the Contractile Apparatus and Their Functions ....... 532
XXVIII Table of Contents
12.3.2.1.1 12.3.2.1.2 l2.3.2.l.3 12.3.2.1.4 12.3.2.1.5 12.3.2.1.6 12.3.2.2 12.3.2.2.1 12.3.2.2.2 12.3.2.3 12.3.2.3.1 12.3.2.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.4 12.3.5 12.3.6 12.3.7 12.3.8 12.3.9 12.3.10 12.3.11 12.3.12
12.4 12.4.1 12.4.2 12.4.3
12.5
12.6 12.6.1 12.6.1.1 12.6.1.2 12.6.1.3 12.6.1.4 12.6.1.5 12.6.1.6 12.6.1.7 12.6.1.8 12.6.1.9 12.6.1.10 12.6.1.11 12.6.2 12.6.2.1 12.6.2.2 12.6.2.3 12.6.2.4 12.6.2.5 12.6.2.6 12.6.2.7
12.7 12.7.1 12.7.2 12.7.2.1 12.7.2.1.1 12.7.2.1.2
Myosin Actin .. Tropomyosin and Troponin Other Myofibrillar Proteins Contraction and Relaxation Actomyosin .. Soluble Proteins Enzymes ... . Myoglobin .. . Insoluble Proteins Collagen .... . Elastin ..... . Free Amino Acids Peptides ..... Amines Guanidine Compounds Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Purines and Pyrimidines Organic Acids Carbohydrates Vitamins .. . Minerals .. .
Post-Mortem Changes in the Muscle Rigor Mortis . . . . . . . . . . Defects (PSE and DFD Meat) Aging of Meat . . . . . . . . .
Water Holding Capacity of Meat
Kinds of Meat, Storage, Processing . Kinds of Meat, By-Products Beef ...... . Veal ...... . Mutton and Lamb Goat Meat Pork .... Horse Meat Poultry ... Game Variety Meats Blood .... Glandular Products Storage and Preservation Processes Cooling Freezing ....... . Drying ........ . Salt and Pickle Curing Smoking .. Heating Tenderizing
Meat Products Canned Meat Ham, Sausages, Pastes Ham, Bacon .... Raw Smoked Hams Cooked Ham
533 534 534 534 535 536 536 536 536 540 540 547 547 547 547 548 548 548 549 549 549 550
550 550 551 552
553
555 555 555 555 555 555 555 555 555 556 556 556 557 557 557 558 559 559 560 560 560
560 560 561 561 561 561
12.7.2.1.3 12.7.2.2 12.7.2.2.1 12.7.2.2.2 12.7.2.2.3 12.7.2.3 12.7.2.3.1 12.7.2.3.2 12.7.3 12.7.3.1 12.7.3.2 12.7.3.3 12.7.3.4 12.7.3.5
12.8 12.8.1 12.8.2
12.9
12.10 12.10.1 12.10.1.1 12.10.1.1.1 12.10.1.1.2 12.10.1.2 12.10.1.3 12.10.1.4 12.10.1.5 12.10.1.6 12.10.2 12.10.2.1 12.10.2.2 12.10.2.3 12.10.2.3.1 12.10.2.3.2 12.10.2.4
12.11
13
13.1 13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.2.1 13.1.2.1.1 13.1.2.1.2 13.1.2.1.3 13.1.2.1.4 13.1.2.1.5 13.1.2.1.6 13.1.2.2 13.1.2.2.1 13.1.2.2.2 13.1.3
Bacon ... . Sausages .. . Raw Sausages Cooked Sausages Boiling Sausages Meat Paste (Patc~) Pastes ..... . Pains ...... . Meat Extracts and Related Products Beef Extract . . . . . Whale Meat Extract . Poultry Meat Extract Yeast Extract Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins
Dry Soups and Dry Sauces Main Components Production .
Meat Aroma
Meat Analysis Meat ..... Animal Origin Serological Differentiation Electrophoresis ..... . Differentiation of Fresh and Frozen Meat Pigments ................ . Treatment with Proteinase Preparations Anabolic Steroids Antibiotics . . . . Processed Meats . Main Ingredients Added Water Lean Meat Free of Connective Tissue Connective Tissue Protein . Added Protein Nitrosamines
Literature ..
Fish, Whales, Crustaceans, Mollusks
Fish ... Foreword Food Fish Sea Fish Sharks Herring CodFish Scorpaenidae Perch-like Fish Flat Fish .... Freshwater Fish Eels ..... . Salmon Skin and Muscle Tissue Structure
Table of Contents XXIX
561 561 564 565 565 565 565 565 566 566 566 566 566 567
568 568 568
569
571 571 571 571 571 572 573 573 574 574 575 575 575 575 576 576 578
578
581
581 581 581 582 582 582 586 586 586 586 587 587 587 587
:xxx Table of Contents
13.1.4 13.1.4.1 13.1.4.2 13.1.4.2.1 13.1.4.2.2 13.1.4.2.3 13.1.4.2.4 13.1.4.3 13.1.4.3.1 13.1.4.3.2 13.1.4.3.3 13.1.4.3.4 13.1.4.3.5 13.1.4.3.6 13.1.4.4 13.1.4.5 13.1.4.6 13.1.4.7 13.1.4.8 13.1.4.9 13.1.5 13.1.6 13.1.6.1 13.1.6.2 13.1.6.3 13.1.6.4 13.1.6.5 13.1.6.6 13.1.6.7 13.1.6.8 13.1.6.9 13.1.6.10 13.1.6.11 13.1.6.12 13.1.6.12.1 13.1.6.12.2 13.1.6.12.3 13.1.6.13
13.2
13.3 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4
13.4 13.4.1 13.4.2 13.4.3
13.5
13.6
13.7
Composition . . Overview .. . Proteins ... . Sarcoplasma Proteins Contractile Proteins . Connective Tissue Proteins ... Serum Proteins ..... . Other N-Compounds .. . Free Amino Acids, Peptides Amines, Amine Oxides .. Guanidine Compounds .. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds Purines .... Urea ..... Carbohydrates Lipids ... . Vitamins ...... . Minerals ...... . Aroma Substances . . . . . . . . Other Constituents .............. . Post-mortem Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage and Processing of Fish and Fish Products
. General Remarks .. . . . . . . . . Cooling and Freezing . Drying ........ . Salting ........ . Smoking ......... . Marinated, Fried and Cooked Fish Products Saithe .......... . ..... . Anchosen .................... . Pasteurized Fish Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fish Products with an Extended Shelf Life Other Fish Products . Fish Eggs and Sperm ...... . Caviar ....... . Caviar Substitutes . . . . . . . . . Fish Sperm ..... Some Other Fish Products
Whales ......... .
Crustaceans ...... . Shrimps ............ . Crabs ...... . Lobsters ..... . Crayfish, Crawfish
Mollusks (Mollusca) Mollusks (Bivalvia) . Snails ....... . Octopus, Sepia, Squid
Turtles ....... .
Frogdrums
Literature
587 587 588 588 589 589 589 590 590 590 590 590 591 591 591 591 591 591 591 592 592 592 592 593 595 595 596 596 597 597 597 597 597 598 598 598 598 598
598
598 599 599 599 599
600 600 600 601
601
601
601
14
14.1
14.2
14.3 14.3.1 14.3.1.1 14.3.1.1.1 14.3.1.1.2 14.3.1.1.3 14.3.1.1.4 14.3.1.2 14.3.1.2.1 14.3.1.2.2 14.3.1.2.3 14.3.2 14.3.2.1 14.3.2.1.1 14.3.2.1.2 14.3.2.2 14.3.2.2.1 14.3.2.2.2 14.3.2.2.3 14.3.2.2.4 14.3.2.2.5
14.4 14.4.1 14.4.1.1 14.4.1.2 14.4.1.3 14.4.1.4 14.4.1.5 14.4.1.6 14.4.2 14.4.2.1 14.4.2.2 14.4.2.3 14.4.3 14.4.4 14.4.5 14.4.5.1 14.4.5.2 14.4.5.3 14.4.6 14.4.7
14.5 14.5.0 14.5.1 14.5.2 14.5.2.1 14.5.2.2 14.5.2.3 14.5.2.4 14.5.2.5
Edible Fats and Oils
Foreword
Data on Production and Consumption
Origin of Individual Fats and Oils Animal Fats ... Land Animal Fats Edible Beef Fat Sheep Tallow Hog Fat (Lard) Goose Fat . Marine Oils Whale Oil . Seal Oil .. Herring Oil Oils of Plant Origin Fruit Pulp Oils Olive Oil. Palm Oil . Seed Oils Production Oils Rich in Lauric and Myristic Acids Oils Rich Rich in Palmitic and Stearic Acids Oils Rich in Palmitic Acid ........ .
Table of Contents
Oils Low in Palmitic Acid and Rich in Oleic and Linoleic Acids
Processing of Fats and Oils Refilling ................... . Removal of Lecithin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Degumming ................. . Removal of Free Fatty Acids (Deacidification) Bleaching ...... . Deodorization . . . . . Product Quality Control Hydrogenation . . General Remarks Catalysts .... . The Process .. . Interesterification Fractionation Margarine - Manufacturing and Properties Composition . . . . . Manufacturing . . . . Varieties of Margarine Mayonnaise Fat Powder
Analysis . Scope Determination of Fat in Food Identification of Fat Chemical Constants . . . . . Color Reactions . . . . . . . Composition of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerides Minor Constituents Melting Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XXXI
602
602
602
602 602 602 605 605 606 606 606 606 606 607 607 607 607 608 609 609 609 610 611 612
614 614 615 615 615 615 616 617 617 617 618 619 619 620 621 621 621 622 622 622
623 623 623 624 624 625 625 626 627
XXXII Table of Contents
14.5.3 14.5.3.1 14.5.3.2 14.5.3.2.1 14.5.3.2.2 14.5.3.3 14.5.3.4
14.6
lS
15.1 15.1.1 15.1.2 15.1.3 15.1.4 15.1.5 15.1.6
15.2 15.2.1 15.2.1.1 15.2.1.2 15.2.1.3 15.2.1.3.1 15.2.1.3.2 15.2.1.3.3
15.2.1.4 15.2.2 15.2.2.1 15.2.2.2 15.2.2.3 15.2.2.4 15.2.2.5 15.2.2.6 15.2.2.7 15.2.2.8 15.2.3 15.2.4 15.2.4.1 15.2.4.2 15.2.4.2.1 15.2.4.2.2 15.2.4.2.3 15.2.4.2.4 15.2.4.3 15.2.5
15.3 15.3.1 15.3.1.1 15.3.1.2 15.3.1.3 15.3.2 15.3.2.1 15.3.2.2
Detection of Changes During Processing and Storage Lipolysis ........ . Oxidative Deterioration . Oxidation State ..... Shelf Life Prediction Test Heat Stability Refining .
Literature
Cereals and Cereal Products
Foreword Introduction Origin ... Production . Anatomy - Chemical Composition, a Review Special Role of Wheat - Gluten Formation . Celiac Disease . . . . .
Individual Constituents ........ . Proteins ................ . Differences in Amino Acid Composition A Review of the Osborne Fractions of Cereals Protein Components of Wheat Gluten .... High-Molecular Group (HMW Subunits of Glutenin) Intermediate Molecular Weight Group (w5-Gliadins, w1,2-Gliadins) Low-Molecular Group (a-Gliadins, y-Gliadins, LMW Subunits of Glutenin) . . . . . . . . Structure of Wheat Gluten Enzymes .. Amylases Proteinases Lipases Phytase Lipoxygenases Peroxidase, Catalase Glutathione Dehydrogenase Polypheno1oxidases . . . . Other Nitrogen Compounds Carbohydrates . . . . . . . Starch .......... . Polysaccharides Other than Starch Pentosans .. p-Glucan Glucofructans Cellulose Sugars ... . Lipids ... .
Cereals - Milling Wheat and Rye Storage Milling ..... Milling Products Other Cereals Corn .... Hull Cereals .
628 628 628 628 629 629 629
630
631
631 631 631 632 634 636 636
636 636 636 637 639 642 643
646 650 651 651 651 651 652 652 652 653 653 653 654 654 655 655 656 656 656 656 656
659 659 659 660 661 662 662 662
Table of Contents
15.3.2.2.1 Rice . 15.3.2.2.2 Oats . 15.3.2.2.3 Barley
15.4 15.4.1 15.4.1.1 15.4.1.1.1 15.4.1.1.2 15.4.1.1.3 15.4.1.2 15.4.1.3 15.4.1.4
15.4.1.4.1 15.4.1.4.2 15.4.1.4.3 15.4.1.4.4 15.4.1.4.5 15.4.1.4.6 15.4.1.4.7 15.4.1.4.8 15.4.1.4.9 15.4.1.5 15.4.1.5.1 15.4.1.5.2 15.4.1.6 15.4.1.6.1 15.4.1.6.2 15.4.2 15.4.2.1 15.4.2.1.1 15.4.2.1.2 15.4.2.2 15.4.2.3 15.4.2.3 15.4.2.5 15.4.3 15.4.3.1 15.4.3.2 15.4.3.2.1 15.4.3.2.2 15.4.4 15.4.5 15.4.6
15.5 15.5.1 15.5.2 15.5.3
15.6
16
16.1
16.2 16.2.1
Baked Products Raw Materials . Wheat Flour . . Chemical Assays Physical Assays Baking Tests Rye Flour ... Storage Influence of Additives/Minor Ingredients on Baking Properties of Wheat Flour ...... . Ascorbic Acid . . . . . . . . Bromate, Azodicarbonamide Lipoxygenase Cysteine .. Proteinases Salt Emulsifiers, Shortenings a-Amylase ....... . Milk and Soy Products . Influence of Additives on Baking Properties of Rye Flour Prege1atinized Flour . . . Acids ......... . Dough Leavening Agents Yeast .......... . Chemical Leavening Agents Dough Preparation Addition of Yeast Direct Addition .. Indirect Addition Sour Dough Making Kneading ..... . Fermentation Events Involved in Dough Making Baking Process ........ . Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical and Physical Changes Texture ......... . Aroma ......... . Changes During Storage Bread Types . . . . . Fine Bakery Products
Pasta Products Raw Materials Additives Production
Literature
Legumes
Foreword
Individual Constituents Proteins ....... .
XXXIII
662 662 662
663 664 664 664 666 667 668 669
669 670 670 671 671 672 672 673 673 673 674 674 674 674 674 675 675 675 675 675 675 676 677 677 682 682 683 683 684 685 687 688
688 688 688 689
689
693
693
693 693
XXXIV Table of Contents
16.2.2 16.2.3 16.2.3.1 16.2.3.2 16.2.3.3 16.2.3.4 16.2.3.5 16.2.3.6 16.2.3.7 16.2.4 16.2.5 16.2.6 16.2.7 16.2.8 16.2.9 16.2.10 16.2.11
16.3 16.3.1 16.3.1.1 16.3.1.2 16.3.1.2.1 16.3.1.2.2 16.3.1.2.3 16.3.1.2.4 16.3.1.2.5 16.3.1.2.6 16.3.1.2.7 16.3.2
16.4
17
17.1 17.1.1 17.1.2 17.1.2.1 17.1.2.1.1 17.1.2.1.2 17.1.2.1.3 17.1.2.2 17.l.2.2.1 17.1.2.2.2 17.1.2.3 17.1.2.4 17.1.2.5 17.1.2.6 17.1.2.6.1 17.1.2.6.2 17.1.2.6.3 17.1.2.6.4 17.1.2.6.5 17.1.2.6.6 17.1.2.6.7 17.1.2.6.8 17.1.2.6.9
Enzymes ...................... . Proteinase and Amylase Inhibitors ........ . Occurrence and Properties . . . . . . . . . . Structure ......... . Physiological Function .. Action on Human Enzymes Inactivation .... Amylase Inhibitors ... Conclusions . . . . . . . Hemagg1utinins (Lectins) Carbohydrates . . . . . Cyanogenic Glycosides Lipids ........ . Vitamins, Minerals Coumestro1 ... . Saponins ..... . Other Constituents
Processing . . . . . Soybeans and Peanuts Aroma Defects Individual Products . Soy Proteins . . . . . Soy Milk ..... . Tofu ....... . Soy Sauce (Shoya) Miso ..... . Natto ....... . Sufu ....... . Peas and Beans
Literature ....... .
Vegetables and Vegetable Products . . .
Vegetables . . . . . . Foreword ..... . Composition . . . . . Nitrogen Compounds Proteins ..... Free Amino Acids Arnines Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mono- and Oligo saccharides, Sugar Alcohols Polysaccharides .. . Lipids ....... . Organic Acids . . . . Phenolic Compounds Aroma Substances . Mushrooms .. Parsley Roots Potatoes ... Celery Tubers Radishes ... Red Beets .. Garlic and Onions . Watercress . . . . . White Cabbage, Red Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts
698 698 698 700 702 703 705 706 706 706 707 708 708 709 709 710 710
710 710 710 711 711 712 712 713 713 714 714 714
714
716
716 716 716 718 718 724 727 727 727 727 730 731 731 731 731 732 732 732 732 733 733 734 734
17.1.2.6.10 17.1.2.6.11 17.1.2.6.12 17.1.2.6.13 17.1.2.7 17.1.2.8 17.1.2.9 17.1.2.9.1 17.1.2.9.2 17.1.2.9.3 17.1.3
17.2 17.2.1 17.2.2 17.2.3 17.2.4 17.2.4.1 17.2.4.2 17.2.4.3 17.2.4.4 17.2.4.5 17.2.5 17.2.6 17.2.7 17.2.8 17.2.9
17.3
18
18.1 18.1.1 18.1.2 18.1.2.1 18.1.2.1.1 18.1.2.1.2 18.1.2.1.3 18.1.2.2 18.1.2.2.1 18.1.2.2.2 18.1.2.2.3 18.1.2.2.4 18.1.2.3 18.1.2.3.1 18.1.2.3.2 18.1.2.3.3 18.1.2.3.4 18.1.2.4 18.1.2.5 18.1.2.5.1
18.1.2.5.2
18.1.2.5.3 18.1.2.5.4 18.1.2.5.5
Table of Contents XXXV
Cauliflower, Broccoli ... . Green Peas. . ..... . Cucumbers ..... . Tomatoes Vitamins .. Minerals .. Other Constituents Chlorophyll ..... . Beta1ains ....... . Goitrogenic Substances Storage ....... .
Vegetable Products .. Dehydrated Vegetables Canned Vegetables Frozen Vegetables . . . Pickled Vegetables Pickled Cucumbers (Salt and Dill Pickles) Other Vegetables ..... . Sauerkraut . . . . . . . . . . Eating Olives ....... . Faulty Processing of Pickles Vinegar-Pickled Vegetables Stock Brining of Vegetables Vegetable Juices . . Vegetable Paste .. Vegetable Powders
Literature .....
Fruits and Fruit Products
Fruits Foreword Composition N-Containing Compounds Proteins, Enzymes Free Amino Acids Amines Carbohydrates . . Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Sugar Alcohols ...... . Polysaccharides ...... . Lipids ........... . Fruit Flesh Lipids (Other than Carotenoids and Triterpenoids) Carotenoids .. Triterpenoids .... ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fruit Waxes ..... ....................... . Organic Acids . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phenolic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydroxycinammic Acids, Hydroxycoumarins and Hydroxybenzoic Acids ..................... . F1avan-3-o1s (Catechins), Flavan-3,4-dio1s, and Proanthocyanidins (Condensed Tanning Agents) Anthocyanidins ... Flavanones . . . . . Flavones, Flavono1s .
735 735 735 735 735 736 736 736 737 739 740
740 740 741 742 743 743 743 743 744 745 745 746 746 746 746
747
748
748 748 748 748 748 748 750 757 757 758 758 759 759 760 760 761 763 763 764
764
768 769 773 775
XXXVI Table of Contents
18.1.2.5.6 18.1.2.5.7 18.1.2.6 18.1.2.6.1 18.1.2.6.2 18.1.2.6.3 18.1.2.6.4 18.1.2.6.5 18.1.2.6.6 18.1.2.6.7 18.1.2.6.8 18.1.2.6.9 18.1.2.6.10 18.1.2.6.11 18.1.2.7 18.1.2.8 18.1.3 18.1.3.1 18.1.3.2 18.1.3.3 18.1.3.3.1 18.1.3.3.2 18.1.3.3.3 18.1.3.3.4 18.1.3.3.5 18.1.3.3.6 18.1.4 18.1.4.1 18.1.4.2 18.1.5 18.1.5.1 18.1.5.2
18.2 18.2.1 18.2.2 18.2.3 18.2.4 18.2.5 18.2.6 18.2.7 18.2.8 18.2.9 18.2.9.1 18.2.9.2 18.2.9.3 18.2.9.4 18.2.9.5 18.2.10 18.2.11 18.2.11.1 18.2.11.2 18.2.11.3 18.2.12 18.2.13
18.3 18.3.1
Flavonoid Biosynthesis ..... . . . . . . . . . . Technological Importance of Phenolic Compounds Aroma Compounds Bananas .. Grapes .... Citrus Fruits . Apples, Pears Raspberries Apricots .. . Peaches .. . Passion Fruit . Strawberries . Pineapples . . Cherries, Plums Vitamins ... . Minerals ... . Chemical Changes During Ripening of Fruit Changes in Respiration Rate ... Changes in Metabolic Pathways Changes in Individual Constituents Carbohydrates . . Proteins, Enzymes Lipids ..... . Acids ..... . Pigments .... . Aroma Compounds Ripening as Influenced by Chemical Agents Compounds with Retarding Effects . . Compounds Promoting Fruit Ripening . . . Storage of Fruits ............. . Cold Storage ............... . Storage in a Controlled (Modified) Atmosphere
Fruit Products Dried Fruits .... Canned Fruits . . . Deep-Frozen Fruits Rum Fruits, Fruits in Sugar Syrup, etc. Fruit Pulps and Slurries . . . . Marmalades, Jams and Jellies . Plum Sauce (Damson Cheese) Thickened Fruit Syrups Fruit Juices ..... . Preparation of the Fruit Juice Extraction Juice Treatment Preservation . Side Products . Fruit Nectars Fruit Juice Concentrates Evaporation .. . Freezing .... . Pressure Filtration Fruit Syrups . . . Fruit Powders ..
Alcohol-Free Beverages Fruit Juice Beverages .
777 777 777 777 777 778 778 778 778 779 779 779 780 780 780 781 781 782 783 783 783 784 784 784 784 785 785 785 787 788 788 788
789 789 790 790 790 791 791 792 792 792 792 793 793 793 794 794 794 794 795 795 795 795
796 796
18.3.2 18.3.3 18.3.4
18.4 18.4.1 18.4.2 18.4.3
18.5
19
19.1 19.1.1 19.1.2 19.1.3 19.1.4 19.1.4.1 19.1.4.1.1 19.1.4.1.2 19.1.4.1.3 19.1.4.1.4 19.1.4.1.5 19.1.4.1.6 19.1.4.1.7 19.1.4.1.8 19.1.4.2 19.1.4.3 19.1.4.3.1 19.1.4.3.2 19.1.4.3.3 19.1.4.3.4 19.1.4.3.5 19.1.4.3.6 19.1.4.3.7 19.1.4.4 19.1.4.4.1 19.1.4.4.2 19.1.4.5 19.1.4.6 19.1.4.7 19.1.4.8 19.1.4.9 19.1.5 19.1.5.1 19.1.5.2 19.1.5.3 19.1.5.4 19.1.5.5 19.1.5.6 19.1.5.7 19.1.5.8 19.1.5.9 19.1.5.10 19.1.5.11 19.1.5.12 19.1.5.13
Lemonades, Cold and Hot Beverages Caffeine-Containing Beverages Other Pop Beverages
Analysis ........... . Various Constituents Species-Specific Constituents . Abundance Ratios of Isotopes
Literature
Sugars, Sugar Alcohols, Honey
Table of Contents
Sugars, Sugar Alcohols and Sugar Products Foreword ............. . Processing Properties . . . . . . . . . NutritionallPhysiological Properties Individual Sugars and Sugar Alcohols Sucrose (Beet Sugar, Cane Sugar) General Outline . . . . . Production of Beet Sugar . . . . . Production of Cane Sugar . . . . . Other Sources for Sucrose Production Packaging and Storage ..... . Types of Sugar ......... . Composition of some Sugar Types Molasses ........... . Sugars Produced from Sucrose .. Starch Degradation Products ... General Outline . . . . . . . . . . Starch Syrup (Glucose or Maltose Syrup) Dried Starch Syrup (Dried Glucose Syrup) Glucose (Dextrose) ........... . Glucose-Fructose Syrup (High Fructose Syrup) Starch Syrup Derivatives ......... . Po1ydextrose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Milk: Sugar (Lactose) and Derived Products Milk: Sugar .......... . Products from Lactose Fruit Sugar (Fructose, Levulose) Sorbitol ........... . L-Sorbose and Other L-Sugars Xylitol .... . Mannitol ... . Candies ... . General Outline Hard Caramel (Bonbons) Soft Caramel (Toffees) Fondant ........ . Foamy Candies Jellies, Gum and Gelatine Candies Tablets .. Dragees . Marzipan Persipan . Other Raw Candy Fillers Nougat Fillers Croquant ........ .
XXXVII
796 796 796
796 796 796 797
799
801
801 801 801 805 806 806 806 806 811 812 812 812 812 812 813 814 814 814 815 815 815 815 816 816 816 816 816 816 817 817 817 817 817 817 818 818 818 819 819 819 819 819 819 819 820
XXXVIII Table of Contents
19.1.5.14 19.1.5.15 19.1.5.16
19.2 19.2.1 19.2.1.1 19.2.1.2 19.2.1.3 19.2.1.4 19.2.1.5 19.2.1.5.1 19.2.1.5.2 19.2.1.5.3 19.2.1.5.4 19.2.1.5.5 19.2.1.5.6 19.2.1.5.7 19.2.1.5.8 19.2.1.5.9 19.2.1.6 19.2.1.7 19.2.2 19.2.2.1 19.2.2.2 19.2.2.3 19.2.2.4
19.3
20 20.1 20.1.1 20.1.2 20.1.2.1 20.1.2.2 20.1.2.2.1 20.1.2.2.2 20.1.2.2.3 20.1.2.2.4 20.1.2.2.5 20.1.2.3 20.1.2.3.1 20.1.2.3.2 20.1.2.3.3 20.1.2.4 20.1.2.5 20.1.3 20.1.3.1 20.1.3.2 20.1.3.3 20.1.3.4 20.1.3.5 20.1.4 20.1.4.1 20.1.4.2 20.1.4.3
Licorice and its Products Chewing Gum . . . . . . Effervescent Lemonade Powders
Honey and Artificial Honey Honey ....... . Foreword ..... . Production and Types Processing . . . . . Physical Properties Composition . . Water ...... . Carbohydrates Enzymes .. . Proteins .. . Amino Acids Acids Aroma Substances . Pigments ..... . Toxic Constituents . Storage ...... . Utilization . . . . . . Artificial Honey Foreword Production . Composition Utilization
Literature ...
Alcoholic Beverages .
Beer ..... Foreword Raw Materials ..... . Barley .... . .... . Other Starch- and Sugar-Containing Raw Materials WheatMalt ...... . Adjuncts ............. . Syrups, Extract Powders Malt Extracts, Wort Concentrates Brewing Sugars Hops ..... . General Outline Composition . . Processing . . . Brewing Water Brewing Yeasts Malt Preparation Steeping ....... . Germination . . . . . . Kilning ...... . Continuous Processes Special Malts .. Wort Preparation .. Ground Malt . . . . . Mashing . Lautering ..... .
820 820 820
821 821 821 821 822 822 823 823 823 824 825 825 826 826 826 826 827 827 827 827 827 828 828
828
829
829 829 829 829 831 831 831 831 831 831 831 831 831 833 833 834 834 834 834 835 835 835 835 835 835 836
20.1.4.4 20.1.4.5 20.1.5 20.1.5.1 20.1.5.2 20.1.5.3 20.1.6 20.1.7 20.1.7.1 20.1.7.2 20.1.7.3 20.1.7.4 20.1.7.5 20.1.7.6 20.1.7.7 20.1.7.8 20.1.7.9 20.1.8 20.1.8.1 20.1.8.2 20.1.8.3 20.1.8.4 20.1.8.5 20.1.9
20.2 20.2.1 20.2.2 20.2.3 20.2.3.1 20.2.3.2 20.2.3.3 20.2.3.3.1 20.2.3.3.2 20.2.3.3.3 20.2.3.3.4 20.2.3.3.5 20.2.3.3.6 20.2.3.3.7 20.2.4 20.2.5 20.2.5.1 20.2.5.2 20.2.5.3 20.2.5.4 20.2.6 20.2.6.1 20.2.6.2 20.2.6.3 20.2.6.4 20.2.6.5 20.2.6.6 20.2.6.7 20.2.6.8 20.2.6.9 20.2.7 20.2.8
Wort Boiling and Hopping Continuous Processes Fermentation Bottom Fermentation Top Fermentation .. Continuous Processes, Rapid Methods Bottling .. Composition Ethanol Extract ... Acids Nitrogen Compounds Carbohydrates Minerals .... . Vitamins .... . Aroma Substances Foam Builders . . Kinds of Beer . . Top Fermented Beers Bottom Fermented Beers Diet Beers ....... . Low-Alcohol or Alcohol-Free Beers Export Beers ....... . Beer Flavor and Beer Defects
Wine ..... . Foreword Grape Cultivars Grape Must .. Growth and Harvest Must Production and Treatment Must Composition . Carbohydrates . . . . Acids ....... . Nitrogen Compounds Lipids ....... . Phenolic Compounds Minerals ..... Aroma Substances . . Fermentation
Table of Contents
Cellar Operations After Fermentation; Storage Racking, Storing, Aging Sulfur Treatment ...... . Clarification and Stabilization Amelioration Composition . Extract .... Carbohydrates Ethanol Other Alcohols Acids Phenolic Compounds Nitrogen Compounds Minerals ..... Aroma Substances Spoilage ... Dessert Wines . .
XXXIX
836 836 837 837 837 837 837 838 838 838 838 838 838 838 838 838 839 840 840 840 840 840 841 841
843 843 843 850 850 850 851 851 851 852 852 852 852 852 852 853 853 854 854 855 855 855 856 856 856 856 856 856 856 857 860 861
XL Table of Contents
20.2.9 20.2.9.1 20.2.9.2 20.2.9.3 20.2.9.4 20.2.10 20.2.10.1 20.2.10.2 20.2.10.3 20.2.11 20.2.11.1 20.2.11.2 20.2.11.3 20.2.11.4 20.2.11.5
20.3 20.3.1 20.3.2 20.3.2.1 20.3.2.2 20.3.2.3 20.3.2.3.1 20.3.2.3.2 20.3.2.3.3 20.3.2.3.4 20.3.2.3.5 20.3.2.3.6 20.3.2.3.7 20.3.2.3.8 20.3.2.4 20.3.3.3 20.3.3.1 20.3.3.2 20.3.3.3 20.3.4 20.3.5
20.4
21
21.1 21.1.1 21.1.2 21.1.2.1 21.1.2.2 21.1.2.3 21.1.3 21.1.3.1 21.1.3.2 21.1.3.3 21.1.3.3.1 21.1.3.3.2 21.1.3.3.3 21.1.3.3.4 21.1.3.3.5 21.1.3.3.6
Sparkling Wine .................... . Bottle Fermentation ("Methode Champenoise") ... . Tank Fermentation Process ("Produit en Cuve Close") Carbonation Process ...... . Various Types of Sparkling Wines Wine-Like Beverages Fruit Wines ... Malt Wine; Mead .. Other Products Wine-Containing Beverages Vermouth ......... . Aromatic Wines . . . . . . . Prescription or Medicinal Wines May Wines and Punches Wine Punch
Spirits .. Foreword Liquor .. Production . . Alcohol Production Liquor from Wine, Fruit, Cereals and Sugar Cane . Wine Liquor (Brandy) . . . . . . Fruit Liquor (Fruit Brandy) . . . . Gentian Liquor ("Enzian") .... Juniper Liquor (Brandy) and Gin . Rum ......... . Arrack ............ . Liquors from Cereals .... . Volatile Components of Liquor Miscellaneous Alcoholic Beverages Liqueurs (Cordials) . Fruit Sap Liqueurs Fruit Aroma Liqueurs Other Liqueurs Punch Extracts Mixed Drinks
Literature ...
Coffee, Tea, Cocoa Coffee and Coffee Substitutes Foreword ........ . Green Coffee ...... . Harvesting and Processing Green Coffee Varieties .. Composition of Green Coffee Roasted Coffee .... . Roasting .......... . Storing and Packaging Composition of Roasted Coffee Proteins ... Carbohydrates Lipids .... Acids Caffeine ... Trigonelline, Nicotinic Acid
861 861 862 862 862 862 862 863 863 863 863 863 864 864 864
864 864 864 864 865 865 865 866 867 867 867 867 868 868 870 871 871 871 871 871 872
872
874
874 874 874 874 875 876 876 876 877 877 877 877 878 879 879 879
21.1.3.3.7 21.1.3.3.8 21.1.3.3.9 21.1.3.4 21.1.4 21.1.4.1 21.1.4.2 21.1.4.3 21.1.5 21.1.5.1 21.1.5.2 21.1.5.3 21.1.5.3.1 21.1.5.3.2 21.1.5.3.3 21.1.5.3.4 21.1.5.3.5 21.1.5.3.6
21.2 21.2.1 21.2.2 21.2.3 21.2.4 21.2.5 21.2.5.1 21.2.5.2 21.2.5.3 21.2.5.4 21.2.5.5 21.2.5.6 21.2.5.7 21.2.5.8 21.2.5.9 21.2.6 21.2.7 21.2.8 21.2.9
21.3 21.3.1 21.3.2 21.3.2.1 21.3.2.2 21.3.2.3 21.3.2.3.1 21.3.2.3.2 21.3.2.3.3 21.3.2.3.4 21.3.2.3.5 21.3.2.3.6 21.3.2.3.7 21.3.2.4 21.3.2.5 21.3.2.6 21.3.2.7 21.3.3 21.3.3.1
Table of Contents XLI
Aroma Substances Minerals ..... Other Constituents Coffee Beverages Coffee Products . Instant Coffee . . Decaffeinated Coffee Treated Coffee . . . . Coffee Substitutes and Adjuncts Introduction . . . . . . . . . Processing of Raw Materials Individual Products Barley Coffee . Malt Coffee .. Chicory Coffee Fig Coffee .. Acorn Coffee Other Products
Tea and Tea-Like Products Foreword Black Tea Green Tea Grades of Tea Composition . Phenolic Compounds Enzymes ... Amino Acids Caffeine ... Carbohydrates Lipids .... Pigments (Chlorophyll and Carotenoids) Aroma Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . Minerals ................ . Reactions Involved in the Processing of Tea Packaging, Storage, Brewing Mate (Paraguayan Tea) Products from Cola Nut
Cocoa and Chocolate Introduction . . . . Cacao General Information . Harvesting and Processing Composition . . . . . . . . Proteins and Amino Acids Theobromine and Caffeine Lipids ....... . Carbohydrates . . . . Phenolic Compounds Organic Acids . . . . Volatile Compounds and Flavor Substances Reactions During Fermentation and Drying Production of Cocoa Liquor ....... . Production of Cocoa Liquor with Improved Dispersability Production of Cocoa Powder by Cocoa Mass Pressing Chocolate . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
879 881 881 881 883 883 884 884 885 885 885 885 885 885 886 886 886 886
886 886 887 887 888 888 888 889 889 890 890 890 890 890 891 891 891 893 893
894 894 894 894 895 896 896 897 897 897 897 898 898 899 900 900 900 900 900
XLII Table of Contents
21.3.3.2 21.3.3.2.1 21.3.3.2.2 21.3.3.2.3 21.3.3.2.4 21.3.3.3 21.3.4
21.4
22
22.1 22.1.1 22.1.1.1 22.1.1.2 22.1.1.3 22.1.1.4 22.1.2 22.1.2.1 22.1.2.2 22.1.2.3 22.1.2.4 22.1.2.4.1 22.1.2.4.2 22.1.2.4.3
22.2 22.2.1 22.2.2 22.2.3 22.2.4 22.2.5
22.3 22.3.1 22.3.1.1 22.3.1.2 22.3.2
22.4
23
23.1 23.1.1 23.1.2 23.1.3
23.2
23.3
23.4
Chocolate Production Mixing ....... . Refining ...... . Conching ..... . Tempering and Molding Kinds of Chocolate .. Storage of Cocoa Products
Literature ........ .
Spices, Salt and Vinegar
Spices ..... . Composition . . . . . . . Aroma Substances . . . . Substances with Pungent Taste Pigments .. Antioxidants . Products ... Spice Powders Spice Extracts or Concentrates (Oleoresins) Blended Spices Spice Preparations Curry Powder Mustard .... . Sambal ..... .
Salt (Cooking Salt) Composition Occurrence Production . Special Salt Salt Substitutes
Vinegar .... Production . . . Microbiological Production Chemical Synthesis Composition
Literature .....
Drinking Water, Mineral and Table Water
Drinking Water Treatment Hardness .. . Analysis .. .
Mineral Water
Table Water
Literature
Subject Index ....
901 901 901 901 901 902 903
903
905
905 905 905 910 910 910 912 912 912 912 912 912 912 912
913 913 913 913 914 914
914 914 914 915 915
915
917
917 917 917 918
918
919
919
921
Introdudion
Foods are materials which, in their naturally occurring, processed or cooked forms, are consumed by humans as nourishment and for enjoyment. The terms "nourishment" and "enjoyment" introduce two important properties of foods: the nutritional value and the hedonic value. The former is relatively easy to quantify since all the important nutrients are known and their effects are defined. Furthermore, there are only a limited number of nutrients. Defining the hedonic value of a food is more difficult because such a definition must take into account all those properties of a food, such as visual appeal, smell, taste and texture, which interact with the senses. These properties can be influenced by a large number of compounds which in part have not even been identified. Besides their nutritional and hedonic values, foods are increasingly being judged according to properties which determine their handling. Thus, the term "convenience foods". An obvious additional requirement of a food is that it be free from toxic materials. Food chemistry is involved not only in elucidating the composition of the raw materials and end-products, but also with the changes which occur in food during its production, processing, storage and cooking. The highly complex nature of food results in a multitude of desired and undesired reactions which are controlled by a variety of parameters. To gain a meaningful insight into these reactions, it is necessary to break up the food into model systems. Thus, starting from compositional analyses (detection, isolation and structural characterization of food constituents), the reactions of a single constituent or of a simple mixture can be followed. Subsequently, an investigation of a food in which an individual reaction dominates can be made. Inherently, such a study starts with a given compound and is thus not restricted to anyone food or group of foods. Such general studies of reactions involving food constituents are supplemented by special investigations which focus on chemical processes in individual foods. Research of this kind, is from the very beginning, closely associated with economic and technological aspects and contributes, by understanding the basics of the chemical processes occurring in foods, both to resolving specific technical problems and to process optimization. A comprehensive evaluation of foods requires that analytical techniques keep pace with the available technology. As a result a major objective in food chemistry is concerned with the application and continual development of analytical methods. This aspect is particularly important when following possible contamination of foods with substances which may involve a health risk. Thus, there are close links with environmental problems. Food chemistry research is aimed at establishing objective standards by which the criteria mentioned above - nutritional value, hedonic value, absence of toxic compounds and convenience - can be evaluated. These are a prerequisite for the industrial production of high quality food in bulk amounts. This brief outline thus indicates that food chemistry, unlike other branches of chemistry which are concerned either with particular classes of compounds or with particular methods, is a subject which, both in terms of the actual chemistry and the methods involved, has a very broad field to cover.