fm 1-10 air corps field manual tactics and technique of air attack 1940.pdf

8/14/2019 FM 1-10 Air Corps Field Manual Tactics and Technique of Air Attack 1940.pdf

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AIR CORPSFIELD MANUALTACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF

AIR ATTACK


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FM 1-10AIR CORPS FIELD MANUAL

TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OFAIR ATTACK

Prepared under direction of theChief of the Air Corps


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WAR DEPARTMENT,WASHINGTON, November 20, 1940.

FM 1-10, Air Corps Field Manual, Tactics and Technique ofAir Attack, is published for the information and guidance ofall concerned.JA. G. 062.11 (6-11-40).]BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR:


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TABLE OF CONTENTSCHAPTER 1. GENERAL. Paragraphs PageSection I. Nature of air attack _____- ----- ____ 1- 4 1II. Objectives for air attack___------ ______ 5- 9 2III. Means for air attack________________-10-13 6CHAPTER 2. BOMBARDMENT AVIATION.Section I. General ______-_--- -______--- __- __-- 14A-18 8II. Offensive armament__________________19-28 9

III. Effectiveness of bombs -__--__- _______ 29-39 12IV. Defensive armament________________-40-41 21V. Accessory equipment________________-42-50 22VI. Flight formations__ __________________ 51-82 23CHAPTER 3. TACTICS OF AIR ATTACK.Section I. Advance and return________________-83-91 42II. Assault --_____________________________ 92-94 46


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FM 1-10AIR CORPS FIELD MANUAL

TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACKCHAPTER IGENERAL

ParagraphsSECTION I. Nature of air attack .----------------------------4II. Objectives for air attack ----------------------- 5-9III. Means for air attack .---................. _ 10-13SECTION I

NATURE OF AIR ATTACK* 1. DEFINITION.-Air attack is the attack of objectives onthe earth's surface by aircraft.* 2. ScoPE.--a. This manual contains in brief form thetechnical and tactical doctrines for the employment of the


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3-5 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUAL

tion but may be neutralized by the destruction of essentialparts. Material objectives may be neutralized against im-mediate use if rendered only temporarily ineffective or useless.Personnel may be rendered ineffective by the neutralizationof material objectives required for their effective employment.Hostile troops may be temporarily neutralized by air attacksfor demoralization.

b. A major strategic function to be accomplished by air at-tack will be the destruction of enemy aviation facilities andof enemy aircraft at its bases, whether land or sea.* 4. DOCTRINE OF EMPLOYMENT.-a. A thorough understand-ing of the powers and limitations of aviation used to accom-plish air attacks is essential to correct strategical and tacticalemployment. As a basis for sound employment, appropriatecommanders must know the capabilities of their equipmentand operating personnel and be familiar with the circum-stances under which they must function.b. Air attack extends the sphere of operations to includevital objectives within enemy territory, limited only by theradius of action of the air forces employed.

c. (1) Air attack by aviation in support of ground forces


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 5

attack. Each objective must be considered not only in thelight of the information available or required for its attack,but also as to the probable immediate and ultimate contribu-tion to the accomplishment of the national aim, to be securedby air attack.c. Objectives for air attack in counter air force operationsinclude-(1) Air bases, including aircraft carriers and tenders.(a) Aircraft.(b) Munitions, fuel, and other essential supplies. c) Personnel.

(d) Landing areas.(e) Installations and facilities, such as those for shelter,administration, storage, communication, and repair.(2) Rail, water, and motor communication essential forthe supply of aviation forces.(3) Supply and repair depots.d. Objectives for air attack in operations against groundforces include-(1) Hostile aviation supporting their ground and base

facilities.(2) Logistical establishments.


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5-8 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALprocessing plants, steel mills, oil refineries, and other similarestablishments.* 6. SELECTION.-a. The essence of air attack lies in theselection of proper objectives. The basic characteristic ofair forces-freedom of action-normally affords a wide choicein such selection.

b. Selection of objectives or system of objectives for an airoffensive is a responsibility of the commander of the fieldforces. Designation of objectives to be attacked may bedelegated to subordinate commanders who will be guided intheir designations and priorities of attack by the general aimor plan of the higher commander.c. A system of objectives against which an air offensive isto be directed is selected as result of a thorough estimate ofthe existing situation. Once selected, the system of objectivesis adhered to in order to realize the cumulative effect derivedby the destruction of individual components of the system.7. NATURE.-Air attacks may be directed against a widevariety of objectives ranging from the most massive materialobjects, such as fortifications, steel and reinforced concretebuildings, heavy bridges, and battleships, to such fragile


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 8-9transient objectives. This classification includes temporarymilitary installations, such as supply depots, ammunitiondumps, ponton bridges, and various other objects which donot possess the power of motion. Information of such ob-jectives must be collected during war. Transient objectivesmay be attacked either pursuant to orders or in accordancewith indoctrination, depending upon their importance inspecific situations.c. Fleeting.-Objects which possess the power of motionare classified as fleeting objectives. Vehicles of all kinds,water craft, aircraft, troops, and equipment of all types arefleeting objectives. Time usually is an important factor inthe attack of fleeting objectives. The extent to which indoc-trination must be depended upon in conducting operationsagainst fleeting objectives varies with the degree of theirmobility. Formation commanders should be given the great-est possible freedom of action in the conduct of air attackagainst fleeting objectives.* 9. OBJECTIVE FOLDERS.-The Chief of the Air Corps isresponsible for initiating objective folders (files of informa-tion) pertaining to fixed objectives in all probable theaters


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ron) for study and preparation of attack plan. Informationaffecting specific folders will be forwarded by higher head-quarters to units charged with their custody. The latter areresponsible for keeping folders up to date and will notifyhigher headquarters of all changes thereto made by them.The initiation, preparation, maintenance, and file of objectivefolders in a theater are intelligence functions.b. It is desirable that the folder contain an analysis ofthe objective, the critical areas for attack, appropriate sizeof bombs, type of fuze and fuze setting, number of hits re-quired for destruction or neutralization, and, when practi-cable, the nature and location of antiaircraft defenses. Pilotsand bombardiers should be thoroughly familiar with the con-tents of pertinent objective folders prior to the performanceof bombing missions. It is proper to refer in field orders toobjective folders for detailed information of objectives.c. For form and detailed statement of contents of objectivefolders, see FM 1-40.

SECTION IIIMEANS FOR AIR ATTACK


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 10-13(2) Heavy and medium bombardment constitutes the offen-sive power of the aviation striking forces. They are charac-terized by high speeds, medium and long ranges, great loadcarrying capacity, large sizes, and provision of defensive fireagainst hostile fighter aviation. Their principal type of fire

is the demolition bomb.* 11. ROLE OF BOMBARDMENT AVIATION.-Bombardment avia-tion is capable of attacking a wide variety of surface objec-tives at any point within the operating radius of the aircraftemployed. Bombardment aircraft possess a relatively highdegree of flexibility by reason of their great transposabilityof fuel and armament loads. The great variety of possiblebombardment missions is such that no one model of aircraftis ideally suited to the accomplishment of all types of missions.* 12. ARMAMENT.-All bombardment aircraft carry both of-fensive and defensive armament. Their defensive armamentis carried solely for their own protection against hostile air-craft in flight or against ground forces in the case of minimumaltitude attacks.* 13. ROLE OF PURSUIT AVIATION IN AIR ATTACKS AGAINST


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CHAPTER 2BOMBARDMENT AVIATION

ParagraphsSECTION I. General_______________________________________14-18II. Offensive armament_________------- ________--- 19-28III. Effectiveness of bombs_______________---------9-39IV. Defensive armament __-___--_--------- ____--- 40-41V. Accessory equipment -______--------_______-_- 42-50VI. Flight formations__ _-------------------------- 51-82SECTION I

GENERAL* 14. ORGANIZATION.-The basic element of organization inbombardment aviation is the individual airplane and itscombat crew. The flight is a tactical grouping or unit con-sisting, according to type, of three or more airplanes. Thesquadron consists of two or more flights; the group of twoor more squadrons; and a wing of two or more groups.


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 17-20* 17. EMPLOYMENT OF HEAVY AND MEDIUM BOMBARDMENT.-The striking forces of GHQ aviation consist of units ofheavy and medium bombardment aviation. Such units arecapable of destroying the most massive bombardment objec-tives. Heavy and medium bombardment aircraft can carrythe heaviest types of bombardment munitions to great dis-tances. Heavy bombers are long range aircraft. Mediumbombers have intermediate ranges. Neither of these types isfully suited to the performance of minimum altitude attackssince neither is equipped to deliver all types of fire appropriateto such attacks.* 18. EMPLOYMENT OF LIGHT BOMBARDMENT.-In general, lightbombardment aircraft are smaller, more maneuverable, andhave a shorter operating radius than heavy and mediumbombers. The striking units of support forces usually consistof light bombardment aviation. The aircraft of light bom-bardment units are designed and equipped to enable themto perform minimum altitude missions when required. Theyusually are not capable of carrying the largest size bombs.

SECTION II


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DEMOLITION BOMBSSize Actual weight plosivex

Pounds Pounds Pounds100 112 65300 295 162500 500 276600' 600 3221,000 971 5561,100' 1,140 6052,000 2,000 1, 130

*Limited standard.U 21. BoMB FtZES.-Standard demolition bombs are fuzedwith both nose and tail fuzes. Bomb fuzes are of two generaltypes, instantaneous and delayed action. The instantaneoustype explodes the bomb immediately upon impact. The delayfuze permits penetration of the objective by the bomb priorto detonation. The arming mechanism of the bomb rack per-mits the dropping of bombs either armed or "safe." Demoli-tion bombs can be dropped "safe" in an emergency fromaltitudes below 4,000 feet without detonation upon impact


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 23-27

mentation effect occasioned by the angularity of the bombaxis at the instant of explosion, should be dropped from analtitude of 800 feet or more, depending upon the ground speedof the airplane. The parachute type bomb is fitted with aparachute in a light weight case in lieu of the fin assembly.The parachute quickly changes the attitude of the bomb sothat its axis is substantially vertical as it approaches andstrikes the ground. The parachute slows down both the for-ward motion and the descent of the bomb. These bombs maybe released at a minimum altitude of 65 feet.* 24. INCENDIARY BOMBS.-Incendiary bombs are employedto set fire to buildings, grain fields, tented areas, dry woodedareas, and similar combustible mat6riel.0 25. CHEMICAL BOMBS.-Chemical bombs are employed forthe placement of chemical agents within a specific area oflimited extent. They are designed to be carried and releasedin the same manner as demolition or fragmentation bombs.A 30-pound chemical bomb is now standard, and one weigh-ing about 100 pounds is under development. The cases ofchemical bombs are of light weight, and an explosive charge is


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against small naval craft, troop formations, aircraft exposedon the surface, or similar light materiel.1 28. TORPEDOES.-The torpedo, normally used by the Navy,is not standard in the Army. The size and weight of tor-pedoes are within the capacity of heavy and medium bombers,

and most models of such aircraft can be fitted to carry andlaunch torpedoes by means of suitable accessory equipment.The use of torpedoes is advantageous under conditions of lowceilings which prevent the effective use of large demolitionbombs. Large size demolition bombs are effective in theattack of objectives against which torpedoes are used.SECTION III

EFFECTIVENESS OF BOMBS* 29. GENERAL.-The most effective utilization of bombard-ment aviation necessitates a reasonably correct relationshipbetween the munitions used and the nature of the objectivesto be attacked. The actual destructive effect of any one bombis subject to so many variable factors that it is impossible tolay down inflexible rules for the utilization of the various


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be destroyed by a larger number of smaller bombs of equiva-lent or even greater total weight. The bomb used should belarge enough to produce the desired degree of destruction.On the other hand, it is wasteful to use bombs of substantiallylarger size than that appropriate for the destruction of theobjective. When the extent of the objective is such that itmust be hit at more than one point in order to obtain therequisite degree of destruction, the desired effect is best ob-tained by attacking the several vulnerable points separately,using bombs of an appropriate size.* 32. BOMB CRATERS.-a. The size of the crater produced bythe explosion of a demolition bomb of a particular size dependsupon the nature of the material upon which the bomb isdropped and also upon the depth of penetration prior todetonation. The depth of penetration is controlled by thestriking velocity and the rapidity or delay in the functioningof the bomb fuze. The striking velocity depends principallyupon the altitude and the velocity of the airplane from whichreleased. The probable size of craters produced by demolitionbombs dropped from 8,000 feet upon soil areas, such as railcenters or airdromes, can be judged from the results shown


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b. The craters produced in harder materials may be con-siderably smaller. A 2,000-pound bomb dropped experi-mentally on solid granite from an altitude of 15,000 feetproduced a crater 63/4 feet deep by 31 feet in diameter at thesurface and displaced approximately 80 cubic yards of ma-terial. Similar data are not available for 500- and 1,000-pound demolition bombs.U 33. EFFECT ON REINFORCED CONCRETE.-Large demolitionbombs are effective against massive reinforced concretestructures such as dams, piers, moles, and wharves. Theblast effect of a bomb detonated in the water alongside adam or reservoir wall is augmented by hydraulic pressure.The experimentally determined blast effect of demolitionbombs exploded alongside reinforced concrete walls abovethe surface of the water is shown in table II. (See alsotable IV.)

TABLE II.-Blast effect on reinforced concreteDemolition Thickness Diameter ofbomb of wall hole blasted


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 34-36bat efficiency, even though the individual detonations occurat such distances or under such conditions as to precludedirect injury from either the blast or the bomb fragments.

TABLE III.-Casualty effect on personnel

Approximatemaximumdistance thatSizeofbomb blast willproducedirectcasualtiesPounds Feet100 40

300 5500 751,100 902,000 110

* 35. EFFECT OF DEMOLITION BOMBS AGAINST SPECIFIED OBJEC-TIvEs.-Approximate results to be expected from the use ofdemolition bombs against various objectives have been de-


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36 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUAL

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37-38 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALU 37. FRAGMENTATION BOMB EFFECTS.-Fragmentation bombsare designed for maximum effect against personnel, animals,and light mat6riel objects, such as airplanes, small open boats,trucks, artillery tractors, and the equipment of mechanizedforces. The fragments are relatively ineffective against rail-road engines and cars. Upon explosion, the present standardfragmentation bomb produces about 800 to 1,200 fragments.Maximum effectiveness is attained when the axis of the bombis approximately vertical at the instant of explosion. Thestandard fragmentation bomb, exploded with axis vertical,has been demonstrated to be an effective casualty producingagency up to 165 feet from the point of explosion. The maxi-mum danger radius from fragments is approximately 500yards. The blast effect of a fragmentation bomb at a distanceof 1 foot is approximately the same as that of a 100-pounddemolition bomb at a distance of 3 feet. Direct hits will causesevere damage to tanks, trucks, airplanes, locomotives, andrailway cars. Railway tank cars because of their usuallyinflammable contents are particularly vulnerable to direct hits.Fin stabilized and parachute type fragmentation bombs areidentical as to size, number of fragments, and explosive charge.Differences in casualty effect will result from variations in the


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trations may persist for several days, and for considerablylonger periods if conditions are especially favorable.* 39. TEAR GAS Bomss.--Tear gas acts immediately but itseffect is of a temporary nature. The tear gas bomb producesa high concentration within a limited area. Extremely lowconcentrations of tear gas are effective in producing lachry-mation. Tear gas is used against targets where immediate,although temporary, disability of personnel is required, andin areas which may be used by our own troops as soon as thegas has been dissipated sufficiently. When a tear gas bombbursts, the cloud formed may be expected to drift with thewind for a distance of several hundred yards in a sufficientlystrong concentration to cause lachrymation. Troops exposedwill be forced to use gas masks with consequent loss ofoperating efficiency.

SECTION IVDEFENSIVE ARMAMENT

* 40. GENERAL.-Bombardment aircraft are equipped withdefensive armament for protection against the fire of hostile


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42-46 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALSECTION V

ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT* 42. GENERAL.--'. Bombardment aviation requires accessoryequipment in order to function. The expert manipulation ofadequate and suitable accessory equipment is an importantfactor in the effectiveness of a bombardment force. Accurateplacement of both offensive and defensive fire is essential tothe efficient employment of the force.

b. Data pertaining to the construction, maintenance, andoperation of accessory equipment are contained in pertinenttechnical orders and regulations.* 43. BOMB SIGHTS.-The destructive power of aerial bom-bardment is controlled largely by the accuracy of bomb place-ment. A suitable sight is an essential item of bombardmentaccessory equipment. High altitude precision bombing re-quires a sight of great accuracy and capable of coping withseveral factors affecting the success of the mission.A 44. BOMB RACKS.-Bomb racks may be either internal orexternal to the surface of the carrying aircraft. Bombs nor-mally are carried internally. Bombs carried externally may


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internally or externally. The tanks may be specially mountedor they may be carried on the bomb racks. Chemical spray-ing equipment should be readily removable from the airplanewhen not required for use.* 47. ACCESSORIES FOR DEFENSIVE ARMAMENT.-The principalaccessories for the operation of defensive armament in bom-bardment airplanes are sights, mounts, control mechanisms,and ammunition containers. Flexible gun mounts must per-mit rapid traversing of the gun and easy handling under allconditions of flight. Sights, control mechanisms, and muni-tion containers are designed for use with particular types ofguns.0 48. COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT.-Bombardment aircraftare equipped with radio receiving and transmitting facilities.Long range radio equipment is provided for air to groundcommunication. Short range equipment is used for commandcommunication. (See FM 1-45.)* 49. FLIGHT CONTROL MECHANISMS.-Flight control mecha-nisms are standard accessory equipment on bombardmentaircraft. These mechanisms usually rely on gyroscopes for


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into suitable tactical units facilitates the simultaneous em-ployment of the aircraft in the accomplishment of an assignedmission.* 52. PURPOSE.-a. Bombardment units resort to flight forma-tions only when there is a reason therefor. The principalpurposes of formation flight are-(1) The massing of defensive fire power for the securityof the command against attack by hostile aircraft.(2) The massing of offensive fire power to render moreeffective or immediate the destruction and/or demoralizationof hostile installations or combat forces.(3) To minimize losses during attacks upon strongly de-fended objectives, by delivering the maximum blow with aminimum exposure of the attacking force to the fire ofdefending weapons.(4) To expedite movement of large units by air.

(5) To facilitate tactical control of aircraft in flight.b. Bombardment units may be required at any time toutilize flight formations in the performance of their missions.X 53. UNITS.-a. The bombardment squadron formation con-


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described in this manual have been used by tactical units andmay be regarded as basic types. Each formation must meetthe requirements of the specific situation presented. Thebasic types described herein must be regarded only as guidesin the development of the proper formations to meet varyingsituations confronting tactical commanders in actual opera-tions.1 56. SIZE.-a. The size of a bombardment formation dependsupon the situation to be met and will be governed by thespecific purpose for which it is formed. The number of air-planes that can be effectively controlled during flight in onecompact formation by a single commander is definitely limited.When the number of airplanes required to perform a giventactical operation is greater than can be controlled in onecompact formation, they are organized into two or more ofvisual signals.

b. In large formations the commander transmits his ordersto subordinate commanders by means of radiophone andvisual signals.[ 57. TACTICAL REQUIREMENTS.--a. In the arrangement of a


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conduct of a tactical mission; and the reassembly of theformation after the delivery of an assault by subordinateunits or after the formation has been disrupted as the resultof attack by hostile forces. The initial assembly usuallyoccurs in the vicinity of home airdromes and will normallybe completed before enemy fighters are encountered. Rally,after an assault, takes place in the vicinity of the objectiveand may have to be performed after enemy fighter aviationhas engaged the bombardment in air fighting. (Rally pointis the position in space at which the components of a forma-tion reunite after an assault.) Prearranged points of groupassembly in enemy territory may be necessary when unfavor-able weather necessitates navigation through such weatherby smaller units or even by individual aircraft.* 59. ASSEMBLY FROM ONE AIRDRoME.-In all cases of initialassembly a definite time of assembly is prescribed, and in allcases of assembly or of rally the formation, place, and altitudeat which units are to assemble are specified in orders. Whenthe formation is to consist of one squadron or less, and theentire unit is based on one airdrome, it may be convenientlyassembled in the prescribed formation at the designated alti-


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 61-64selected by the leader should be beyond the range of theweapons of opposing ground forces.b. Formations which have been separated into assaultelements will be reassembled as soon as practicable en routeto a rally point designated in the order for the mission. Thisorder prescribes the formation for the rally and the altitude,which should be lower than the assault altitude of the lowestassault unit.* 62. TYPES OF SQUADRON FORMATIONS-The possible types ofsquadron formations are many. Two different types, thejavelin formation and the stagger formation, both of whichhave been found to possess merit as offensive and defensiveformations, are illustrative of squadron formations.* 63. SQUADRON JAVELIN FORMATION.-The javelin formation(fig. 1) is composed of two or more three-plane elements inclose column. The second and succeeding elements may beeither stepped-up or stepped-down. Certain defensive ad-vantages accrue to each method and a change from one to theother can be quickly made. This formation affords one ofthe heaviest concentrations of defensive fire possible to present


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contributes to the maneuverability of the formation as awhole, and facilitates the presentation of a strong defensivefire against flank attacks by merely shifting the formation soas to uncover all of the top and side guns of the formation.

PLAN VIEW


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tions with great speed and effectiveness. These lateral move-ments may be used to confuse the enemy and minimize theeffect of his fire.* 65. TYPES OF GROUP FORMATIONS.-A group formation willconsist of two or more squadron formations, and the arrange-ment may be varied according to the requirements of differentsituations. Two types of group defensive formations whichhave been found satisfactory are the wedge formation and thegroup stagger formation.* 66. WEDGE FORMATION.-The wedge formation is composedof squadrons in javelin formation, arranged as diagrammedin figure 3. The second and third squadron formations areecheloned above and to the right and left of the leadingsquadron. A fourth squadron, if present, may take positionto the rear and above the leading squadron and with itsleader approximately opposite the leaders of the second flightsof the flank squadrons. The position of the fourth squadronis not fixed, because it is a responsibility of the commander ofthat squadron to maneuver his formation so as to provide themaximum support possible for the other squadrons of the


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PLAN VIEW


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68-70 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALing daylight within range of enemy weapons. Such protec-tion is necessary in order to insure the completion of tacticalmissions in enemy territory and to minimize losses which mayresult from active opposition.U 69. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF DEFENSIVE FORMATIONS.---.Defensive formations are so constituted as to facilitate con-centration of their own defensive fire, particularly againstshort range fire from hostile aircraft. Such formations aresufficiently flexible to permit rapid changes in position andincreases or decreases in the intervals and distances betweenairplanes, flights, and squadrons in the formation to meetany form of hostile attack.b. The commander of a large formation rarely pilots theleading airplane. The commander who controls a formationand supervises its navigation, defense, and method of attack-ing the objective should be relieved of the duties of pilotingwhen practicable. He is responsible for the tactics employedand for the air discipline of his command, and must be in aposition from which he can best observe the conduct of themission and can most efficiently perform his command duties.


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PLAN VIEW*44 444 44~~~~~~~~~~~44....


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70-71 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALc. Simplicity and compactness are secured in a defensiveformation when each pilot is able to maintain his assignedposition by guiding on only one adjacent airplane. In sucha formation, pilots may readily maintain their positions, andthe degree of compactness attainable is limited only by the

skill and training of the individual pilots. A simple compactformation may be readily controlled by the leader, who isassured that his commands will be quickly relayed to allairplanes in the formation. Efficient control requires alsothat the formation be capable of maneuver. A formationhaving great lateral width cannot be turned on a short radiuswithout a lateral shift of elements because of the resultantdistance differential between airplanes on the outside and onthe inside of the turn. For efficient control and maneuvera-bility, defensive formations should be as narrow laterally asis consistent with other requirements.

d. When a group formation is composed of two or moresquadron formations, each squadron is charged with a defi-nite responsibility in the conduct of organized defensive fire.Whatever the size of the defensive formation, its elementsare arranged within themselves and with respect to each other


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 71-73to fly to the point in space at which the antiaircraft firecontrol instruments predict it will arrive at the end of apredicting interval.c. The formation must be so arranged that no single anti-aircraft artillery battery round will disable more than oneairplane.

d. Within the considerations of spacing required to preventinjury to more than one airplane by a single battery round,the formation should be as compact as possible to facilitaterapid transit of the danger area and to prevent, insofar aspossible, aircraft being successively taken under fire by thesame artillery units.e. The formation must be able to take advantage ofweather conditions that interfere with discovery and con-tinuous observation from the ground.f. The formation must be quickly convertible into forma-tions suitable for air attack or for defense against hostileaircraft.* 72. CONVERTIBILITY OF, DEFENSIVE FORMATIONS.-Forma-tions suitable for defense against hostile aircraft may, byincreasing the intervals and distances between airplanes,


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73-74 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALassigned. Losses can be anticipated and even though severeshould, when unavoidable, be accepted in those cases in whichthe blow to the enemy justifies the aircraft loss incurred.Higher authorities may require destruction of objectives at allcosts, in which case the commander in the air can accept noalternate that does not offer excellent promise of accomplish-ment of the mission. Even here, however, cases will arise inwhich questions of security must be weighed to prevent enemyaction from so depleting the force prior to its arrival at thebomb release line that the success of the attack is placed injeopardy.

c. A detailed study of each specific objective is required todetermine the best formation from which it may be at-tacked. The conformation of the objective will determine,in general, the aplpropriate form and. dimensions of offensiveformation to be employed. The nature of some areas doesnot permit division into a series of point targets for individualairplane attack. Some targets will require uniform coverageover their entire area, especially if chemical agents areemployed. 74. FORMATION ATTACKS.-a. The javelin, wedge, and stagger


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 74-77and the airplanes of each squadron converge on their assignedtargets in three plane elements, each at a different altitude.b. Attack from stagger formation is characterized by anapparent complexity but actually is easy of accomplishment,and the formation is so flexible as to afford maximum freedomof maneuver to each airplane in it. The group stagger forma-tion brings a mass attack against the objective in a minimumof time, keeps the group in a good defensive formation toresist attack by hostile aircraft, and presents a confusingtarget to both air and ground defensive forces.5 75. MINIMUM ALTITUDE ATTACKS.-Air attacks may belaunched from aircraft in offensive formation at either highor low altitudes depending upon the nature of the objective,the weapons used, weather conditions, and the character ofantiaircraft defense employed by the enemy. Flexibility andmaneuverability are of great importance at extremely lowaltitudes, and the most satisfactory arrangement under suchconditions is to divide the formation into elements of threeairplanes each. The elements fly in V-formation with inter-vals and distances as dictated by the requirements of themission. Elements guide upon the leader and fly either in


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are basically the same, whether the operations are performedduring daylight or at night. The differences in operatingtechnique appropriate to the conduct of bombardment opera-tions in flight formations, during daylight and at night, areessentially those necessary to compensate for the reductionin visibility occasioned by night flying conditions. This re-duction in visibility renders undesirable the use of stagger andstepped-down formations. The squadron javelin, the group

++4 4 PLAN VIEW


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departure from daylight technique in the conduct of nightflying formations under all conditions.b. Decreased visibility incident to night operations rendersthe massing of defensive fire, against attack by hostile air-craft, of little if any practicable value.c. Formations, even at antiaircraft intervals, are not nor-mally used in night attacks against defended objectives.d. The maintenance of compact formations, either defen-sive or offensive, for long periods of time is very fatiguing topiloting personnel. The fatigue of piloting personnel,

incident to formation flying, is much greater at night thanduring daylight operations.* 79. ROUTE FORMATIONS.-Close defensive formations arerequired only during attacks by hostile aircraft or whensuch assaults are imminent. Offensive formations arenecessary only during the bombing assault. In the conductof bombardment missions there will be long periods duringboth the advance and the return when there is no neces-sity for the maintenance of a compact defensive formation.During such periods the formation will be flown withsufficient intervals between airplanes to relieve the pilots.


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* 82. TYPES OF ROUTE FORMATIONs.-Typical route formationsare shown in figures 6 and 7. The group route column isactually a column of squadrons in javelin up at increased in-tervals and distances. Similarly the dispersed column corre-sponds to the group wedge.

4. 4.4.4.4.4 4. 0

I

4. 4.


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enemy's aircraft warning service. As a matter of policy,bombardment units also avoid flight over areas defended byfriendly antiaircraft artillery, but utilize to the maximum theprotection afforded by friendly fighters in general or localdefense.* 84. UNOPPOSED OPERATIONS.-a. Situations in which theenemy offers no active resistance allow the most effective andeconomical employment of the bombardment force. Bom-bardment attacks, when made at night or during periods ofvery poor visibility, may be unopposed during the advanceand return phases of the operation.b. When the attacking force is not likely to encounter anyactive opposition, air attacks by individual airplanes affordgreater ability to overcome adverse weather conditions; havegreater effective ranges, greater maneuverability, and speed;are simple and permit maximum freedom in the exercise ofindividual initiative in coping with unforeseen difficulties. In-dividual airplane attacks may be employed to advantage ineither day or night operations against undefended objectives,except when formation pattern bombing is required. Air-planes operating singly are able to attain maximum accuracy


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85-88 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALwhich such conditions may affect both attacking and defend-ing forces, is essential to the penetration of hostile antiaircraftdefenses with a minimum of losses. The bombardment forcemay resort to evasion; may employ massed defensive fire; maybe supported by light bombardment and/or fighter aviation;and also may take advantage of the security afforded by con-current air operations.* 86. EVASION.-a. The power of evasion is an important factorin avoiding contact with active elements of the hostile anti-aircraft defense forces. Routes and the time of the operationare selected with a view to avoiding detection. Areas in whichenemy defensive aviation is active, also localities defended byantiaircraft artillery, and places at which there may be groundobservation stations are avoided during the advance and thereturn.b. Darkness, cloud formations, poor visibility, circuitousroutes, speed, altitude, changes of altitude, camouflage, andinaudibility resultant from use of glides are factors whichmay be utilized to advantage to evade the hostile antiaircraftdefense forces. Flight at high altitudes may be effective in


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siderably in advance of the actual position of the aircraftwhen the gun is fired.b. Single airplanes when not engaged in the actual bombsighting operation resort to high speed and maneuver whentaken under fire by antiaircraft guns. They change theiraltitude and their direction in such a manner as to make pre-diction difficult. Changes should be made at intervals shorterthan the time of flight of the projectile, whenever practicable.c. When taken under fire by antiaircraft guns, formationsassume a spacing between airplanes greater than the effectivezone of one antiaircraft artillery battery round and sufficientto permit maneuver of individual airplanes in the formation.When there are more airplanes than artillery directors, aportion of the airplanes may be able to complete the attackwithout receiving enemy fire. During daylight hours a forma-tion spaced as stated above provides greater security thandoes a succession of individual airplanes. This is becausethe command is exposed to the antiaircraft gun fire for ashorter period of time.* 89. LIGHT BOMBARDMENT AND FIGHTER SUPPORT.-Friendly


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direct support afforded by concurrent operations which mayattract a portion of the hostile air fighting force.* 91. SEARCH OPERATIONS.-When the accomplishment of airattack involves search operations for the purpose of locatingthe objective before launching the attack, the search consti-tutes a part of the advance phase of the operation. Thetactics employed during search operations are based upon theactive opposition likely to be encountered. Search operationsmay be conducted over sea areas, where active opposition bycarrier-based aviation is to be expected. The technique ofsearch is outlined in FM 1-20.

SECTION IIASSAULT

* 92. ASSAULT DOCTRINE.-a. The assault phase of bom-bardment operations begins at the initial point and endswith the rally of the command for the return flight. The:initial point is selected with a view to facilitating the effectiveconduct of the assault. The initial point always should bebeyond the range of the antiaircraft guns employed to defend


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that the enemy cannot employ all of his defending fightersto oppose each attacking wave in turn.* 93. ENEMY OPPOSITION.-Important objectives which arevital to the enemy may be strongly defended both by fightingaircraft and by antiaircraft artillery. Barrage balloons maybe encountered in the vicinity of important objectives. Whenballoons are encountered, preliminary operations by support-ing aviation may be necessary to destroy the obstructions be-fore undertaking the air attack of the ground objective. Theenemy may not be able to provide local antiaircraft defensefor all objects which may constitute profitable targets forthe attacking force; hence, the assault phase may be unop-posed. Unless it is known that no opposition will be mef inthe vicinity of the objective, the operations plan should in-clude provisions for appropriate action should opposition beencountered.V 94. ASSAULT VARIATIONS.--. Bombardment forces exerttheir power by air attack operations. Assaults may be de-livered at high or low altitudes, during daylight or at nightby means of area or precision bombing; and may be opposed


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94-95 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALtremely low levels. Only those missions which usually areperformed at minimum altitudes, or which employ forwardprotective fire as a security measure, are treated as minimumaltitude operations.

SECTION IIIHIGH ALTITUDE BOMBING

* 95. GENERAL.-a. (1) Bombing attacks involving the per-formance of precise sighting operations are treated herein ashigh altitude bombing. Such operations may be conductedwithin one or more of the following altitude brackets:FeetLow --_--------.------------- 2,000 to 5,000Low medium___-___-- _____-- 5,000 to 9,000Medium --------------------- 9,000 to 13,500High_ ____----_____--_---____ 13,500 to 18,000

Maximum----_--____-- _______ 18,000 to service ceiling(2) From an offensive point of view the best altitude fromwhich to launch an attack is the one which is most favorableto the obtaining of the greatest accuracy of offensive fire.The altitude may be modified by considerations of security


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 96-97* 96. DIRECTION OF APPROACH.--a. The nature of the targetshould be carefully considered. Objectives which are compactand approximately square or circular in shape may be attackedequally well from any direction. Elongated targets may beattacked either across or along their long axis when rangeand deflection probable errors are equal and bombs are indi-vidually sighted. When range and deflection probable errorsare not equal, the direction of approach for independentlysighted bombs, other conditions being favorable, should besuch that the greatest probable error is in the direction of thelong axis of the target. An elongated maneuvering targetmay have to be attacked as found, regardless of the directionof approach with respect to the axis of the objective.

b. Visibility is an important factor in precision bombing.The direction of approach should afford best visibility for thebombing teams and poorest for opposing antiaircraft forces.Approaching from the direction of bright sunlight, moonlight,or protecting clouds may provide definite advantages to theattacker.c. Upwind approaches are most favorable for bombingaccuracy because of the lower ground speed, but the bomb


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97-99 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALat fairly low or extremely high altitudes. The optimumbombing altitude in any situation can be ascertained onlyafter careful consideration of bombing accuracy as againstantiaircraft fire effectiveness and the consequent probablelosses of aircraft.* 98. SIGHTING OPERATION IN FoRMATION BOMBING.-a. For-mation bombing has the disadvantage of sacrificing to someextent the accuracy obtainable in separately sighted singlereleases. The formation leader is responsible for directionalaccuracy, and the bombing team of the leading airplaneshould exercise extreme care to minimize the directional error.The deflection errors of bombs dropped from other aircraft inthe formation are affected by the precision with which theseaircraft are controlled in maintaining their position in theformation. Bomb sight controlled timing of the release ofthe bombs dropped from each airplane in the formation isessential to the minimizing of range errors and to assuringcompactness of the pattern.

b. Release upon signal or when the bombs are seen to leavethe leading airplane involves an uncontrolled delay whichmay result in large range errors at high ground speeds and


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 100-101* 100. DAYLIGHT ATTACK OF AREA TARGETS.-a. Area bombingis employed against targets which cover a considerable spacewith no single vulnerable point, the destruction of which in-sures the destruction of the objective. Area bombing is alsoemployed when the general location of the objectives is knownbut their exact placement cannot be determined with suffi-cient accuracy to permit them to be used as aiming points.Precision sighting is necessary in bombing an area in orderto insure the correct placement of the bomb pattern. Areabombing against defended objectives normally is conducted information. When the size and shape of the target area aresuch that the conformation of a single formation can be ad-justed to produce a bomb pattern covering the entire area,all of the attacking aircraft may operate in a single formationas one combat command.

b. The attack of an extensive area requiring a large attack-ing force may be accomplished by dividing the force intosuitable separate combat commands and assigning each at-tacking unit a definite subarea against which it is to operate.If the objective is defended, all units of the attacking forceshould assault it as nearly simultaneously as possible. The


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101-102 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALis attained. Avoidance of contact with active elements ofthe hostile antiaircraft defense force may be practicable dur-ing the advance and up to initiation of the bombing approachby employing evasion tactics, but evasive maneuvering is notfeasible during the bombing approach. (Bombing approachis the brief period of flight of the bombing airplane or forma-tion during the actual sighting operation and immediatelypreceding bomb release.)b. Effective results are of paramount Importance. How-ever, when the target is defended, the assault tactics may,within limits prescribed by higher authority, be modified soas to minimize the effectiveness of the enemy's opposition.High altitude daylight bombing attacks in the presence ofdefending antiaircraft artillery, aircraft opposition beingeither weak or absent, may be effected by simultaneous con-vergence upon the target, either by individual airplanes orby flights, thus permitting individual sighting for release ofeach bomb or train of bombs. When the simultaneous con-vergence method of attack (either by individual airplanes orby flights) is employed, it is desirable that the initial point beas close to the objective as practicable without being within


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 102aircraft artillery fire. Under favorable conditions, search-lights provide a considerable amount of general illuminationby reason of diffused rays not forming an integral part ofthe focused beam.(2) Aircraft flying at high altitude cannot be seen from theground unless directly illuminated. However, nearby aircraftnot in the beam of a searchlight are' sufficiently illuminated tomake them visible to other aircraft which are only a shortdistance away. Hostile fighting aircraft can take advantageof the illumination provided by searchlights and can, byproper maneuver, fire upon the attacking force without them-selves being illuminated long enough to enable the defendinggunners to retaliate upon equal terms. However, fighter air-craft cannot effectively attack unless their targets are withinthe limits of an illuminating beam.(3) High altitude night attacks, whether against defendedor undefended objectives, normally are accomplished by indi-vidual airplane attacks. Attacking aircraft by approachingthe objective at night in a glide from high altitude may beable to introduce an element of surprise and thereby delaydetection and minimize the time of exposure to hostile anti-


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102-104 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALbombs. Individual airplane attacks normally are employedin high altitude night operations against point or area targets.I 103. ILLUMINATION OF TARGETS.-A plan of illuminationshould provide that-

a. The entire coordination and/or success of the maneuvershould not depend upon ,the performance of any individualairplane or flight, or upon a complex scheme of coordinationbetween flight units.b. The objective should be illuminated before the assaultaircraft are so committed to their attack as to be beyond thecontrol of unit commanders. This may, in some cases, involveillumination of the objective prior to departure of the assaultunits from their initial points, notification of the discoveryof the target being furnished the assault units by pyrotechnicand/or radio signal.c. Illumination should be maintained until the attack iscompleted.* 104. FLIGHT METHOD.-a. This method of attack can be em-ployed by any size of bombardment force from a single flightup to and including a group. It is essentially a night method


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 104-105c. (1) The altitudes of attack and withdrawal are pre-scribed in orders for each airplane of all flights. The flightnormally departs from the initial point at the assault eleva-tion of the leading airplane. The leading airplane of theflight proceeds directly toward the objective at its attackingaltitude; the numbers two and three airplanes swing to the

right and left, respectively, executing shallow dives to theirprescribed assault altitudes which usually are 2,000 and 4,000feet respectively, below that of the leading airplane. At theproper time the numbers two and three airplanes changetheir course so as to converge upon the objective within anarc of from 300 to 50 . The points at which the numbers twoand three airplanes change course to converge upon theobjective may be determined by an estimated time of arrival,or may be prominent landmarks readily distinguished atnight where such landmarks are conveniently available.(2) Immediately after releasing their bombs the assaultingaircraft turn approximately 1800 and withdraw at a pre-scribed altitude, usually 1,000 feet lower than its assaultaltitude. This withdrawal is made approximately on the lineof the advance. The number two airplane normally turns to


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105-106 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALsition, and when weather or cloud conditions favor it. Inthis method of attack each squadron is assigned a separateinitial point to which it proceeds from the group initial point.The squadron aircraft proceed individually to assault theirobjectives at the altitude and intervals prescribed in grouporders.

(2) The interval between successive squadron aircraft isusually 10 seconds but may be greater for special situations.The assault technique is similar to that employed in theflight method. Airplanes, one from each squadron, attacksimultaneously and then return to their respective Equadroninitial point. Restricting the sector of advance for a foursquadron group to 45 favors the creation of a confusion ofsound.b. Circling the initial point prolongs the time of the bom-bardment force over enemy territory, and care must be exer-cised to prevent circling formations from being illuminatedand fired upon by surprise. The squadron method of attackis illustrated in figure 9.* 106. BASE ALTITUDE METHOD.-a. In the base altitudemethod one initial point is used and the squadrons of the


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 106-108artillery. Some coordination of defensive fire against hostilepursuit is obtained when the assault unit consists of a flight.m 107. GLIDE METHOD.-The various methods of attack maybe modified so that assault units approach the bomb releaseline in a glide instead of in horizontal or diving flight. Aglide approach reduces the sound made by the aircraft, therebylessening the likelihood of discovery particularly at night, andalso introduces a range change factor which may adverselyaffect the accuracy of the antiaircraft artillery fire.

SECTION IVMINIMUM ALTITUDE BOMBING

* 108. GENERAL.-a. The advance and return phases of min-imum altitude air attack operations usually are flown at alti-tudes which facilitate accurate navigation and afford aconsiderable degree of security from the fire of ground ma-chine guns and of antiaircraft guns. Assaults which bringthe attacking aircraft within range of machine guns, smallcannon, and small arms on the ground should be performedat an altitude which is a compromise between the


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109-110 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUAL* 109. DAYLIGHT OPERATIONS.---a. Minimum altitude bombingoperations normally are conducted during daylight unlessnight operations are required. During daylight the aircraftengaged in minimum altitude attacks usually operate information. They may operate singly for short periods in thevicinity of the objective when the mission requires or permitsindividual airplane attacks. Aircraft employed in minimumaltitude assaults during daylight habitually employ forwardprotective fire while within range of ground weapons of theforces defending the objective. Operation at minimum alti-tude, particularly over irregular terrain, affords security tothe attacking force because of the masking of the fire ofground weapons and by limiting the time of exposure to anyparticular weapon. Defensive formations are employed forprotection against hostile fighting aircraft which, because ofthe low altitude, can attack only from the upper hemisphere.

b. Surprise is sought whenever possible. It is gained bytaking advantage of speed and of the defilade provided atminimum altitudes by irregular terrain. The operations oftwo or more attacking units assaulting the same objective areso coordinated as to secure the maximum possible surprise.


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TACTICS'AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 110-113

defensive measures. The direction and velocity of the windare important factors affecting the utilization of chemicalagents in connection with the assault.* 111. LINEAR TARGETS.-Linear targets, such as marchingcolumns and motor or railway trains, are attacked either byindividual airplanes or small formations in column, formationsbeing used when the width of a single airplane attack is in-sufficient to attain the desired result. The attacking unitsapproach obliquely, turn, and fly over the objective only dur-ing the actual delivery of offensive fire.* 112. POINT TARGETS.-The type of sighting equipment andnature of fire used usually determine the minimum altitudeat which precision bombing can be accomplished. Minimumaltitude attacks against point targets are effected by individ-ual airplanes, unless the size and nature of the target are suchas to require the employment of a formation attack. When anumber of separate point targets are located within a rela-tively limited area, the attacking force may fly in formationto the critical area. 'The individual aircraft then operatesingly only during the short interval required for assaulting


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113-116 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALbe obtained against objectives not available during daylight,or when the defenses are so strong as to prohibit the assaultbeing launched during daylight without incurring excessivelosses.c. Assaults launched at dawn enable the attacking forceto utilize the security afforded by darkness during the advancephase of the operation and may gain a considerable elementof surprise. Opportunities for the effective launching ofminimum altitude attacks at dusk may occur when enemypreparation for night movement is in process. Darkness isutilized for the return phase of the operation after an assaultat dusk. This may prevent hostile aircraft from tracking theattacking force to its airdromes. Darkness is the principalsecurity factor for aircraft engaged in minimum altitudeassaults at night.* 114. ILLUMINATION OF TARGETS.-Since it is essential thatthe attacking force be able to see the target, artificial illumi-nation frequently is required during night operations. Atnight, initial illumination of the target may be provided byobservation or reconnaissance units operating in support ofminimum altitude bombing. When successive assault waves


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operations normally are directed against the searchlightsof the opposing antiaircraft artillery. In rendering suchsupport it is necessary to destroy or neutralize only thosesearchlights which serve gun batteries so located as to be ableto deliver effective fire into the sector of approach of thehigh altitude attacking force.


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CHAPTER 4AIR ATTACK PLANNING AND OPERATIONS

ParagraphsSETcnON I. Plans and planning ___________-______________ 117-130II. Bombing probabilities--_______________________ 131-154III. Minimum altitude attacks__________________-155-166IV. Use of chemicals_____________________________ 167-178V. Attack of naval objectives ------- _____________ 179-192VI. Counter air force operations________________-193-202VII. Support of ground forces _-___________________ 203-209

SECTION IPLANS AND PLANNING

U 117. GENERAL.-This chapter includes a discussion of tech-nique applicable to the successful accomplishment of the as-sault phase of the bombardment mission. The technique ofair attack must be suited to the conditions under which the


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attacked in the order of priority established in combat orders.A commander may be unable to operate against objectives inthe order of their assigned priority because of adverse weatheror other conditions which would expose his command to un-justifiable risks not foreseen by the higher commander. Insuch a case, the combat commander is justified in the attackof objectives of a lower priority. These will normally be sec-ondary objectives which, because of their being undefendedor lightly defended, require no complex scheme of maneuverfor their attack.b. When a combat commander while proceeding on anothermission unexpectedly gains contact with a fleeting objectivenot covered by instructions, he must use his initiative andjudgment in deciding the proper course of action. In reach-ing a decision, he must consider the nature and importanceof his mission, security of his command, importance of thefleeting objective, the likelihood of its destruction by otherforces, and adequacy of the fire that he is able to deliver.* 120. INFORMATION REQUIRED.-The effectiveness of the oper-ations plan is largely dependent upon the completeness and


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122-125 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALin the order of their importance will establish an operatingpriority. Whenever possible, a sufficient number of objec-tives should be assigned to each unit to permit the selectionof alternate targets in the event that unforeseen conditionsprevent the attack of objectives in the order established inthe operating priority. Fleeting objectives when given prece-dence over other assigned objectives should be designated inrelative order of importance.* 123. INITIATIVE.-The bombardment commander, by select-ing a time of attack and altitude which are least favorable tothe defender, can gain an initial advantage. The defendercannot be equally strong on all points; hence, a wise selectionof bombardment objectives, in conjunction with the mostadvantageous times and altitudes at which to deliver theassault, is an important factor in the successful penetrationof antiaircraft defenses. However, once hostile pursuit ef-fects interception, the initiative passes. The action of theenemy will determine the time to engage and withdraw aswell as the direction and number of assaults.* 124. NATURE OF TARGETS.-A target is the space within which


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* 126. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER CONDITIONS.-a. Weather con-ditions should be regarded not only as possible obstacles to beovercome in the conduct of a mission or of an air offensive,but also as a varying situation the most favorable aspects ofwhich should be selected to render the maximum assistanceto the attacking force. From this point of view there arethree general uses of weather advices:(1) When an air offensive is being planned, summaries ofclimatic conditions in the theater of operations should beconsulted by the planning agency to ascertain the probableweather in which operations will have to be conducted, andto plan, in general, the method of operation which will utilizeto a maximum the favorable aspects of such weather condi-tions. At this phase of the planning, expected weather con-ditions will influence the choice of aircraft employed, locationof operating bases, frequency of contemplated missions, andother general factors.(2) Higher commanders will require forecasts of weatherconditions over definite areas and routes for periods up to36 or 48 hours in advance of the issuance of orders forspecific missions.


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tactical units must be prepared to take appropriate action inunpredictable situations.* 127. COMMUNICATION.-The manner and effectiveness oftactical control of the combat command depend to a consid-erable extent upon the nature and reliability of the meansof communication employed. Adequate means of communi-cation are essential in operations involving tactical controlduring the conduct of a bombardment mission, and this factormust be carefully considered when plans are formulated. Theuse of radio, particularly when deep in enemy territory, maydisclose the position of the combat command; hence the em-ployment of this means of communication should be heldto a minimum when there is danger of facilitating intercep-tion by hostile aircraft.* 128. ATTACKING FORCE.-The plan of operations must notcall for the accomplishments of results which are beyondthe capabilities of the force available. The size of the forcerequired to accomplish a particular mission depends uponthe requirements of the mission, skill and training of availabletactical units, and nature and effectiveness of hostile antiair-


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impossible for the defender to engage the attacker simulta-neously at every point with his full strength.U 130. COORDINATION OF SUPPORT.-a. (1) The supported unitis the basis for the establishment of coordination in bom-bardment operations. The details necessary for securingcoordination of the supporting operations should, wheneverpracticable, be left to the commander of the supported force.When coordinating details are prescribed by higher authority,the nature of such details is determined primarily by theability of the supported force to meet the requirements thusimposed. Higher authority may make provision for coordi-nation of the support by the following methods:(a) Attachment of supporting units.

(b) Designation of supporting units and their general mis-sions; prescribing necessary measures for coordination; ordirecting the supported command to prescribe the additionaldetails required.(c) Organization of task forces for a series of coordinatedmissions.(2) The time of attack is not designated by higher authorityfor the purpose of securing coordination, unless no other


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130-131 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALforce, keeping within such distance as will assure the con-tinuous maintenance of signal communication. When thetime of attack has been signaled, the supporting force takessuch action as is required to protect the attacking force duringthe assault. When the time of attack is announced beforetake-off and assembly with the supported force is not prac-ticable or desirable, the commander of the supporting forceselects his routes and conducts the mission in a manner thatwill insure the protection of the supported force during theassault.e. When the advance only is made during darkness, thesupporting force assembles with the supported force at dawn,when practicable, in order to insure coordination at the ob-jective. When the attack is made during darkness, the timeof attack must be announced before take-off, unless condi-tions permit maintenance of signal communication, accuratenavigation, and fixation of position during the advance. Whenrequired, coordination of supporting operations at night usu-ally can be effected by both supported and supporting forcesworking by a predetermined time schedule.f. The attacking force furnishes such auxiliary support of


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 131-133knowledge of the performance of his particular organization,estimate the requirements for the successful accomplishmentof bombardment missions. Such tables, together with typeproblems illustrating their use, are included in this section.* 132. HITS REQUIRED.-After selection of the proper size ofbomb to use against a particular objective, it is necessary todetermine the number of hits required to produce the desireddegree of destruction. The information furnished in the ob-jective folder should be adequate for this purpose. A largeproportion of individual bombardment objectives may bedestroyed if hit by one properly selected size of bomb. Ob-jectives including numerous structures or elements may some-times be appropriately divided and so assigned that if eachelement is hit by one bomb of proper size its destruction willbe complete. Certain structures or facilities may require anumber of hits, all of which must be sighted at a single aimingpoint or target. Still others will require a uniform pattern ofhits over a given area. These factors must be considered inthe planning to determine the number of effectively placedbombs required to complete the mission with the requireddegree of assurance of success.


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133-136 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALwhatever the mission assigned, in order to be most certainof success is normally unsound.* 134. SKILL OF PERSONNEL.-The skill of bombardment per-sonnel can best be ascertained from the recorded results at-tained by them in bombing practice. It is important thatbombardment commanders, particularly squadron and groupcommanders, have accurate records of the results attained bytheir bombing teams under various conditions of practice sim-ulating, as nearly as practicable, the conditions expected tobe encountered during war. Such records provide the bestmeans of estimating the accuracy factor to be applied in thedetermination of bombing probabilities.* 135. BOMBING ERRORS.---. Errors in bombing as used formeasuring results and for making predictions of future re-sults are defined as the distances by which bombs (or themean point of impact of patterns of bombs) miss the centerof the target at which they are aimed. The range error ismeasured parallel to the direction of the bombing approach;the deflection error, perpendicular to the direction of ap-proach; and the circular error is measured on a radial straight


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to the type on which that small average error was attained.Average errors are of little value unless the number of re-leases which enter into those averages is relatively large andeach is properly evaluated. All results of the droppings ofbombs cannot be grouped into one single set of figures to forma single average. Experience has shown the necessity ofseparate averages of errors for bombing at the several dif-ferent altitudes used by bombardment aviation. It has beenfound, therefore, to be a necessary step in the proper trainingof individuals, bombing teams, and organizations to maintaintables of average errors for each such individual, bombingteam, or unit for various bombing altitudes.c. The results of each practice, after analysis, should beadded to the cumulative result of previous similar practices.Analysis of each practice is necessary in order that errors maybe properly evaluated in accordance with conditions. It isappropriate in the establishment of averages of this type todiscard or eliminate from the summation a proportion of theearlier data accumulated. This may occur because earlierdata have become inconsistent with the results obtained aftermore thorough or advanced training, or those attained by the


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138. RELATIONSHIP OF PROBABLE ERRORS TO AVERAGE ERROR.-a. Having the recorded average errors of his command, thecommander can prepare a table of probable errors for his unitby the application of the following mathematical relationshipbetween probable errors and average errors:Range probable error (Rep) =0.845 times the arith-metic mean rangeerror (0.845 Rea).

Deflection probable error (Dep)=0.845 times the arith-metic mean deflectionerror (0.845 Dea).

Circular probable error (Cep) =0.939 times the arith-metic means circularerror (0.939 Cea).Cep=1.746 VRep x Dep

b. The probable errors shown in table V are representativeof results actually attained in the dropping of a large numberof bombs. These values are included for convenience in solvingillustrative problems and are not necessarily representativebombing results.


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b. (1) Figure 10 shows the relation of target dimensions toprobable errors and the physical meaning and application ofthe term "probability factor."(2) The target is represented by the rectangle ABCD, anypart of which is vulnerable. BC is the vulnerable dimensionin the range direction, and AB is the vulnerable dimensionin the deflection direction. Hence BF is one half the vulner-able range dimension, 1/2 RDT; and EB is one half the vulner-able deflection dimension of the target, 1/2 DDT, BF and EBare the allowable errors, the errors to either side of the aimingpoint which cannot be exceeded without missing the target.

TABLE V.-Probable errorsRange Deflection CircularAltitude probable probable probableerror (Rep) error (Dep) error (Cep)

Feet Feet Feet Feet1, 000 47 36 722, 000 47 44 783,000 48 50 864,000 49 58 96


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139-140 AIR CORPS FIELD MANUALbetween MP and NO if similarly extended would also containone half of the bombs dropped.(4) If BP and NT are equal, that is to say if one half therange dimension (1/2 RDT) of the target equals the probableerror, any bomb dropped has a 50-50 chance of hitting thetarget insofar as range is concerned. It is obvious that if thevalue of BF is greater than that of NT there is a greater than50 percent degree of certainty of hits as far as range is con-cerned. Since BF and NT are seldom equal it is necessaryto provide a means of evaluating the chance of hitting thetarget for any ratio of those values. The ratio of those valuesis called the vulnerability factor for range. Similarly the ratioEB to SN is the vulnerability factor for deflection.c. (1) Thus the vulnerability factor in range equals onehalf the range dimension of the target divided by the probableerror in range:

1/2 RDTVulnerability factor in range= Repin which RDT represents the range dimension of the vulner-able part of the target.


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 140-141deflection. The product of those two values gives the prob-ability of the concurrences of the two events-thus, of a hiton the target. When using circular errors and circular tar-gets, a single value-which is the probability of a hit on thetarget-may be ascertained from the single ratio, the circularvulnerability factor.

- - Mt --- St =DEP _ _ $ NlDDT P.EP

E - H-_____-RDT


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[ 142. SINGLE SHOT PROBABILITY.-The probabilities deter-mined from table VI or from chart No. 1, as described in para-graph 141, are, respectively, the range single shot probability(RSSP) and the deflection single shot probability (DSSP)of hits with respect to those axes of the target, separatelyconsidered. The combined (range and deflection) single shotprobability (SSP) is the product of RSSP multiplied byDSSP. A hit by a single shot is not possible except bythe concurrence of the two events, a hit in range and a hitin deflection. For convenience and simplicity the "combinedrange and deflection single shot probability of a hit" will here-after be referred to as the "single shot probability." The singleshot probability of a hit on a circular target, using a knownvulnerability factor, may be read directly on the curve ofchart No. 2.

* 143. BOMBS REQUIRED.-The single shot probability (SSP),determined as outlined above, is the basis for the calculationof the number of individually sighted (or aimed) bombs re-quired to provide a certain percentage degree of assuranceof securing one hit and/or the number of bombs required to


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in order not to bracket the target with any two adjacentbombs. This is accomplished by setting the calculated timeinterval on the release mechanism and should be obtainedwithin the limits of average errors due to ballistic and othercauses.

b, Line of attack.-The direction of approach and the lineof attack or ground track of the airplane during the final partof approach and bomb release should be selected to assurethe greatest probability of a hit, other conditions permitting.The sighting operation should attempt to put the center ofimpact of the bomb train on the center of the target. In theselection of the line of attack, the following points should beconsidered:(1) The allowable error in range equals one half the vul-nerable range dimension of the target plus one half thelength of the bomb train.

(2) The range probable error of the center of impact ofthe train is the same as for an individually sighted bomb andshould be so used in calculations.(3) The probable error in deflection is the same as for an


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I 145. FORMATION OR PATTERN BOMBING PROBABILITIES.-a.General.-(1) A maneuvering target which makes a materialchange of speed or direction during the time of fall of a bombwill not be hit (except by chance) by a bomb which is accu-rately aimed at that target and released from a high altitude.Unless it is possible to predict those changes, the target cannotbe expected to be hit, from high altitude, by an accuratelyaimed and delivered single bomb. Against such targets pat-tern bombing may be necessary. Against stationary targetssuch as railroad yards, oil tank farms, and, in some cases,airdromes, it is desired to place a great number of bombswith uniform distribution within a certain area. Point tar-gets may be bombed from formation when the action of hostilepursuit aviation demands it. Many combinations may beused, and experience, practice, and established records ofresults must be depended upon to assist a commander in hisdecision as to how best to meet each condition.(2) Bombs can be released individually or in train at vary-ing time intervals. Airplanes may be flown individually orin large or small formations. The formations may be ech-


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available data from which to determine the probability of"holes" in the pattern occurring in any one volley. Reliableresults from training and practice must be depended upon toprovide a measure of pattern size, shape, density, uniformity,and the degree of accuracy of placement thereof.

(b) Training and practice should include the several typesof formations with various adjustments as to intervals anddistances between airplanes, and with individual and trainreleases from each airplane. Types of sighting operationshould include principal sighting operation by the leadingbombing team, other bombardiers releasing on their own rangesightings. Some method should be practiced involving a planof convergence of airplanes while approaching the bomb re-lease line, in such manner that each bombing team canperform its own complete sighting operation.(3) Train bombing from formation.-The pattern producedby train release from a single airplane may not be sufficientlywide to secure a required probability of a hit on a point target.It may be desirable for tactical reasons to meet this require-ment by use of several airplanes in formation, particularly towiden the pattern. Increased intervals between airplanes in


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* 146. BOMBING PROBABILITY CALCULATIONS.-The calculationsof bombing probabilities in accordance with the mathematicallaw of errors is a long and tedious task if a broad scope ofconditions is to be covered. The curves shown on chartsNos. 3 to 9, inclusive, enable the bombardment commanderto solve a wide variety of bombing problems with a minimumof mathematical computations. Having a knowledge of thecapabilities of his unit and information of the objective andof the conditions under which the bombing is to be accom-plished, he can then complete his solution by means of thecurves on those charts.* 147. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.-There are included here fourtypical bombing problems and their solutions. Familiaritywith the use of the curves in the solution of problems can beacquired from a study of these problems. Additional prob-lems should be devised and solved as a matter of training.* 148. PROBLEM No. 1.-a. Factors.-It s urgent that a veryimportant building be destroyed. The bombardment com-mander is ordered to destroy the objective with the least pos-sible delay. His objective folder and other sources of data


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TACTICS AND TECHNIQUE OF AIR ATTACK 148-150e. Decision as to directionof approach.-Thedirective fromhigher authority did not specify direction of approach. Studyof objective folder indicates no controlling factor such asknown or expected location of batteries of the antiaircraftdefense guns. The commander considers the probable errors

of his unit in range and deflection. Assume these to be asshown in table V. The range probable error is the smallerso his decision is to approach the bomb release line on a direc-tion parallel to the shorter target dimension.(For solution, see par. 152.)* 149. PROBLEM NO. 2.-A bombardment group commander isdirected to attack and destroy section of a canal lock struc-ture. Details of its location and antiaircraft defenses are fur-nished. Vulnerable dimensions are 100 by 800 feet. A directhit is required. On the basis of the directive and study of thedetails furnished, the commander makes the following deci-sions and applies them to a solution of the force required:a. Degree of certainty of one or more hits-90 percent.

b. Altitude to be used-16,000 feet.c. Size of bomb to be used-2,000-pound.


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c. Four 600-pound bombs will be carried by each airplane.Bombs of each airplane will be released in train with spacingof 100 feet between adjacent bombs. The pattern width foreach flight is 150 feet.(For solution, see par. 152.)* 151. PROBLEM No. 4.-a. A bombardment group com-mander has been given the mission of destroying a bridgewhich is vital to the communication of the enemy. Heavytroop movements are in progress over the bridge. It is nowdefended by antiaircraft machine guns and there is somepursuit aviation defense of the area including the bridge.Antiaircraft artillery cannot be expected to be installed forabout 24 hours. Details of the bridge are furnished and indi-cate the critical point of attack to be a pier whose vulnerabledimensions are 50 by 50 feet. These dimensions include thedanger radius in all directions with respect to the pier and avital part of the structure adjacent to the pier. One hit witha 600-pound bomb within the vital area will suffice to de-stroy the usefulness of the bridge.

b. On the basis of the directive and study of the details


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TACTICS AND

fm 1-10 air corps field manual tactics and technique of air attack 1940.pdf

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