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FINANCE FOR EXECUTIVES

Managing for Value Creation

FINANCE FOR EXECUTIVES

Managing for Value Creation

Gabriel HawawiniGabriel Hawawini

Claude VialletClaude Viallet

Gabriel HawawiniGabriel Hawawini

Claude VialletClaude Viallet

DESIGNING A CAPITAL STRUCTUREDESIGNING A CAPITAL STRUCTUREDESIGNING A CAPITAL STRUCTUREDESIGNING A CAPITAL STRUCTURE

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EXHIBIT 11.1a: JBC’s Earnings Per Share under the Current JBC’s Earnings Per Share under the Current and Proposed Capital Structures and in the and Proposed Capital Structures and in the Absence of Taxes.Absence of Taxes.

RECESSION

Earnings before interest & tax (EBIT) $10,000,000 $30,000,000

$40,000,000

Less interest expenses 0 0

0

Less tax 0 0

0

Equals net earnings $10,000,000 $30,000,000

$40,000,000

Divided by the number of shares 2,000,000 2,000,000

2,000,000

Equals earnings per share (EPS) $5 $15$20

EXPECTED EXPANSION

CURRENT CAPITAL STRUCTURE: NO DEBT AND TWO MILLION SHARES AT $100 PER SHARE

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EXHIBIT 11.1b: JBC’s Earnings Per Share under the Current JBC’s Earnings Per Share under the Current and Proposed Capital Structures and in the and Proposed Capital Structures and in the Absence of Taxes.Absence of Taxes.

RECESSION

Earnings before interest & tax (EBIT) $10,000,000 $30,000,000

$40,000,000

Less interest expenses (10,000,000) (10,000,000)

(10,000,000 )

Less tax 0 0

0

Equals net earnings $0 $20,000,000

$30,000,000

Divided by the number of shares 1,000,000 1,000,000

1,000,000

Equals earnings per share (EPS) $0 $20$30

EXPECTED EXPANSION

PROPOSED CAPITAL STRUCTURE: BORROW $100 MILLION AT 10 PERCENTAND USE THE CASH TO REPURCHASEONE MILLION SHARES AT $100 PER SHARE

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EXHIBIT 11.2: JBC’s Earnings Per Share under Different Capital JBC’s Earnings Per Share under Different Capital Structures.Structures.

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EXHIBIT 11.3: Financial Leverage and Risk.Financial Leverage and Risk.

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EXHIBIT 11.4a: Corporate Leverage versus Homemade Leverage.Corporate Leverage versus Homemade Leverage.

RECESSION

JBC’s net earnings with debt(from Exhibit 11.1) $0 $20,000,000$30,000,000

Divided by the number of shares 1,000,000 1,000,000

1,000,000Equals earnings per share (EPS) $0 $20

$30

Return on investment(EPS divided by $100) 0% 20%30%

EXPECTED EXPANSION

SHAREHOLDER’S RETURN ON A $100 INVESTMENT WHEN JBC BORROWS AT $100 MILLION

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EXHIBIT 11.4b: Corporate Leverage versus Homemade Leverage.Corporate Leverage versus Homemade Leverage.

RECESSION

JBC’s net earnings with no debt(from Exhibit 11.1) $10,000,000 $30,000,000$40,000,000

Divided by the number of shares 2,000,000 2,000,000

2,000,000

Equals earnings per share (EPS) $5 $15

$20

Earnings on two shares $10 $30

$40

Less interest payment of 10% on $100 ($10) ($10)

($10 )

Net earnings $0 $20

$30

Return on investment(net earnings divided by $100) 0% 20%30%

EXPECTED EXPANSION

SHAREHOLDER’S RETURN ON A $100 NET INVESTMENT WHEN JBC MAINTAINS THE ALL-EQUITY CAPITAL STRUCTURE: THE INVESTOR BUYS TWO SHARES OF JBC, ONE WITH HIS OWN MONEY AND THE OTHER WITH BORROWED MONEY.

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EXHIBIT 11.5: JBC’s Cost of Equity and WACC for Two Debt-to-JBC’s Cost of Equity and WACC for Two Debt-to-Equity Ratios, Equity Ratios, rrAA = 15% and = 15% and kkDD = 10%. = 10%.

DEBT-TO-EQUITY 0.20 DEBT 0.50 DEBT RATIO 0.80 EQUITY 0.50 EQUITY

Cost of equity 15% + (15% – 10%) × 0.25 = 15% + (15% – 10%) × 1.00 =

from equation 11.2

Weighted average

cost of capital 16.25% × 0.80 + 10% × 0.20 =20% × 0.50 + 10% × 0.50 =

from the rightside of equation 11.1

= 0.25 = 1.00

16.25% 20%

15% 15%

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EXHIBIT 11.6: The Cost of Capital as a Function of the Debt-to-Equity The Cost of Capital as a Function of the Debt-to-Equity Ratio According to the Pizza Theory and in the Absence Ratio According to the Pizza Theory and in the Absence of Taxes.of Taxes.

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EXHIBIT 11.7: JBC’s Share Price for Different Capital Structure.JBC’s Share Price for Different Capital Structure.

Market Amount Market Number PriceCapital Financial Value of of Debt Value of of per

Structure Risk Assets Financing Equity Shares Share(1) (2) (1) – (2) = (3) (4) (3)/ (4)

No debt none $200 million none $200 million 2,000,000 $100

20% debt low $200 million $40 million $160 million 1,600,000 $100

50% debt higher $200 million $100 million $100 million 1,000,000 $100

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EXHIBIT 11.8a: Effects of Changes in Capital Structure on the Firm’s Earnings Effects of Changes in Capital Structure on the Firm’s Earnings Per Share, Share Price, Market Value, and Cost of Capital Per Share, Share Price, Market Value, and Cost of Capital Without Corporate Taxes and with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Without Corporate Taxes and with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Rate.Rate.

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EXHIBIT 11.8b:Effects of Changes in Capital Structure on the Firm’s Earnings Effects of Changes in Capital Structure on the Firm’s Earnings Per Share, Share Price, Market Value, and Cost of Capital Per Share, Share Price, Market Value, and Cost of Capital Without Corporate Taxes and with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Without Corporate Taxes and with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Rate.Rate.

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EXHIBIT 11.9:The Value of JBC as a Function of Its Debt-Assets Ratio in the The Value of JBC as a Function of Its Debt-Assets Ratio in the Presence of Taxes.Presence of Taxes.

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EXHIBIT 11.10a: JBC’s Share Price for Different Capital Structures JBC’s Share Price for Different Capital Structures with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Rate.with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Rate.

AMOUNT NUMBER UNLEVEREDCAPITAL OF DEBT OF SHARES VALUE OF

STRUCTURE FINANCING OUTSTANDING ASSETS(1) (2) (3)

No debt No debt 2,000,000 $100 million

20% debt $20 million 1,600,000 $100 million

50% debt $50 million 1,000,000 $100 million

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EXHIBIT 11.10b: JBC’s Share Price for Different Capital Structures JBC’s Share Price for Different Capital Structures with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Rate.with a 50 Percent Corporate Tax Rate.

PRESENT VALUE LEVEREDOF INTEREST VALUE OF VALUE OF SHARETAX SHIELD ASSETS EQUITY PRICE

(4) (3) + (4) = (5) (5) – (1) = (6) (6)/(2)

Zero $100 million $100 million $50

$10 million $110 million $90 million $56.25

$25 million $125 million $75 million $75

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EXHIBIT 11.11:The Cost of Capital as a Function of the Debt-to-Equity Ratio The Cost of Capital as a Function of the Debt-to-Equity Ratio According to the Pizza Theory and in the Presence of Corporate According to the Pizza Theory and in the Presence of Corporate Taxes.Taxes.

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EXHIBIT 11.12: JBC’s Cost of Equity and WACC for Two Debt-to-JBC’s Cost of Equity and WACC for Two Debt-to-Equity Ratios, Equity Ratios, rrAA = 15% and = 15% and kkDD = 10% and T = 10% and TCC = 50%. = 50%.

Value of Equity from Exhibit 11.11.Value of Equity from Exhibit 11.11.

AMOUNT BORROWED $20 MILLION $50 MILLION

Value of equity $90 million $75 million

Debt-to-equity ratio $20 million $50 million$90 million $75 million

D $20 million $50 millionE + D $110 million $50 million

Cost of equity 15% + (15% – 10%) (1 – 50%) × 0.22 15% + (15% – 10%)(1 – 50%) × 0.67from equation 11.5

Weighted average costof capital from 15.56% × 0.82 + 5% × 0.18 16.67% × 0.60 + 5% × 0.40equation 11.6

= 15.56% = 16.67%

= 13.66% = 12.0%

= 0.22

= 0.18

= 0.67

= 0.40

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EXHIBIT 11.13:The Value of a Firm in the Presence of Corporate Taxes and The Value of a Firm in the Presence of Corporate Taxes and Financial Distress Costs as a Function of its Debt-to-Assets Ratio.Financial Distress Costs as a Function of its Debt-to-Assets Ratio.

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EXHIBIT 11.14:The Cost of Capital as a Function of the Debt-to-Equity Ratio in The Cost of Capital as a Function of the Debt-to-Equity Ratio in the Presence of Corporate Taxes and Financial Distress Costs.the Presence of Corporate Taxes and Financial Distress Costs.

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EXHIBIT 11.15a: Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.

FACTORS THAT FAVOR BORROWING

• Primary factorCorporate income tax Debt is a device that allows firms to reduce their corporate income tax because interest expenses are tax deductible whereas dividends and retained earnings are not. However, the interest tax shield at the corporate level may be reduced by the impact of personal income taxes.

• Important secondary factorsAgency costs of equity Debt is a device that helps reduce the agency costs of equity arising from the tendency of managers to make decisions that are not always in the best interest of shareholders. Debt increases the firm’s value because debt servicing imposes focus and discipline on managers, who will then be less likely to “waste” shareholders’ funds.

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EXHIBIT 11.15b: Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.

FACTORS THAT FAVOR BORROWING (Continued)

Retention of control Debt allows current owners to retain control of the firm. This factor, however, may reduce share price because of the inability of outsiders to take over the company when its ownership is not dispersed.

Information asymmetry Issuing debt instead of equity allows the firm to avoid the drop in share price that usually accompanies a new equity issue. This drop occurs because outside shareholders think that managers issue share only when they believe the firm’s shares are overvalued.

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EXHIBIT 11.15c: Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.

FACTORS THAT DISCOURAGE (EXCESSIVE) BORROWING

• Primary factorCosts of financial distress Excessive debt increases the probability that the firm will experience financial distress. And the higher the probability of financial distress, the larger the present value of the expected costs associated with financial distress and the lower the value of the firm. Firms that face higher probability of financial distress include companies with pretax operating profits that are cyclical and volatile, companies with a relatively large amount of intangible and illiquid assets, and companies with unique products and services or with products that require after-sale service and repair.

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EXHIBIT 11.15d: Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.Factors Affecting the Capital Structure Decision.

FACTORS THAT DISCOURAGE (EXCESSIVE) BORROWING (Continued)

• Important secondary factorsAgency costs of debt Additional borrowing comes with strings attached. Lenders impose increasingly constraining and costly protective covenants in new debt contracts to protect themselves against the potential misallocation of borrowed funds by managers acting on behalf of shareholders.

Dividend policy Excessive debt may constrain the firm’s ability to adopt a stable dividend policy.

Financial flexibility Excessive debt may reduce the firm’s financial flexibility, that is, its ability to quickly seize a value-creating investment opportunity.