ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND

ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING DEVELOPMENT AND

MANAGEMENT

The Factors Contributing For the Expansion of Informal

Settlements: A Case Study of Haramaya Town, Oromia-Ethiopia

BY: Getahun Zewdu

ID.No: ECSU/1400880

Advisor: Mr. Henock Adamu

A Thesis Submitted to College of Urban Development and Engineering,

Ethiopian Civil Service University, in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Award of a Master Science Degree in Urban

Housing Development and Management

January, 2017

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Declaration

I, Getahun Zewdu registration number ECSU-1400880 do hereby declared that this thesis

is my original work and that is not submitted partially or in full by any other person for an

award of degree in any other university or institution.

Name of participant Getahun Zewdu Signature __________ Date _____________

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a University

supervisor.

Name of advisor Mr. Henock Adamu Signature __________ Date _______________

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Approval

The undersigned certify that they have read and hereby recommended to the Ethiopian

civil service university to accept the research submitted by Getahun Zewdu and entitled

“The Factors Contributing For the Expansion of Informal Settlements, in Haramaya

Town” Impartial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a masters degree in

Urban Housing Development and Management.

Name of supervisor Mr. Henock Adamu Signature _________ Date____________

Name of internal examiner ___________________Signature _______Date ___________

Name of external examiner __________________Signature ________Date ___________

Name of head of department ________________Signature_______Date ___________

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Abstract

This study was undertaken to assess the causal factors that contribute to the expansion

informal settlement at Haramaya town. The objectives of the study were aimed to examine

trends of informal settlers, identify causes of informal settlement and analyze methods of

land acquisition by informal settlers in the town. For broader understanding and an in-

depth insight on the issue at hand, different kinds of literature were reviewed. The study

applied descriptive research design using both qualitative and quantitative research

approaches. A total of 145 (134 households, 8 officials and experts, 3 farmers/inhabitant)

respondents have involved a simple random sampling technique; and from the non-

probability sampling, a purposive sampling technique was used to select the concerned

officials and experts from different offices and stakeholders. The result of the study

indicates that informal settlement caused by extremely fast growth of Haramaya

populations which is highly aggravated the problems of access to the land followed by

long process of municipality to access land, Shortage of income, far more deficits in

housing supply and high rent, high rising of land market in lease competition and fear of

lease interest which is forbidden by Muslim religion, lack of alternative ways to have

owners of house rather than competition of lease and fear of dispossessor from their plot

that encroached to urban were the major factors that contribute to the expansion of

informal settlement. Thus, based on the findings of the study the town administration

should assure good governance, provide adequate, flexible and affordable land for

housing by participating stakeholders, Facilitate allotment manner of urban land to highly

discriminated groups, create strong urban-rural linkage and strength local administration

and increase the supply of land for urban dwellers were recommended.

Key Words: Informal settlement, Squatting and Expansion

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Acknowledgement

The success of this research work is the cumulative output of the contributions of different

individuals, who must be acknowledged. First and foremost, I thank my God. Then I wish

to address my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, Ms. Henock

Adamu, for his comfortable academic supervision and constructive comment.

I would also like to thank my whole family. My wife W/ro Genet Bitew deserves special

thanks for her continued encouragement without her patience and timeless assistance.

Your patience, understanding, and concern will always be remembered with warmth.

My thanks goes to Haramaya town administration office particularly Haramaya town

mayor office and municipal office for their willingness and cooperation in responding to

the data collection instruments.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge all individuals those assisted me in the course of my

study and all my friends, and other relatives who were sharing my pain up to the end of the

work.

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Table of Content

Content Pages

Declaration ............................................................................................................................. i

Approval ................................................................................................................................ ii

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgement................................................................................................................ iv

Table of Content .................................................................................................................... v

List of Table ...................................................................................................................... viii

List of Figure ........................................................................................................................ ix

List of Annexes ..................................................................................................................... x

List of Acronyms ................................................................................................................. xi

Chapter One: Introduction..................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1

1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................... 4

1.3.1 The General Objective of the Study ..................................................................... 4

1.3.2 The Specific Objectives of the Study Area ........................................................... 4

1.4. Research Questions .................................................................................................... 5

1.5. Significance of the Study ........................................................................................... 5

1.6. Scope of the Study ...................................................................................................... 5

1.7. Description of the Study Area .................................................................................... 6

1.7.1. Location of the Study Area .................................................................................. 6

1.7.2. Foundation ........................................................................................................... 6

1.7.3. Demographics ...................................................................................................... 6

1.7.4. Topography .......................................................................................................... 6

1.8. The Limitation of the Study ....................................................................................... 7

1.9. Organization of the Study ........................................................................................... 8

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature ......................................................................... 9

2.1. Nature and Conditions of Informal Settlements and Squatting .................................. 9

2.1.1 Definition of Informal Settlements ....................................................................... 9

2.1.2. Characteristics of Informal Settlers/Squatting ................................................... 11

2.2. General Characteristics of Informal Settlers/Squatting ............................................ 11

2.2.1. Physical Characteristics ..................................................................................... 11

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2.2.2. Social Characteristics ......................................................................................... 12

2.2.3. Legal Characteristics.......................................................................................... 12

2.3. Establishment and Expansion of Informal Resolution ............................................. 12

2.4. Causes of Informal Settlements and Squatting ......................................................... 13

2.5. Settlement Upgrading ............................................................................................... 18

2.6. Research Gap ............................................................................................................ 21

2.7 Operational Definition of Terms ............................................................................... 21

Chapter Three: Research Methodology .............................................................................. 22

3.1 Research Approach ................................................................................................ 22

3.2 Research Methods .................................................................................................. 22

3.3 Sample Design ........................................................................................................... 22

3.3.1. Population of Universe ...................................................................................... 23

3.3.2. Sampling Frame ................................................................................................. 23

3.3.3. Sampling Unit .................................................................................................... 23

3.3.4. Sampling Technique .......................................................................................... 23

3.3.5. Sample Size........................................................................................................ 24

3.3.6 Sample ................................................................................................................ 25

3.4 Source of Data ........................................................................................................... 25

3.5 Data Collection Instruments ...................................................................................... 26

3.6 Data Analysis and Interpret ....................................................................................... 26

3.7 Data Presentation ....................................................................................................... 26

3.8 Methods of Ensuring Data Quality ............................................................................ 26

3.9 Limitation .................................................................................................................. 27

3.10 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 27

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Interpretation ................................................................. 28

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 28

4.2 Response Rate ........................................................................................................... 28

4.3. Socio-Demographic Profile ...................................................................................... 28

4.3.1 Age Level and Sex Ratio of Respondent ............................................................ 29

4.3.2. Educational level of Respondents ...................................................................... 29

4.3.3. Respondent‟s Employment Condition and Monthly Income Level .................. 30

4.3.4. Respondent‟s Marital Status and Family Size ................................................... 31

4.4. Result and Findings .................................................................................................. 32

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4.4.1 The Trends of Informal Settlers in the town ....................................................... 32

4.4.1.1 Examine the Supply of Land for Informal Settlements? .............................. 32

4.4.1.2. Opportunity to Equal Access to Land for the Informal Settler‟s ................ 33

4.4.1.3 The Root Causes of Discrimination for an unequal Opportunity in the

Informal Access of Land .......................................................................................... 33

4.4.2. Causes of Informal Settlement ........................................................................... 34

4.4.2.1. Respondents Alternative to Legally Access Land in the Study Area. ........ 35

4.4.2.2 Occupancy Area of Informal Settlements .................................................... 36

4.4.2.3 Housing Condition of Informal Settlement: ................................................. 36

4.4.3 Methods of Informally Land Acquisition by Informal Settler ............................ 37

4.4.3.1 The Year Respondent‟s had Built their Houses in Haramaya Town ........... 37

4.4.3.2 The Place Where Respondent Lived before Informally Settled................... 39

4.4.3.3 The Respondents Reasons, why they Choose to Settled on an Informal Way

.................................................................................................................................. 39

4.5 Interpretation and Discussion .................................................................................... 41

4.5.1. Examine the Trends of Informal Settlers in the Town....................................... 41

4.5.2. Causes of Informal Settlement ........................................................................... 43

4.5.3. Methods of Land Acquisition by Informal Settlers. .......................................... 45

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation ................................................................ 48

5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 48

5.1.1 Examine the Trends of Informal Settlers in the Town........................................ 48

5.1.2 Causes of Informal Settlement ............................................................................ 49

5.1.3 Methods of Land Acquisition by Informal Settlers ............................................ 49

5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 50

References ........................................................................................................................... 52

Annexes

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List of Table

Table Page

Table 3.1: Sample Size and Sampling Techniques .................................................................. 25

Table 4.1: Respondent‟s Age level and Sex Ratio: .................................................................. 29

Table 4.2: Marital Status and Family Size of Respondent: ...................................................... 31

Table 4.3: Equal Access to Land for all Groups of the Respondent ....................................... 33

Table 4.4: Alternativeness of Land Access for the Household in the Town ........................... 35

Table 4.5: Occupancy Area of Informal Settler Housing in m2 .............................................. 36

Table 4.6: Housing Condition of Informal Settlement............................................................. 36

Table 4.7: Distribution of Household Heads by Reasons for Informally Settled .................... 40

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List of Figure Figure Page

Figure 1.1: location Map of Study Area..................................................................................... 7

Figure 4.1: Respondents Educational Status ............................................................................ 29

Figure 4.2: Informal Settlers Distribution of Employment and Monthly Income level .......... 30

Figure 4.3: Examine the Supply of Land ................................................................................. 32

Figure 4.4: The Root Causes of Discrimination to access land ............................................... 33

Figure 4.5: Reason for Informal settlement ............................................................................. 34

Figure 4.6: Method of Acquiring the Plot by Informal Settlers ............................................... 37

Figure 4.7: Distribution of Households heads by the Year they Informally Settled ................ 38

Figure 4.8: Place where Respondent lived before Informally Settled ..................................... 39

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List of Annexes

Annexes - 1

Appendix A: A Questioner to be Filled by the Households of Informal Settlers.

Appendix B: Interview Questionnaire to be answered by the Municipality and Kebele

Manager.

Appendix C: Interview Questionnaire to be Answered by Land Administration and

Development .

Appendix D: Interview Questionnaire to be answered by Farmers/Inhabitant

Annexes- 2: Sample Images of Informal Houses in Haramaya Town.

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List of Acronyms

BPR Business Process Reengineering

CA Cellular Automata

CSA Central Statistical Agency

GIS Geographical information system

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

ISGM Informal Settlement Growth Model

PPP Public Private Partnership

SAPs Structural Adjustment Policies

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Studies

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNESCAP United Nations Economical and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

UNHSP United Nations Human Settlements Programme

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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

On a global scale, informal settlements are a significant problem, especially in third world

countries. In Ethiopia, the informal settlement is socially, politically and economically

growing problem. Informal land settlement usually refers to residential areas where a

group of housing units has been constructed on land to which the occupants have no legal

claim, or which they occupy illegally (UN-habitat, 2006:109). The rapid rates of

urbanization and unplanned expansion of cities have resulted in several negative

consequences, particularly in developing countries. Most cities in developing countries are

expanding horizontally and the population is moving to unplanned settlements on the

peripheries at the expense of agricultural lands and areas of natural beauty (Lowton,

1997).

Informal settlements are characterized mostly by the low-quality houses and the lack of, or

inadequate infrastructure and social services. Informal settlements also referred to as

squatter housing or shanty towns are dense settlements built and occupied illegally on

lands. They are impermanent, but safe alternatives of shelter for the urban poor who are

denied access to housing. Informal settlements occur when the current land administration

and planning fails to address the needs of the whole community. These areas are

characterized by rapid, unstructured and unplanned development (Gondo 2009:32).

Informal settlements are established due to various reasons and common throughout the

cities of World countries. First, the large influx of people from rural to urban areas.

Second, the financial limitation of the national and municipal governments to provide

planned urban houses to the majority of urban people. Third, the high cost of even housing

for the urban poor. Fourth, the marginalization of urban land requests of the poor through

unaffordable land lease policies. Finally, high population growth is the other major reason.

Squatter settlements are, thus, often the only affordable option used by the majority

inhabitants of many cities of developing countries (UNHCR, 1999:60).

Informal settlements can be categorized along the legitimacy of land use into two main

groups: Firstly squatter settlements on illegally occupied plots without the right to use the

land at all, and secondly settlements on land which is not allocated for dwelling purposes

but is legal or at least semi-legally possessed by its owner. The definition of a squatting

varies widely from country to country and depends on a sort of defining parameters. In

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general, it is considered as a residential house in an urban locality inhabited by the very

poor who have no access to the tenured land of their own, and hence "squat" on vacant

land, either private or public (Srinivas 1999:11).

A squatter is one who resides on a property to which he or she has no title, right or leases a

person who settles in or occupies the property with no legal claim to the property.

Squatting is generally linked with or affected by factors such as increasing of rural-urban

migration, the high cost of the formal land market, a cheap land market with farmers,

economic status, social conditions, custom, traditions, governmental and local urban land

and housing policies and geographical conditions. Hence, a concerted and integrated effort

of different concerned sectors including the occupants is necessary for an effective

housing program and improvement (Dwyer, 1975:7).

There is no single theory that can fully explain the emergence and the expansion of

informal settlements. Yet, within developing cities it is usually argued that informal

settlements are the outcome of a compounding of factors such as poor management,

especially failed urban policies, poor administration, corruption, inappropriate regulations,

dysfunctional land markets, social insecurity, poor economic performance and lack of

political will (Ashenafi, 2015:2)

Haramaya town is characterized by high expansion of informal settlements because of

different factors. Therefore, this study was aimed to assess the factors contributing to the

expansion of informal settlement in Haramaya town and based on research findings

attempt to recommend all possible solutions for the future development.

1.2 Problem Statement

Informal settlements are described as illegal and spontaneous shantytowns lacking decent

services and infrastructure. The improvements in housing that are important to improving

the quality of life among the poor often do not receive the attention from policy makers

(Bahiru, 2008). As mentioned by Lamba et.al (2005), the urban land administration, which

is empowered with the issuance of the development permit, shall ensure that the applicant

has a legitimate right to the land to which she/he applied for. This means the requirement

of a legitimate building are basically two: one the land on which the development activity

(building) is going to be erected must be acquired through legal means (such as a

government grant, lease contract) as per the existing laws; second, in order to affect the

building activity, it needs a building permit development authorization. This authorization

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is needed not only for the erecting of new buildings but also for modifying and

demolishing them as well.

Therefore, informal settlements partially could result because of the requirements and the

inability of the poor to fulfill them. If this continues, the establishment of squatter

settlements will become major problems in the town. Likewise, in Haramaya town,

squatter houses were commonly known as “moonshine houses” since people squat on the

land during the dark hours of the night. As mentioned in Ethiopian Proclamation no

574/2007, under article 25 (1), “no development activity may be carried out in an urban

center without a prior development authorization”. According to article 24 of same

proclamation “development” means the carrying out of the building, engineering works,

mining or other operations on or below ground, or the making of any substantial change in

the life of any structures or neighborhoods.

Haramaya town is one of the urban centers with the fast growth of informal settlements in

the country which is caused by fast population growth. Since Haramaya town is located on

between DireDewa and Harar, which is in the export-import corridor, investment is

increasing from time to time. As a result, people migrate from rural and urban areas in

search of jobs. This migration supported by fast natural growth lead to increasing

population in the town. In addition to this, the development of informal settlement is

increasing because of its being the trade and park center of East Hararghe Zone. The

majority of the government employee and those that have a housing problem prefer to live

in Haramaya town which creates access to the land is too difficult for the urban poor, far

more deficits in housing supply and high rent for decent accommodation have left the poor

with limited choice which includes squatting illegally on private or public land.

(Haramaya town Administration GTP one Report, 2015)

According the structural plan of Haramaya town, the population growth of Haramaya town

is extremely fast which doubled itself between 1994 to 2007 E.C. This created shortage of

housing supply and a shortage of land supply for settlement. This aggravated the problem

that resulted in a fast growing of the informal settlement. Most of the residents live in the

peripheral area are established on agricultural land informally purchased from farmers and

from the landowners of Haramaya town of the study areas. In addition to these poor

migrants from the bordering rural kebele‟s migrate to the urban. The poor migrants cannot

involve informal land market rather they build overhead shelter informally. The life

conditions of the informally settled people are getting worst from time to time. Provision

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of different infrastructures such as light, water and the health service is getting worst for

these informally settled dwellers. Hence, to minimize the expansion of Informal

settlements and squatting, this study explored the causes behind such practices and

proposed possible solutions to concerned government bodies and other stakeholders

particularly in Haramaya town.

To overcome these problems the government formulated policies, improved housing

provision and creation of jobs to the poor. Even though efforts were made to overcome the

fast growth of informal settlement still the problem prevails in Haramaya town. These

problems need to be assessed.

Even though there were efforts in studying the major factors that contribute to the

expansion of informal settlement in the case of Haramaya town and its surrounding area,

there were no so far comprehensive studies conducted to assess the root cause for the

current alarmingly increase of informal settlement in the study area.

Therefore, this study identified the major factors for the expansion of informal settlements

in Haramaya town. Moreover, it is an important area to be researched and the appropriate

answer must put forward because, no research is conducted regarding the root cause of

informal settlement in the study area. All these currently existing situation of the

Haramaya town and other housing conditions were initiated to conduct this study. To fill

this gap, assess and find a solution to the following basic questions were set.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 The General Objective of the Study

The main aim of this study was to understand the major factors that contribute for the

expansion of informal settlement in the Haramaya town.

1.3.2 The Specific Objectives of the Study Area

The specific objectives that were attained by the research are:

To examine the trend of informal settlers in the town.

To assess factors that contributes to the expansion of informal settlement.

To investigate how urban land is illegally captured by squatters for housing

purposes.

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1.4. Research Questions

Based on the background of the study and a statement of the problem, the following

research questions were addressed.

What are the major factors that contribute for the expansion of informal

settlements in the town?

There are sub-questions that originate from the main question that also seeks to address in

order to arrive at an informed conclusion:

What is the status of informal settlements in the study area?

What are the factors that contribute to the expansion of informal settlement?

How the informal settlers do captures the urban land informally?

1.5. Significance of the Study

Housing is one of the basic necessities that human beings want to satisfy their physical,

social, economic and psychological needs. Even though the informal settlement solves the

prevailing shelter problems, they also have a socioeconomic, political and environmental

impact on both houses and the environment. Generally, the result of this research is

expected to have the following contribution: Create awareness among the municipal

officials, provisional officials and societies about factors of informal settlements in

Haramaya town; the finding of this study can help or assists the administrators of the

Haramaya town, policy makers and the society in the designing intervention strategies and

to provide information for the further researchers about deepest problem of illegal land

owner‟s; it can have great impact of reference and give feedback for the current situation;

the result of the study may motivate the stakeholders and it can innovate the governmental

and Nongovernmental organization towards participating on social, economic and political

problems of the community related to urban land administration.

1.6. Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is restricted to identifying the causes of informal settlement of

Haramaya town and forwarding recommendation to promote legal ground of settlement

and reduce informality. In other words, this study focused on assessing the causes behind

the expansion of informal settlements which were established in the border (unplanned)

area of the Haramaya town and hence it did not focus on the old town area or planned to

house in the town center. It mainly focused on the description of the condition of the

dwellers.

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1.7. Description of the Study Area

1.7.1. Location of the Study Area

This study was carried out in Haramaya town which is located in East Hararghe zone in

the Oromia Regional state at a distance of 495 km from Addis Ababa along the main road

that stretches from Addis Ababa/Adama to Harar, Jigjiga and it is connected with the

Somaliland, Barbara border, and also located in between Dire Dewa 32 km East and Harar

17km west. This makes a trade center and adjacent or disjunction town and investment

center.

1.7.2. Foundation

The name Haramaya is taken by the words of Oromo language that combine Haroo and

Maaya, The prefix-Hara means in English lake, Maya is the Oromo man used to live near

the Lake since the time of immemorial. So the name Haramaya is the combination of Hara

and Maya. Haramaya was found estimated in 1880E.C. (Haramaya town structure plan

2015, by Oromia planning institute.)

1.7.3. Demographics

The total population of Haramaya town is estimated by 2014/15, 64,223 which of 46.7

percent were estimated to have been males and 53.3 percent females. 12,530 additional

households 343 housing backlogs with the area of 2186.5hectares, Population density

132p/km2 (Haramaya town structure plan 2015, by Oromia planning institute)

1.7.4. Topography

Haramaya Town has ups and downs (undulation features). In its topography the average

altitude of built able area is about 2005m – 2150m meters above sea level. And the

longitudinal location of the town is 9023‟ 50‟‟N, 42

000‟30‟‟E. (Haramaya town structural

plan by Oromia Urban Planning Institution, July 2015)

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Figure 1.1: location Map of study Area

Source: Extracted from Ethio GIS raw data modified by the researcher using GIS software, 2016.

1.8. The Limitation of the Study

In the way of conduction of this Research, since the study concerned with factors that

contributing to the expansion of informal settlement, the researcher comes across many

problems. There was a lack of organized and adequate data in the Haramaya town

concerning informal settlement. Respondents from the office were not willing to give

necessary information so as the issue was more sensitive to solve this problem. Related to

the data collection, in the case of the questioner, some respondent cannot able to read and

write the question correctly. There was threaten of respondents to supply accurate

information and also they were not willing to respond accordingly because feared of

eviction by the city administration. Political instability of the study area was also a

constraint.

To mitigate those shortcomings, the researcher made clear the objective of the study to the

respondents and stakeholders. Additionally, the researcher explained how much their

input would be helpful for the research study.

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1.9. Organization of the Study

These are organized into five Chapters. Chapter one deals with the introduction of the

study, statement of the problem, the objective of the study, a significance of the study,

scope and limitation of the study, the definition of key terms. Chapter two present the

review of related literature. The third chapter details the methods to accomplish the

research. Chapter four deals with results interpretation, Chapter five present conclusion

and recommendations.

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Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

The literature review contains two parts-theoretical and empirical literature reviews. The

theoretical part of literature review asses‟ definition, basic theories and concepts of

Informal Settlement. Empirical literature review indicates draw a lesson about Factors

that contribute to the expansion of informal settlement from international and local level

experiences. The purpose of this literature review is to show basic theories and concepts

of the research obtained from different sources. The researcher has utilized books, reports,

previous studies, websites, and other materials for organizing the research.

2.1. Nature and Conditions of Informal Settlements and Squatting

2.1.1 Definition of Informal Settlements

A clear definition of informal settlement is hardly available. Many synonymous words

have been used in literature to refer to informal settlements. These include spontaneous,

irregular, unplanned, marginal, and squatter settlements (Lamba 2005: 2). Some literature

have used the term slums and informal settlements interchangeably (UNHSP, 2003).

While a clear definition for informal settlement is still elusive, some organizations have

given a description of informal settlements and slums.

The UN-Habitat categories informal settlements into two, one is settlements where land

and/or building have been occupied without the permission of the owner. The other is

Illegal land development settlements where initial occupation is legal but where

unauthorized land developments have occurred (e.g. Change of land use that breach

zoning plans, building extensions without building permit, subdivisions without regard to

services and infrastructure, etc.) Informal settlements (often referred to as squatter

settlements, slum areas, or shanty towns) are dense settlements comprising communities

housed in self-constructed shelters under conditions of informal or traditional land tenure.

They are common features in developing countries and are typically the product of an

urgent need for shelter by the urban poor. As such they are characterized by a dense

proliferation of small, makeshift shelters built from diverse materials, degradation of the

local ecosystem and by severe social problems. In Ethiopia, they are known as illegal

settlements or commonly “moonshine houses” since people squat on the land during the

dark hours of the night (UNDP, 1998:119).

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The informal settlement has never been well defined in Ethiopian laws. However, one can

gather its nature from the reading of the current Urban Planning legislation. Proclamation

574/2007 that concerns with urban planning, under article 25(1), provides “no

development activity may be carried out in an urban center without a prior development

authorization.” And according to article 24 of same proclamation “development” means

the carrying out of the building, engineering works, mining or other operations on or

below ground, or the making of any substantial change in the life of any structures or

neighborhoods.

The urban land administration which is empowered with the issuance of the development

permit shall ensure that the applicant has a legitimate right to the land to which she applied

for. This means the requirement of a legitimate building are basically two: one the land on

which the development activity (building) is going to be erected must be acquired through

legal means (such as government grant, lease contract) as per the existing laws; second, in

order to effect them building activity, she needs a building permit development

authorization. This authorization is needed not only for the erecting of new buildings but

also for modifying and demolishing them as well (Daniel, 2011:37). Hence, based on this

premise we can conclude that informal settlement in Ethiopia covers houses which are

built on government, communal or privately held land against the will of the holder and/or

without having a development authorization building permit. While the former focuses on

the absence of a right to the bare land on which the house is built, the latter focuses on the

need of proper planning and building permits. Based on this working definition, therefore,

the whole forms of informality are divided into two major groups:

Group 1: includes those informal settlements which have been occupied and built without

having any legal basis or evidence accepted by the law (such as title deed/ book and

building permit). These settlements are commonly called as “squatter settlements” and

mainly found in the expansion areas of a city.

Group 2: includes settlements which are partially illegal/informal. The illegality comes

from so many sources. For example, they can have the legal right (title deed/ book) but not

building permit or having both the title deed /book and building permit but built, expand,

upgrade, change the shape and size without the proper legal procedures/permit. Such

settlements are mainly found in the inner part of a city (Stien et.al, 2003:12).

As mentioned by the federal and state lease laws of Ethiopia, there were four means of

urban land acquisition: auction, negotiation, assignment and lot. Now, since most of them

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open a door for corruption, the law recognizes tender (auction) and allotment (land lease

transfer without auction) as the only two basic means of leasehold right transfer from

government to citizens. As a matter of principle, every land needed for residential,

business (agriculture, industry, or service), and others will be transferred by tender.

Bidders will use the minimum lease price mentioned above as a base to offer their price.

However, as an exception, city municipalities may give land by allotment to selected areas

of paramount importance to society such as government offices, religious institutions,

public residential housing programs, diplomatic mission and so on. Besides a person, who

is displaced from his house as a result of urban renewal (like in the case of expropriation),

shall get land by allotment. All except the last would pay lease price based on the

benchmark set by the city. (Ashenafi G., 2015:59).

2.1.2. Characteristics of Informal Settlers/Squatting

As Srinivas (1999), a squatting is defined as residential houses which have developed

without legal claims to the land and/or permission from the concerned authorities to build;

as a result of their illegal or semi-legal status, infrastructure and services are usually

inadequate. There are essentially three defining characteristics that help us understand

squatter housing: the physical, the social and the legal with the reasons behind them being

interrelated.

2.2. General Characteristics of Informal Settlers/Squatting

It has essentially three defining characteristics that help us understand it; these are the

Physical, the Social and the legal with the reasons behind them being interrelated

(Srinivas, 2005).

2.2.1. Physical Characteristics

An informal settlement, due to its inherent (non-legal) status, has services and

infrastructure below the adequate or minimum levels, such services are both network and

social infrastructure like water supply, sanitation, electricity, road and drainage, school,

health center, market place etc. Water supply, for example, to the individual household

may not be afforded. Yet, few public or community stand by pipes may have been

provided, utilizing either the City networks or a hand pump itself. On the other hand,

informal networks for the supply can be applied if water may available (Srinivas, 2005).

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2.2.2. Social Characteristics

Informal settlement households belong to the lower income group, either working and

wage earning or in various sector enterprises. On average, most of them earn at or near

the minimum pay level. Family income level can also be high due to perhaps income earn

and part-time jobs. Informal settlers are predominantly migrants, rural, urban or urban-

urban; but may also be second or third generation informal settlers (Srinivas, 2005).

2.2.3. Legal Characteristics

The key characteristic that delineates informal settlement is the lack of ownership of the

land parcel on which they have built their houses. These could be vacant government or

public land when the country is not under productive use by the proprietor; it is

appropriated by the informal owner for building houses (Srinivas, 2005).

2.3. Establishment and Expansion of Informal Resolution

Mechanism of land acquisition through inheritances and gifts in most cases is normal,

and in some systems they are legal and it is the right of the original owner to act thus.

Even though the nature of Subdivision of land for inheritances and gifts appear to be slow

their contribution to the establishment and expansion of informal settlements is high. The

other mechanism of land airing is through organized way of urban land invasion, this

scheme is obviously illegal from the outset and they produce their own urban informal

neighborhoods on both suitable and unsuitable sites they occupied. This mechanism often

depends on situations like conflict over the ownership of land, but it is not common in all

urban centers. For example, land encroachment in an informal settlement in Egypt took

place as soon as land tenure was in question. During the transaction of land, property

among various governors, the shift of the economic system or regulation takes place

when the national or local election is conducted inside the country, Solomon (2004, cited

in Gossaye, 2007). The other one is the most complicated mechanism of acquiring land,

which is an informal land market. Its complication is because of three major reasons; I)

Land can be bought directly from the original owner and transferred to many other

owners, II) It is the second stage and way of land transfer from lands acquired through

inheritance, gifts, and land obtained through invasion to new owners as stated by Payne

then later, these processes became commercialized and entry was only possible at a cost

determined by the informal market. III) It is fast and unpredictable. Therefore, many

sources put informal land markets first for the formation and expansion of informal

settlements.

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2.4. Causes of Informal Settlements and Squatting

Literature shows different causes for the creation of informal settlement. It is true that

informal settlements occur when the current land administration and planning system fails

to address the needs of the whole community. When the system fails to address social

housing needs, then people use their own paths in settling on somebody else‟s land. Such

settlements are the critical factors affecting the formation of informal settlements are

notably related to several major interrelated challenges. Studies show that rapid

urbanization and the influx of people to the urban area, lack of development control

mechanisms, inadequate formal land distribution, lack of resources, poverty and social

cultural factors are major causes of informal settlements (Goz, 2005). Similarly, in regions

of Europe, Africa, Central and South America or Asia insufficient planning and unrealistic

zoning regulation, inconsistent and complex legislation, unnecessary bureaucracy for land

development and permitting, marginalization, poverty and lack of financing mechanism

For affordable housing, illegal subdivision and construction on agricultural lands, political

reluctance to confront the situation and lack of important spatial information is the

common for informal settlement. However, informal settlements do not have the same

characteristics for the formation and expansion everywhere. However, some major Causes

of Informal Settlements and Squatting are:

1. Population Growth

A century ago, only 4% of the world‟s population was urban. Today, cities are home to

half of its inhabitants. The explosive growth of urban populations in developing countries

over the past several decades can be attributed both to natural increase and to migration.

Population growth and increased migration from rural to urban areas in developing

countries have far surpassed available urban housing facilities for middle and low-income

citizens. City authorities are unable to solve such problem based on the demand of land by

the people. The result has been that a variety of types of squatter colonies have grown up

on vacant lands in the central areas and on the outskirts of major cities (Manaster 1968:

23).

It is urbanization that causes the expansion of informal settlements. Urban areas attract

people from different places of the country due to, employment and living condition to

escaping from poverty. In support of this, Kassahun, S. et al. (2010) identifies, fast rate of

urbanization followed by various socio-economic factors, such as employment, housing

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shortage, low level of income and poverty are responsible for the formation of informal

settlements. This condition increases the accommodation of people at the urban center.

The provision of infrastructure and services including a plot of land and housing did not

meet the demand and pressure of the people because the urbanization is far higher than the

Provision of accommodation. Therefore, migrants and natural residents from the informal

settlement to meet their demand for housing. In support to this, UN-HABITAT (2002)

identifies migrants together with the newly formed young families of the urban people

from the informal settlement. This implies informal settlement is the result of demographic

growth both through migration and natural increase in urban population. Therefore,

urbanization, migration, natural increase and newly created young family are the causal

factor for the emergence and expansion of informal settlements.

2. Insecurity of Land Tenure

While the upper classes in cities value their homes as the most valuable investment assets

they have owned with top class services, residents of informal settlements‟ assets are

discounted to explains tenure as „the legal right to live in a house or use a piece of land‟. It

provides conditions under which land or buildings are held or occupied either by an

individual or a community. Hardoy et al (1990) assert that the rising of irregular informal

settlements in cities in developing countries often indicates disparities in the share of

wealth and resources. This has also led to many urban populations living in informal

settlements without any formal security of tenure and poor access to infrastructure, if

available. There is surely a firm decline in the tenure status and housing conditions of the

urban poor households. Despite initiatives of reduction of poverty and safety net

programs, the number of inhabitants living in informal settlements is still rising faster than

the urban population. This expansion of informal settlements is attributed to the increased

structural adjustment policies (SAPs), privatization of urban basic services and massive

state disengagement in the housing sector. This has forced the urban poor to rely on the

informal land for access to land and shelter. The failure of markets to recognize the

valuable demand for land and housing solutions for the majority of informal settlements‟

dwellers has largely led to urban poverty and exclusion. Residents are also incapable of

accessing financial assistance from the banks as banks do not recognize their irregular

legal status. This urban crisis together with the informal settlements is a challenge to good

governance (CSA 2007).

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3. The Failure of Governance

According to the UN-Habitat report on the global human settlement, slums and urban

poverty are not just a manifestation of a population explosion and demographic change, or

even of the vast impersonal forces of globalization. Slums must be seen as the result of a

failure of housing policies, laws and delivery systems, as well as of national and urban

policies (UN-Habitat, 2003:5).

4. The Lack of Governance

The concept of good governance can be described as the set of policies, functions,

responsibilities, and procedures that an entity establishes to guide and direct how it is

going to achieve its goals. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and

the Pacific (UNESCAP, 2009) defines good governance as a process of decision-making

and procedures by which those decisions are implemented or not implemented. Good

governance is characterized by eight important principles participatory, consensus

oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and

inclusive as well as the application of the rule of law. While the main principle of good

governance is to minimize corruption practices, good governance must be responsive and

not a reactionary (Stien et al 2001). Although good governance is perhaps difficult to

apply holistically, these principles seek to ensure that the needs of communities are allied

in terms of sustainable service delivery. They must be based on viable targets within the

scope of the municipality. Any attempt to prefer one principle over another is liable to

prompt discontent among the urban poor and likely to result in strings of service protests.

While the urban poor has detailed knowledge of their problems and their needs, effort to

solve problems by themselves are thwarted by municipalities which are mainly „dominated

by engineering-led, capital intensive works and staffed by administrators and technical

professionals who find the concept of community irrelevant‟ (Samuel 2006:15).

If there is a great red tape value bureaucratic situation in delivering of land, the people

forced to occupy open land illegally. In many poorer cities, spatial forms are largely

driven by the efforts of low income households to secure land that is affordable and in a

location close to employment and other sources of livelihood UN-Habitat (2010).

A key problem is that most of the rapid urban growth is taking place in countries least

able to cope, in terms of the ability of Governments to provide or facilitate the provision of

urban infrastructure; the ability of urban residents to pay for such services; and resilience

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to natural disasters. The inevitable result has been the rapid growth of urban slums and

squatter settlements UN-Habitat (2010). Other scholars identified that the regulatory

framework governing the delivery of planned residential land puts in place bureaucratic

procedures, standards and regulations that make planned land unaffordable and

unavailable to low income households, thereby leading to the formation and development

of informal settlements Kironde (2006). Similarly, Kassahun, S. et al. (2010) also

identified that failure of the institutional system and malpractice are responsible for the

proliferation of informal settlements in Ethiopia. Therefore, proximity to employments,

institutional area, the inability of governments to provide land and bureaucratic procedures

to deliver planned residential land were a causal factor for the formation and expansion of

informal settlement.

5. Means of Livelihoods

Livelihoods are central in the broad understanding of how urban poor households earn

their living; how the urban environments impact on food security and the ability of poor

households to take care for their households under resettled areas. Livelihoods are defined

as assets, capabilities (comprising of material and social resources) and activities needed

for a means of living (Daniel, 2011).

6. Institutional and Legal Failure

The urban poor are trapped in an informal and illegal world in slums that are not reflected

on maps, where waste is not collected, where taxes are not paid and where public services

are not provided. Officially, they do not exist. Although they may reside within the

administrative boundary of a town or city, their local authority may well be a slumlord or

mafia leader, rather than city council staff, who often no longer attempt to assert their

jurisdiction or even enter the slums. residents, many of these slum dwellers have no

property rights, nor security of tenure, but instead make whatever arrangements they can

in an informal, unregulated and, in some respects, expensive parallel market (Azilinor,

2009:20).

7. Informal Actors Roles and Corruption

Land governance is fundamentally about understanding power and the political economy

of land. It involves the „rules, processes and structures through which decisions are made

about the use of and control over land, the manner in which the decisions are implemented

and enforced, and the way that competing interests in land are managed‟. Land governance

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encompasses different decision-makers, processes and structures, including statutory,

customary and religious institutions. When taken together as a system, land governance is

ultimately centered on how people use and interact with land (Transparency International,

2011).

The corruption that occurs in public administration and government services is a common

feature in the land sector. It can take the form of small bribes that need to be paid to

register property, change or forge titles, acquire land information, process cadastral

surveys, and generate favorable land use plans. Such bribery is facilitated by complicated

processes and limited information about available services and any applicable fees. For

example, a recent World Bank study on land administration in Vietnam found that

incomplete and unclear information about administrative procedures was made available

to the public. It also noted that the processes for issuing property rights and certificates

were complicated and expensive (Stien et al 2001).

8. Inadequate Formal Land Distribution

Throughout the history of the existence of the informal settlements, one of the major

causes has been failure or inability of the responsible institution to provide residential

plots to the ever-increasing urban population. While official applications for residential

plots in Zanzibar Town have been steadily increasing, the supply of the same is

staggeringly inadequate, an average of between 20 and 30 percent per year (DOLR,

various files cited Ali and Sulaiman, 2006).

9. Poverty

Informal settlement as the result of poverty and manifestation of social injustice have

covered a wide range of low quality housing conditions: in particular slums (formal

buildings dilapidated due to age and neglect) and squatter settlements (settlements

characterized by unauthorized land occupation, lack of building permit and/or a violation

of building and planning regulations). In Nepal, 30,381 people were identified as landless

family and 41,035 were identified as informal settlements (landlessness solution high level

commission, 2000). The incomes of informal settlers are mostly too low for formally

regulated markets to provide them with any kind of permanent housing. One of the

inhabiting factors is that the poor have a low propensity to save and hence a low

propensity to borrow money from lending institutions (Daniel: 2011). Poverty is the center

of informal settlement, majority of the squatters categorized as extremely poor. To

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construct a house in a planned area one needs to have enough money to buy a plot and

build a “decent house” (Ali and Sulaiman: 2006).

Additionally, studies show, when the monthly incomes of informal settlers household

heads in the study area are compared to those of the residents of the town as a whole, it is

evident that informal settlements in the study area are not inhabited only by the low-

income groups or the urban poor. Economically strong or higher income earning

household heads are also found in the informal settlements of the study area. Hence,

informality in the study area, especially in the recently emerged informal settlements, is

not poverty driven (Minwuyelet M. 2005:17)

2.5. Settlement Upgrading

Upgrading of informal settlements means transforming illegal structures into legal ones,

thus improving the housing statistics has correctly pointed out, upgrading also requires the

recognition of three conditions: „the property rights, the property values and physical

attributes of the underlying assets, and their impact on each other‟. Beyond the legal

dimension upgrading usually addresses improvement of services (Asmamaw 2010:139).

Informal settlements are home to millions of the urban poor households across developing

countries and largely represent the only solution for millions of these families. Most of the

households in these cities are hopelessly poor while their urban conditions and facilities

replicate their own and their country‟s poverty and inequalities. In addition to the wicked

living conditions, there is a very strong shared and reinforcement relationship between

housing, poverty and the environment. (UNCHS, 1999)

Moreover, another benefit of settlement upgrading is that members of informal settlements

have invested their time, skills and money already in the informal housing construction.

Upgrades cost less to execute than the eradication of informal settlements (UNESCAP,

2009). Settlement upgrading can provide urban poor households with access to land tenure

and some or all the tools depicted in where the value parts being the provision of key

infrastructure.

A study of Ethiopia informal settlements, for instance, showed that the combination of

economic recession and urbanization can always lead to the spread of informal settlements

whereas „even more planned areas will continue to deteriorate into‟ informal settlement.

Given the inability of developing countries in providing serviced land for housing,

informal settlements will remain popular enough to invite extra settlements. Surely,

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informal settlements reflect local housing markets and are also here to stay „and are not

marginal anymore‟. Therefore, it has been argued that the government needs to come up

with a housing strategy that allows the existence of informal settlements. It now seems that

the only choice is to continue with more settlement upgrading. (Molla, 2009: 35)

Azilinor (2009), also identifies the main five key benefits of settlement upgrading: (a)

health reason in order to minimize risks of epidemics, (b) economic reasons to empower

local communities, (c) applicable socially to develop social amenities like clinics, (d) legal

tool to provide secure tenure for the urban poor residents, and (e) upgrading of housing

processes where the state commits resources.

Classic upgrading schemes „provide footpaths and latrines, street lighting, drainage and

roads, often water supply and limited sewerage‟. Settlement improvement involves

regularization of the rights of land, housing and upgrading of the existing basic services.

However, it does not necessarily consist of a home construction but it „offers loan options

for home improvements‟ as well. Upgrading often involves other actions such as the

removal of environmental hazards, empowering communities through maintenance and

the building of communal facilities such as schools and clinics. (UN-Habitat, 2006:22)

The issue of security of tenure and access to basic services and decent housing, the

settlement upgrading and incorporation into the overall structure of the city is a necessary

step towards more equitable and livable cities. This means that upgrading efforts are not

only shown to have the ability to construct new models and paradigms of urban inclusion

and planning, but upgrades also need to be seen as a sensible mode to face the challenges

of urbanization and poverty eradication across the cities of developing countries. There is

also an assumption that upgrading would alleviate the constraints on community efforts

and offer the necessary support to improvements, without disrupting social or economic

links. This has been noted by many international entities such as the United Nations (UN)

as giving the government an authority to detect bottlenecks and coordinate the upgrading

process via the provision of subsidies. (UNCHS, 1999)

It is critically vital to offer land titling or formalization of informal settlements, the

legalization and distribution of titles to urban poor households so that the results of

upgrading are instant, highly visible, and make a major variation in the quality of life of

the urban poor. Tenure formalization by offering full titles always ensures the urban poor

families opportunities to obtain freely or at a nominal cost, an asset which can command a

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high price in the formal land market (UN-Habitat 2003). Therefore, security of tenure

should be made available to all poor households.

Bahiru (2008) argues that during settlement upgrading municipalities should be very alert

not to allow privatization of service provision as it limits service delivery to low income

households. Instead, it will be worthwhile for municipalities „to prevent unregulated

privatization from resulting in the exclusion of the poor from urban services, on the basis

of simple economic‟. There is a need for municipalities to support vulnerable communities

and provide them with a proper platform for decision-making in order to prevent laissez-

faire attitudes. It is believed that these attitudes often have potential to block real

integration of the urban poor into the urban mainstream, thus add other problems to the

urban poor (ibid.).

Lamaba (2005) highlights the importance of the process of decision-making during the

settlement upgrading. If the government has planned to provide for tenure security to

informal settlements‟ inhabitants, it is also vital to take protective measures at the initial

phase against the inevitable influx of residents. This can be done by using low-level aerial

photos indicating the existing informal settlements to prevent conflicts. In most of

developing countries such as Ethiopia, settlement upgrading approaches are yet to be

executed. Little notice is given to detect the root causes such as poverty, unemployment,

and low salaries. Instead, these countries have focused mainly on the physical

improvement of dwellings in townships. UNHCR (1999) have identified four main groups

of constraints to settlement upgrading:

1. Legal framework: Accessibility to secure tenure by the urban poor is difficult as the

land is declared for completely different socio-economic situations.

1. Urban planning frameworks and regulations: Inappropriate planning standards and

construction regulations prevent the urban poor from affording services, thus creating

low-cost housing shortages.

2. Land markets: Land markets are traded in active commercial markets thus excluding

the urban poor.

3. Knowledge and information: Physical and financial challenges posed by informal

settlements have not been sufficiently developed. Available information on settlement

upgrading is uncoordinated (ibid.).

The problem with the formalization of informal settlements can be the attraction of

economic investors into informal settlements. This trend can lead to the expulsion of

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traditional residents to peripheral sites, thus deeply jeopardizing the key aim of poverty

mitigation and integration (Wayatt et al, 2002). Limited studies have been undertaken to

effectively demonstrate how these factors and theories can be incorporated into a

framework to simulate and model the dynamic expansion of informal settlements. This

paper present how Geographic Information Systems and Cellular Automata are integrated

to propose an Informal Settlement Growth Model (ISGM). The application of the

proposed ISGM has the potential to improve the urban planning and decision-making

processes in developing countries cities.

2.6. Research Gap

After summarizing major empirical literature and discussions of causes of informal

settlements and squatting, the researcher identified the following gaps. Most previous local

researchers argue that the causes of informal settlements and squatters are a shortage of

income and have not gain proper attention for the poor‟s, excluded that participate in

preparing policies and the program of a country. They also concluded that all the existing

informal settlers are low income groups and poor immigrant people. The previous

empirical studies did not consider the long process of the municipality to access land and

weak administration of land. Thus this study was expected to fill the previous research

gaps by identifying the root causes of informal settlements and squatting in the case of the

study area.

2.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Informal settlements are dense settlements comprising communities housed in self-

constructed shelters under conditions of informal or traditional land tenure.

Squatting be defined as a residential house which has developed without legal claims to

the land and/or permission from the concerned authorities to build; as a result of their

illegal or semi-legal status, infrastructure and services are usually inadequate

Expansion: - informal settlements constructed in the year 2002E.C-2008E.C and newly

constructed houses in the periphery and within existing settlements is said to be expansion.

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Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.1 Research Approach

The research was conducted using both quantitative and qualitative methods (mixed

method) because a mixed method of research approach attempted this study to maximize

the attainment of objectivity and generalization of findings typically interested in briefly

justifies the issue that was collected the data‟s from the respondents and through

observation of the sample areas. So by integrating both approaches, the mixed methods

can frequently describe as deductive in nature that leads to general inferences about

characteristics of the entire population. The quantitative and qualitative research approach

also appropriate for this study because it helps to collect diverse types of data that provide

the best information on deep understanding the respondents and the research with that of

the problem in order to generalize results to the whole population by asking both open-

ended and closed-ended questions supplemented with interviews and observation.

3.2 Research Methods

A descriptive research type was chosen to be used for this study; because it was the most

appropriate one to achieve the objective of the research. Since the topic of the research

focus on the factors contribute to the expansion of informal settlements in the study area;

descriptive research was a suitable type of research to describe events, and phenomena‟s

and then to report the realities observed. Also, descriptive research type was the

appropriate type of this particular research that uses both qualitative and quantitative data

through the application of survey method and observation for data collection. But due to

the deductive nature of the study, the quantitative approach was used more dominantly and

as a supportive to it, a qualitative method was used so that more reliable findings was

reached from the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. Also, the system of

data collection was more flexible in order to permit the consideration of many different

aspects of the problem. To do this, interview and other informal ways of gathering

information were included.

3.3 Sample Design

In this study, it was difficult to conduct all the total population under this investigation.

Therefore the representative samples were taken from the population to conduct the study

that would end up with efficient results.

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3.3.1. Population of Universe

It refers to the unit that we were observing, explaining, and describing in the study area

(i.e. the total population not the sample). Therefore, for this particular study, the

population of the universe was informal settlers of the town. According to the structural

plan of Haramaya town 2015 report, the total informal settlers are 682 (Haramaya town

structure plan, By Oromia Urban Planning Institution, July 2015).

3.3.2. Sampling Frame

The sampling frame of this study was lists of all informal settlers of the town: Haramaya

town municipality and kebele administrative, land administrative and development agency

manager and expertise, Haramaya town farmer and inhabitant, were included in the

sampling frame.

3.3.3. Sampling Unit

The sampling or unit of analysis for this study was the informal settlers of Haramaya town

mainly supplemented by the managers and experts of municipality, kebeles, and land

administrative and development agency, Haramaya town farmer and inhabitant association

representatives.

3.3.4. Sampling Technique

The selection of the techniques of sampling can be determined by various factors. By

taking the nature of the research problem and the extent of which it covers into

consideration. The Probability sampling techniques were preferably selected. The main

reason that this technique was chosen is to address all the population through equal

opportunity to be selected by using simple random sampling technique. It was primarily

used in quantitatively oriented and involve a relatively large number of units from a

population and in a simple randomly selected where the probability of inclusion for every

member of the population had an equal chance to be selected. As a result of using this

technique, there was high reliability so as to identify the factors contribute for the

expansion of informal settlement. Finally, in this situation, it supposed to achieve

representativeness which is the degree to which the sample accurately represents the entire

population for generalization because data was collected by interviewing and structured

and non-structured questionnaire which was distributed to representative respondents

selected by purposive non-probability sampling technique.

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There were three (3) kebeles at Haramaya Town from this all informal settlers were

selected, from this town totally 682 informal settlers. (Haramaya town structure plan, By

Oromia Urban Planning Institution, July 2015) From these 134 households (informal

settlers) was selected and the questionnaires was procedurally addressed and conducted.

(Haramaya town structure plan 2015, by Oromia planning institute).

3.3.5. Sample Size

The sample size for the questionnaire was determined statistically by using formula.

Kothari‟s formula was used to scientifically determine sample size and to get appropriate

and representative sample size from a study population of 682. 93 percent confidence was

used. The 93percent level of confidence was preferred; since increasing the level of

confidence increases the sample size that beyond the control of researcher in relation to

the constraint of current political instability in the study area, time and budget. Beside this,

it was difficult to manage the large size of the sample. These problems were minimized as

an interview of key informed person were used for in-depth information. Kothari (2007)

explained the following formula to calculate the sample size and it was used to calculate

the sample size for this study.

𝑛 = 𝑧2 𝑝 𝑞

𝑑2

N= the study Population size

Z = the standard normal variable at the required confidence level or Z statistic (93 %)

P= the proportion of the target population estimated

q =1- p, non-estimated characteristics of the target population

d = Level of statistical significance or margin of error (7%)

The researcher was used the above formula to get the desired sample size (n) when N

greater than 10,000 with 93% confidence level, if there is no estimated characteristic of

target population, 50% used then, P= 0.5 and q = 1- p = 0.5. And the Z statistics is 1.81

(93% confidence level) and the desired accuracy at the 0.07 level of significance.

Therefore, based on above explanation the sample size is computed as follows

𝑛 =𝑍2𝑃𝑞

𝑒2=

(1.81)2 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 0.5

(0.07)2= 167.15 ≅ 167

But, the target population for this study is less than 10,000 i.e. 682. Therefore, this formula

was used to get the sample size which then helps to get the sample size for this particular

study by using the formula

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fn = 𝒏

𝟏+𝒏

𝑵

=𝟏𝟔𝟕

𝟏+𝟏𝟔𝟕

𝟔𝟖𝟐

= 134.15≅ 134

Where: fn= the desired sample size when the target population is less than 10,000 which is

134

n= the sample size when the population is greater than 10,000, which is 167 at 93%

confidence level. N= target population size accordingly, n= 167, N= 682.

Therefore the total sample size of the study was 134 individuals.

Table 3.1; Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

No Source of data

Total

househo

ld

Sampl

e size

Method of

data

collection

Sampling

method

1 Informal settlement of the town 682 134 Questionnaires Simple random

2 Town municipality managers 1 Interview Purposive

3 Kebeles managers 3 Interview Purposive

4 Urban Land development and

administrative agency manager 1 Interview Purposive

5 Urban Land development and

administrative agency expert 3 Interview Purposive

6 Local farmers and inhabitant 3 Interview Purposive

Total 145

Source: Prepared by the Researcher, 2016.

3.3.6 Sample

For this study the sample were 145 in which 134 was the sample size of households

(informal settlers) living in the town, 11 were from Town municipality manager, kebele

manager, Urban Land development and administrative agency manager, Urban Land

development and administrative agency expert and Local farmers and inhabitant

association representatives.

3.4 Source of Data

Both primary and secondary sources of data for this particular research proposal topic

were used.

Primary data sources: through both closed and open ended structure questioners; it

assists to get more information. Both structured and semi- structured personal interviews

by using structured questions; it helps to get depth information. Field observation by

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using checklists; it avoids subjectivity, and helps to capture what is happening now in the

study area.

Secondary data sources: from a Structural plan of Haramaya town, published and

unpublished materials like books, Journal‟s literature review, FDRE Policy documents,

UN- Habitat Reports, ECSU electronic library, Internet sources, research papers of

professionals and reports.

3.5 Data Collection Instruments

Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data from

selected households.

Observation: - The observation was a help to gather first-hand data and to identify all the

necessary information such as the existing housing quality, infrastructure, and social

services in the expansion areas.

Interviews: - Interviews was used to collect data from key informants such as government

experts, administration and stakeholders.

3.6 Data Analysis and Interpret

To analyze the data both quantitative and qualitative analysis methods was employed.

Quantitative data which were a help to generate from household survey was analyzed

using simple descriptive statistical tools like frequency, and percentages and they operate

with Statistical Package for Social Studies (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel. The qualitative

data collected using Key Informants Interview and personal observation was also analyzed

through description, narrating and interpreting.

3.7 Data Presentation

The data analysis was presented using percentage, tables, graphs and charts to describe

quantitative data, graphs to compare, percentages to make comprise and discussion. And

the data that would have been collected through interview was analyzed using non-statics

or manually or descriptive way.

3.8 Methods of Ensuring Data Quality

The reliability and validity of the outcome of this research was ensured as much as

possible by taking the following precautions. The insights obtained from the combined use

of quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously increase the strength of the

conclusion.

27 | P a g e

Consulting knowledgeable persons (experts, development agents, researchers) on issues

that require expertise and crosschecking information obtained through interviewing with

information gathered from public records and published materials on the issue.

3.9 Limitation

In the research process of data collection and interviewing stage, some limitations are

observed. There were inadequate reading materials that were recently published about an

issue related to cause of informal settlement and level/trend of squatters in the town.

Besides to these, respondents fear of eviction by the city administration due to this they

were not willing to respond accordingly and very few municipal experts were not willing

to give responses for interview, in addition to these some of the officials were outside

from their offices for political works and some of them were newly appointed from other

fields of works due to this they were no informed detail.

To overcome such limitation the researcher use all supplementary primary and secondary

data from various sources to strengthen the research and to overcome inadequate reading

material and the researcher tried to minimize fear of eviction by the city administration

towards willing to respond accordingly by convincing the academic purpose of the study

and its confidentiality to the respondents, and they suggested freely what they think

explains the existing factors that contributing to the expansion of informal settlements at

their residential area.

3.10 Ethical Considerations

For this particular study, as a researcher ensured that the participants were protected from

physical or psychological harm, select appropriate methodology, respect the culture and

norm of the community and respondents, give credit worth of other‟s work, submit my

work on time and present my task as per the university program.

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Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Interpretation

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents comprehensive analysis and discussion of the results from, both

closed and open-ended structure questionnaires, both structured and semi-structured

personal interviews by using structured questions, field observation by using checklists

and by referring different existing document where design of the analysis elaborates and

summarizes the answers to the study questions that were in chapter one. Each research

question was answered by presenting and discussing the results obtained from the data

analysis appropriate for each particular question.

4.2 Response Rate

For this study, 134 questionnaires were distributed to informally settled households. All

the questionnaires were completed and returned. Additionally, 11 officials, who have a

direct concern with the subject under the study, were interviewed. To analyze the

level/trend of informally settled households referring and discussing different existing

document were employed to strengthen the reliability of the study. For presenting data

illustrations include tables and graphs.

4.3. Socio-Demographic Profile

As indicated in Table 4.1 bellow a total of 134 informal settlers were involved in the

survey making the result response rate 100 percent. The analysis was based on 134

informally settled households.

Respondent‟s socio-economic information was a key element of the study to observe the

socio-economic variability among sampled households in the study area. Indeed

demographic data concerning the age level, sex, educational status, employment

conditions, marital status, family size and income level of unit of analysis were gathered

from the surveyed elements to visualize their socio-economic variation.

29 | P a g e

4.3.1 Age Level and Sex Ratio of Respondent:

Table 4.1: Respondent’s Age level and Sex Ratio:

Characteristics Values Frequency Percentage

Age of

respondent

20 – 30 14 10.4

31 – 40 62 46.3

41 – 50 47 35.1

greater than and equal to 51 8 6.0

Total 131 97.8

R777 (missing value) 3 2.2

Total 134 100.0

Sex of

respondent

Female 28 20.9

Male 106 79.1

Total 134 100.0

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Age wise, the highest percentage lies between 31-40 years which account 46.3 % of the

total informally settled households. Concerning sex, the male group was the dominant one

that accounts 106 which was 79.1%, while the female groups that participate in the

informal settlement were 28 in number that resulted in 20.9%, which shows that not only

male groups but also females participated in an informal settlement in the study area.

4.3.2. Educational level of Respondents

Figure 4.1: Respondents Educational Status

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

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As depicted in Figure 4.1 above the educational status of informally settled respondents

range from illiterates to first degree and above graduates. The illiterates constitutes 15 in

number that accounts 11%, those that can read and write 16 in number, that holds 12%,

elementary school completed 24 settlers which account 18%, secondary school completed

which was the second largest that holds 27 in number which accounts 20%, college

diploma holds the largest number which was 41, that holds 31% and first degree and

above constitutes 11 in numbers, accounts 8%.

4.3.3. Respondent’s Employment Condition and Monthly Income Level:

Respondent‟s employment condition and income level are an important socioeconomic

parameter. In this study, it was considered as an indicator of household‟s capacity to

acquire the plot and to examine the affordability of the supply of land for respondents in

their residences. Employment status and monthly income level of informal settlers was

depicted in the bar graph below.

Figure 4.2: Informal Settlers Distribution of Employment and Monthly Income Level

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Concerning employment status of informal settlers, from those the largest share covered in

Public servant, which was 52 in number which account 38.8%, Farmers those participated

in the informal settlers also the second largest share, which was 31 in number which cover

23.1%, business and self employed each cover 16.4%, per time buyer and other cover

3.7% and 1.5% respectively.

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As shown in figure 4.2 above, Concerning level of monthly income of informal settlers

relatively the dominant group that covered the largest share in the locality was the middle-

income groups which their monthly income level was 1001-5000, out of the total informal

settlers, 70 in number which covers 52.3%, the second largest group that informally settled

were relatively high-income groups which their monthly income level was 5000 and above

account 53 in number that accounts 39.6%. Finally, the least dominant groups that

informally settled were relatively low income groups which were their monthly income

level was below 1000, 11 in numbers that cover just 8.2%. According to the analyzed

results of the sample survey showed, the middle incomes groups cannot afford the plot

provide by legal form but they can afford informally. High-income groups were afforded

both legal and illegal land provision. Whereas, the low income groups cannot afford the

plot neither illegally nor legally provide by the municipality in the study area.

4.3.4. Respondent’s Marital Status and Family Size:

Table 4.2: Marital Status and Family Size of Respondent:

Characteristics Values Frequency Percentage

Marital status

of respondent

Married 116 86.6

Single 10 7.5

Divorce 1 0.7

Widowed 7 5.2

Total 134 100.0

Family size of

respondent

1-4 97 72.4

5-9 36 26.9

10-15 1 0.7

Total 134 100.0

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Concerning marital status as shown in the table majority of informal settlers were married

which was 116 in number that covers 86.6%, on the other hand only 7.5%, 7% and 5.2%

were single, divorced and widowed respectively. Regarding the family size of informal

settlers that was shown in the table, the largest portion lies in the range of 1-4 families

which is 97 in number that accounts 72.4% of the total households of informal settlers.

The second largest family size of the households lays in-between 5-9 families which were

36 in number that holds 26.9% of the total households of informal settlers. The highly

extended family size was those that have a family size of greater than nine families which

covers 7% of the informally settled households.

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4.4. Result and Findings

This section of the topic includes the presentation of data and the presentation of the

results of the study in a meaning full way. It describes the obtained data; the result used

the appropriate statistical analysis tools and illustrations presenting the data. The

illustrations include tables and graphs.

4.4.1 The Trends of Informal Settlers in the town

4.4.1.1 Examine the Supply of Land for Informal Settlements?

Figure 4.3: Examine the Supply of Land

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

The above illustration shows that regarding of the adequacy of land supply for the

informal settlement, 6% of respondent were agreed to adequate, whereas 83.6% of

respondent replied to agree on inadequate supplied of land for informal settlement.

Concerning flexibility, 73.2% of respondent agreed to flexible whereas only 9.7% of

respondents replied to the inflexible supply of land for informal settlement. Concerning of

Affordability only 6.7% of respondent agreed on affordability whereas the majority,

75.3% of respondent replied to agree on the unaffordable supply of land in the informal

settlements.

4.5

33.6

7.54.5

1.5

23.1

1.5

47

65.7

5.2 5.2

52.2

16.4

11.2

17.2

11.9

29.9

23.1

49.3

7.5 6.7 5.2

36.6

1.5

28.4

0.73

23.126.9

00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Adequate Inadequate Flexible Inflexible Affordable Unaffordable

Strongly

Agree Per.(%)

Agree Per.(%)

Fairly Agree

Per.(%)

Disagree

Per.(%)

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4.4.1.2. Opportunity to Equal Access to Land for the Informal Settler’s

Table 4.3: Equal Access to Land for all Groups of the Respondents

Is there equal access to land for all groups of informal settlers?

Frequency Percent

Yes 7 5.2

No 127 94.8

Total 134 100.0

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

The above table 4.3 shows, From 134 people responded to the questionnaire, 7 people

selected ‟yes‟ and the remaining 127 selected „No‟ response this means that 94.8% of the

sample elements shows there is no equal land access among all groups of informal settlers.

4.4.1.3 The Root Causes of Discrimination for an unequal Opportunity in the

Informal Access of Land

Figure 4.4: The Root Causes of Discrimination to Access land

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

As shown in the above figure 4.4 in response, out of 127 respondents those replied there

was a discriminated group against land acquisition, civil servant was the major

discriminated groups that about 51 respondent confirm by the shortage of capital,

following ideology, fear of law and attitude replied by 7, 2 and 1 respondent respectively

were root cause for civil servant discrimination against land acquisition in Haramaya

town. Extended family was the second major discriminated groups against land

34 | P a g e

acquisition, 36 respondents were verified due to the shortage of capital, following

ideology and fear of law replied by 2 and 1 respondent respectively were the root cause for

extended family discrimination against land acquisition in the study area. Business men

were the third discriminated group, 10 respondents were verified due to the ideology,

following fear of law and attitude replied by 2 and 1 respondent respectively were root

cause for the business men discrimination against land acquisition in Haramaya town.

Finally, as shown in figure 4.4 field survey results, politician and official were the lists

discriminated groups against squatters on the study area.

4.4.2. Causes of Informal Settlement

People compete to full filling their basic need like food, cloth, and shelters as well as for

economic and natural resources due to increasing in demand for natural resources and

economic growth. The following figure summarizes factors that of respondent‟s push

towards the illegality

Figure 4.5: Reason for Informal Settlement

The Factors that Push you to Informally Settled

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Figure 4.5 above shows, about causes of informal settlements. The analysis was based on

134 informally settled households‟ respondents who completed the questionnaire on the

causes of informal settlement. Concerning the factors that push the residents to informal

settlers that explained in figure 4.5, long process of the municipality to access land

constitutes the highest number that was of total respondents 53 (39.6%) of the informal

settlement were due to the long process of the municipality to access land. On the other

hand, those informal settlers due to a shortage of income, 29 in number which accounts

22%

39%

13%

16%

10%

shortage of income

Long process of municipality to

access land

High rising land markets

Lack of residential house

Others (encroach of their plot to

urban, inadequate land provision

and Lease has interest)

35 | P a g e

21.6%. Households that pushed to informal land because of high rising land markets, 17

in number that account 12.7%, those who informal settlers due to lack of residential house

account 21 in number that holds 15.5% and those that informal settlers due to other

problems accounts 14 in numbers that hold 10.4% those were including the interest of the

lease, encroach of the plot to urban, and inadequate land provision accounts 8.2%, 1.5%

and 0.7% respectively.

The officials agreed on their interview responses concerning the causes of informal

settlement; population growth due to migration and natural increase in the town, weak

housing delivery, lack of providing serviced plot of land to the residents because of the

government stopped new land allocation system for the residential purpose. Concerning

allocation of budget for residential land development, the city manager replied that no

budget allocated except for those expropriated in the case of public purpose. On the other

hand, brokers played a significant role through misleading the peripheral farmers to sell

their farm land to informal settlers with low cost because of the city administration

confiscate their farm land. Additionally, absences of managing the peripheral urban land,

lack of registration and control of public vacant land are the main causes for expansion of

informal settlements in the locality.

The kebele managers stated that majority of an informal settlement located on the

periphery of the town because of the farmer's sell their farmland informally by subdividing

to informal settlers for the reason that the farmers did not compensate for their land as part

of the structural plan of the town.

4.4.2.1. Respondents Alternative to Legally Access Land in the Study Area.

Table 4.4: Alternativeness of Legal Land Access for the Household in the Town

Have alternative land Access Legally for a house in the town?

Frequency Percent

Yes 85 63.4

No 49 36.6

Total 134 100.0

If yes, How did you hold the land Legally

Frequency Percent

through lease 37 43.5

Inherited from family 17 20

Purchased from farmer 31 36.5

Total 85 100.0

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

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As regards to the settlers have alternative land for houses in the town 85 respondents

which were 63.4% replied that there was an alternative to land access for housing in the

town out of this, through the lease, 37 in number which accounts 43.5%, inherited from

family, 17 in numbers that holds 20% and purchased from farmers, 31 in numbers that

holds 36.5% from 85 respondents, the rest 49 respondents which are 36.6 % replied that

they have no alternative to holding land legally for housing in the town.

4.4.2.2 Occupancy Area of Informal Settlements:

Living space is the key indicator measuring the adequacy of the basic human need for

shelter. The following table summarizes occupancy area.

Table 4.5: Occupancy area of informal settler housing in m2

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Concerning the area of land captured, those who hold below 150 meter square constitute

21 households which were 15.7%, those that hold 150 - 200 meter square account 71 in

number that covers 53%, 201 - 250 meter square caught by 30 settlers which was 22.4%,

251 - 500 meter square caught by 8 settlers which was 6.0%, greater than 500 meters

square occupied by 4 households that covers 3%.

4.4.2.3 Housing Condition of Informal Settlement:

The material in which the housing is made up of was determining the structural aspects of

informal settlements.

Table 4.6: Housing Condition of Informal Settlement

Frequency Percent

wood and mud 98 73.1

cement and bricks 36 26.9

Total 134 100.0

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Concerning housing condition 134 houses which was 73.1% built from wood and mud and

26.9% built from cement and bricks without having any building and planning rights.

Area Frequency Percent

below150m2 21 15.7

150 -200m2 71 53.0

201 - 250m2 30 22.4

251 - 500m2 8 6.0

greater than 500m2 4 3.0

Total 134 100.0

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4.4.3 Methods of Informally Land Acquisition by Informal Settler

People acquire land in the legal and illegal way, this includes, in the form of purchase,

invade the open public land, inherited and publicly. The following figure summarizes the

way of acquiring land.

Figure 4.6: Method of Informally Acquiring the Plot by Informal Settlers

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

The informal settlers hold residential land in different ways. Among these, 82 dwellers

which was 61.2% purchased from farmers, 21 households which were 15.7 % inherited

from their family, the remaining 9.7%, 9%, 2.2% And 2.2% of respondent replied transfer,

adjudication, allocation by state /community and Invention respectively the methods

which they acquired the plot.

The officials agreed on their interview responses concerning the informal settler‟s

mechanism they used to transfer the plot were they make a fake contract of the gift of a

plot because they know selling of land is illegal according to Ethiopian law and perform

hidden merchandise to escape from legal prosecution.

4.4.3.1 The Year Respondent’s had Built their Houses in Haramaya Town

The urbanization strategy increases people to the urban area and increases competition for

land resources while the provision of residential land in the urban authority of Haramaya

town was minimal. The following figure summarizes the year when informal settlers built

their houses.

0 50 100 150

Purchase

Inheritance

Allocation by state

Transfer

Invention

Adjudication

61.2

15.7

2.2

9.7

2.2

9

Frequency

Percent

38 | P a g e

Figure 4.7: Distribution of Households Heads by the Year they Informally Settled

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016.

The analysis was based on 134 informally settled households‟ respondents who completed

the questionnaire on when informal settlers built their houses. Concerning the year when

respondents were built their house and informally settled question as the figure 4.7

depicted, only 6.7% were built in the year 2002 and before, 7.5% were built in the year

2003, 5.2% were built in the year 2004, 9% were built in the year 2005, 12.7% were built

in the year 2006, 20.9% were built in the year 2007 and 38.1% were built in the year 2008.

This implies the expansion of informal settlements in Haramaya town increasing at an

alarming rate with time to time.

The officials agreed on their interview responses concerning the informal settler expansion

that show over past five years in the area, it was increasing at an alarming rate because

demand for the shelter had been growing while the provision of shelter especially land

provision was unable to satisfy the demand of a growing population.

6.7 7.55.2

9

12.7

20.9

38.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

2002

E.C and

before

2003

E.C

2004

E.C

2005

E.C

2006

E.C

2007

E.C

2008

E.C

Percentage

Percent

Years of Settlement

39 | P a g e

4.4.3.2 The Place Where Respondent Lived before Informally Settled

Figure 4.8: Place Where Respondent Lived before Informally Settled

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

Figure 4.8 shows, informal settlers reside in different areas before they informally settled.

51% of the respondents were lived in private rental houses, 26% of respondents came from

neighborhood rural kebeles and woredas. 18% of respondents were lived with their parents

in one courtyard. 5% of respondents were lived in narrow and dilapidated kebele rented a

house, this implies the majority of informal settlers was lived in private rental house,

Neighborhood Rural kebeles and woredas, with their parents in one courtyard and in

narrow dilapidated kebele rented a house.

4.4.3.3 The Respondents Reasons, why they Choose to Settled on an Informal Way

Life decision of informal settlements depends on a different factor. Among these, the

economic cost of living and social, economic was the leading factors. The following tables

summarize reason informal settler‟s preferences to live in Haramayaa town.

51%

26%

18%

5%

In private rental

house

Neighborhood Rural

kebeles and woredas

with my parents in

one courtyard

Here in narrow

dilapidated kebele

rented house

40 | P a g e

Table 4.7: Distribution of Household Heads by Reasons for Informally Settled

No Reasons Frequency Percent

1

Lack alternative option to be owner of house because of

inflation and current expensive of life they are unable to afford

land provide by legal form

72 53.7

2 lease has interests, which is forbidden in Muslim religion 10 7.5

3 To search better life 20 14.9

4 Proximity to work 13 9.7

5 Fear of dispossessor from their plot that encroached to urban 5 3.7

6 A need of owner of house in simple way or privacy, get hold of

free gifted plot from kin and share of the land from parent they

gave

14 10.5

Total 134 100

Data Source: Field Survey Result, 2016

From the above Table 4.6 the reasons of the respondents why they choose to live in the

area was, 53.7% of the responses was lack alternative option to be owner of house because

of Inflation and current expensive of life they were unable to afford land provide by legal

form, 14.9% of respondents was due to search better life, 10.5% of respondents was due

to need of owner of house in simple way or privacy, get hold of free gifted plot from kin

and share of the land from parent they gave, 9.7%, of respondents was due to proximity

to work, 7.5% was due to lease has interests, which was forbidden in Muslim religion and

3.7% was due to Fear of dispossessor from their plot that encroached to urban. This

implies that most of the preference of the informal developer was due to lack alternative

option to be the owner of the house, search better life, highly need of privacy, proximity to

work and interest on lease were among the reasons of respondent prefer to live in the area.

41 | P a g e

4.5 Interpretation and Discussion

The interpretation and discussion hold the output of the findings. Under this part the result

of each objective of the study clearly presented and all the basic research questions were

attempted

4.5.1. Examine the Trends of Informal Settlers in the Town

As mentioned by the federal and state lease laws of Ethiopia, there were four means of

urban land acquisition: auction, negotiation, assignment and lot. Now, since most of them

open a door for corruption, the law recognizes tender (auction) and allotment (land lease

transfer without auction) as the only two basic means of leasehold right transfer from

government to citizens. As a matter of principle, every land needed for residential,

business (agriculture, industry, or service), and others will be transferred by tender.

Bidders will use the minimum lease price mentioned above as a base to offer their price.

However, as an exception, city municipalities may give land by allotment to selected areas

of paramount importance to society such as government offices, religious institutions,

public residential housing programs, diplomatic mission and so on. Besides a person, who

is displaced from his house as a result of urban renewal (like in the case of expropriation),

shall get land by allotment. All except the last would pay lease price based on the

benchmark set by the city. (Ashenafi G., 2015:59).

Informal settlement is generally linked with or affected by factors such as increasing of

rural-urban migration, the high cost of the formal land market, a cheap land market with

farmers, economic status, social conditions, custom, traditions, governmental and local

urban land and housing policies and geographical conditions. Hence, a concerted and

integrated effort of different concerned sectors including the occupants is necessary for an

effective housing program and improvement (Dwyer, 1975:7).

Therefore, there is no single theory that can fully explain the emergence and the expansion

of informal settlements. However, within developing cities it is usually argued that

informal settlements are the result of combination of factors such as poor management,

especially failed urban policies, poor governance, corruption, inappropriate regulations,

dysfunctional land markets, social insecurity, poor economic performance and lack of

political will (Ashenafi G., 2015:2).

42 | P a g e

The informal settlers perceive the growth of illegal settlements in the study area. The

reasons for the expansion of illegal housing in the area as the results of finding indicate

that, population growth due to migrating to find better livelihood opportunity and

expansion of trade in the town. Haramaya is the town having favorable commercial,

industrial, modern economic activities, social, and some services that have long been

attracting many people from the surrounding. Conversely, the city administration fails to

respond to the increasing housing demand by supplying the house and plots of land. This

situation increased the difficulty of the lower, middle and high-income resident‟s access to

an affordable and habitable house. Thus, they were forced to break the existing law and

search for alternatives by settling on available vacant lands, outside the city.

The result of the study found the level/trend of land for the informal settlement that

regarding of the adequacy, 83.6% of respondent replied to agree on inadequate supplied of

land for informal settlers. Concerning flexibility, 73.2% of respondent agreed to the

flexible supply of land for informal settlers. Concerning of Affordability, 75.3% of

respondent replied to agree on the unaffordable supply of land in the informal settlers.

Additionally, the respondent replied, there was no equal opportunity to access land for all

groups of informal settlers. Civil servants and extended families were highly discriminated

groups by cases of lack of capitals.

According to the Haramaya Town Administration recorded document especially, this last

three years the expansion of the informal settlement were increasing at the alarming rate.

Informal settlers relatively high in 03 kebele out of 01 and 02 kebeles of the town, because

this kebele was around the peripheries and presences of employment at Haramayaa

university and purchase land from peasant farmers to hold land for their children in the

area, were the result of finding in the study area. From this, it was possible to interpret that

increase in population, bureaucratic administrative structure, socio-economic factors

/employments/, and institution /Haramaya University/ and speculation was the major

causal factors for the emergence and expansion of informal settlements in the study area.

In support of this, Ali and Suleiman (2006) stated that informal settlements are caused by

Urbanization land related, poverty population growth and socio-economic factors.

Therefore, low government control of land and economic factors play a crucial role for the

emergence and expansion of informal settlement.

43 | P a g e

Generally, the results of the document surveying indicate the major cause of informality

was due to administrative failures to provide formal land. The land supply in the city

municipality was, however tragically inefficient. The city Municipality was currently

unable to satisfy the requirement of all the land requests, Because of administrative and

fiscal troubles. The natural increase of the population was one of the factors that

exaggerate the formation of informal settlements. The population of the city was

excessively increased to more than 64,223 (By Oromia planning institute, July 2015)

currently from merely10, 994 in 1994. The result of the study found that the majority of

informal settlers built their houses in the last four years. From these, it was possible to

interpret that population growth in a sense that, the natural increase in population/fertility /

was the causal factor in the emergence and expansion of informal settlers in the study area.

In support of this (UN- HABITAT, 2002) migrants together with the newly formed young

families of the urban people from the informal settlement.

4.5.2. Causes of Informal Settlement

There were deferent causes for the expansion of informal settlement in the study area that

identified by the result of the study which includes long process of municipality to access

land, Shortage of income, far more deficits in housing supply and high rent, High rising of

land market in lease competition and fear of lease interest which was forbidden by Muslim

religion, lack of alternative ways to have owners of house rather than competition of lease

and fear of dispossessor from their plot that encroached to urban were the major factors for

informal settlers.

Additionally, Studies show that Informal settlements were established due to various

reasons and common throughout the cities of World countries. First, the large influx of

people from rural to urban areas Second, the financial limitation of the national and

municipal governments to provide planned urban houses to the majority of urban people.

Third, the high cost of even housing for the urban poor. Fourth, the marginalization of

urban land requests of the poor through unaffordable land lease policies. Finally, high

population growth was the other major reason. Squatter settlements are, thus, often the

only affordable option used by the majority inhabitants of many cities of developing

countries (UNHCR, 1999:60).

On the other hand, informal settlement occurs when the current land administration and

planning system fails to address the need for the residents, inability to address housing

44 | P a g e

demand forced people to employ their own path and settle informally. The results

concerning the level of monthly income of informal settlers in the study show that the

dominant group that covered the largest share in the locality was the relatively middle-

income groups which their monthly income level was 1001-5000 Birr, which covers

52.3%, the second largest group that informally settled was relatively higher income

groups which their monthly income level was 5000 and above per account 39.6%. Finally,

the least dominant groups that informally settled was relatively low-income groups which

were their monthly income level were below 1000 birr that covers only 8.2%. Most of the

informal settlers in the study area were those middle income and high-income groups. This

shows that shortage of income was not the only factors that contributing to the expansion

of informal settlements, but also there were deficits in housing supply, because of

shortage of serviced land supply in municipality aggravate for high rising of land market

in lease competition, lack of alternative ways to have owners of house rather than

competition of lies and fear of lease interest which was forbidden by Muslim religion and

fear of dispossessor from their plot that encroached to urban were the major factors for

squatters. Hence, they have taken action to solve their problem by building overhead

shelter informally.

The result of the study additionally shows that bureaucratic long process of the

municipality, high rising land market and a shortage of residential house in the town was a

remarkable case for the expansion of informal settlements in the study area. Regarding to

the housing condition of the informal settlement, the result of the study shows that the

majority of the informally settled households which were 73.1% built their house from

wood and mud within substandard materials without having planned and building rights.

At present days it was the chief cause of the expansion of informal settlements in the study

area because the inflation of building material in one way and fear of demolishing in

another side presented as a reason for unable to build their home according to building

standard of the town.

The farmers/ inhabitant of households agreed upon the factors that forced to sell or

transfer their plot to third parties in the locality. The majority of the farmers/inhabitants

prefer the price of the land they get in this way because indemnification of the plot from

the government was not clear and honesty even sometimes have partiality/biases.

Additionally, they were agreed on Poverty, Weak administration of land, rural to urban

45 | P a g e

migration in search of a job and a better life, the natural increase of population, lack of

housing finance and credit were a possible cause of informality.

The officials agreed on their interview responses concerning the causes of informal

settlement; population growth due to migration and natural increase in the town, weak

housing delivery, lack of providing serviced plot of land to the residents because of the

government stopped new land allocation system for the residential purpose. Concerning

allocation of budget for residential land development, the city manager replied that no

budget allocated except for those expropriated in the case of public purpose. Boundary

expansion of the town along the peripheral areas, by the year 2012 accommodated sixteen

neighboring kebeles to become as part of the structural plan of the town. On the other

hand, brokers played a significant role through misleading the peripheral farmers to sell

their farm land to informal settlers with low cost because of the city administration

confiscate their farm land. Additionally, absences of managing the peripheral urban land,

lack of registration and control of public vacant land are the main causes for expansion of

informal settlements in the locality. The kebele managers stated that majority of an

informal settlement located on the periphery of the town because of the farmer's sell their

farmland informally by subdividing to informal settlers for the reason that the farmers did

not compensate for their land as part of the structural plan of the town.

4.5.3. Methods of Land Acquisition by Informal Settlers.

Mechanism of land acquisition through inheritances and gifts in most cases are normal,

and in some systems they are legal and it is the right of the original owner to do so. Even

though the nature of Subdivision of land for inheritances and gifts appear to be slow their

contribution to the formation and expansion of informal settlements is high. The other

mechanism of land airing is through organized way of urban land invasion, this system is

obviously illegal from the beginning and they create their own urban informal

neighborhoods on both suitable and unsuitable sites they occupied. This mechanism often

depends on situations like conflict over the ownership of land but it is not common in all

urban centers. For instance, a land invasion in an informal settlement in Egypt took place

as soon as land tenure was in doubt. During the transaction of land property among

various governors, the transformation of economy or regulation takes place when the

national or local election is conducted within the country, Solomon (2004, cited in

Gossaye, 2007). The other one is the most complicated mechanism of acquiring land,

46 | P a g e

which was informal land market. Its complication is because of three major reasons; I)

Land can be bought directly from the original owner and transferred to many other

owners, II) It is the second stage and way of land transfer from lands acquired through

inheritance, gifts, and land obtained through invasion to new owners as stated by Payne

then later, these processes became commercialized and entry was only possible at a cost

determined by the informal market. III) It is fast and unpredictable. Therefore, many

sources put informal land markets first for the formation and expansion of informal

settlements.

The results of the findings indicate land obtaining demand will continue to increase in

town. From the figure above, we observed the rapid urbanization and migration of people

to Haramaya town was the causes for the expansion of informal settlements. Because in

the current situation the formal land was holed by the former resident and renter of houses

but the newcomer of the town push to finding an opportunity of land on the informal area.

As a result, the informal settlers hold residential land in different ways. Among these, the

majority of dwellers which was 61.2% purchased from farmers, following to this 15.7 %

of dwellers inherited from their family, the remaining 9.7%, 9. %, 2.2% and 2.2% of

respondent replied transfer, adjudication, allocation by state /community and Invention

respectively, were the means they acquired the plot in the study area.

From the figure above, we observed the expansion of informal settlement increasing

alarmingly. Especially the most houses were built in the year 2008 which was, 38.1% of

the informal settlement, 2007 following in 20.9% and 12.7%, 9% and 5.2% of houses were

built in 2006, 2005 and 2004 respectively. As the result of finding indicates informal

settlers reside in a different area before them squatters. The majority of the informal

settlers were lived in private rental houses, following by Neighborhood Rural kebeles and

woredas, with their parents in one courtyard and in narrow dilapidated kebele rented house

respectively were they lived before they squatters. According to respondent replied there

were many problems that enforced to settle in this way majority of the responses was due

to Lack alternative option to be owner of house because of Inflation and current

expensive of life they are unable to afford land provide by legal form, following by due

to search better life, need of owner of house in simple way or privacy, get hold of free

gifted plot from kin and share of the land from parent they gave, proximity to work, due

to lease has interests, which was forbidden in Muslim religion and was due to Fear of

47 | P a g e

dispossessor from their plot that encroached to urban respectively were among reasons

people prefer to live in the area without having any building permit.

The officials and kebele managers agreed on their interview responses concerning the

mechanism they used to transfer land; those who did not obtain land from the municipality

through formal land transactions were forced to resort to informal if not illegal land

transactions as those who owned slightly bigger pieces of agricultural fertile land often

subdivided and sold the land as a „gift‟ by making fake contract because they know selling

of land was illegal according to Ethiopian law. This indicates a poor urban land

management system which leads to unplanned city development, because of the

government stopped new land allocation system for the residential purpose. Concerning

the time when the squatter houses, mostly built the entire official agreed to at night time,

plus Saturday and Sunday when no government office and finished within short time.

48 | P a g e

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusions

Informal settlements are the means of access to land as the main source of shelter for the

low income migrating population. It occurs when the current land administration and

planning fail to address the need of the whole community and exclusion of the poor from

formal access to land. In many of the developing countries, there is rapid population

growth that resulted in fast urbanization that generates high rising cost of land and housing

in cities; this resulted in high demand for housing which much higher than formal

settlement provides. As a result, informal settlement will continue to exist and remain as a

problem of urban centers in developing countries of the world. Based on this, the main

purpose of this study is to assess the factors that contribute to the expansion of informal

settlement at Haramaya town. The result of findings from obtained information includes

examining the level/trend of informal settlers, causes of informal settlement, and how the

informal settlements capture the land informally.

The majority of the household‟s of informal settlements was male headed and most of

them were married. The majorities of informal settlements were college diploma and on

average characterized by middle income. Occupationally, most of them were a public

servant, farmers and businessmen were the major occupation of informal settlers and

concerning family size on average characterized by small family size which was in

between 1-4 ranges.

5.1.1 Examine the Trends of Informal Settlers in the Town

There was inadequate, flexible and unaffordable supplied of land for the informal settlers

in the town. Additionally, respondent replied, there was no equal opportunity to access

land for all groups of residence. Civil servants and extended families were highly

discriminated groups by causes of lack of capitals. Especially this last three years the

expansions of the informal settlement were increasing at the alarming rate. The land

supply in the city municipality was, however tragically inefficient, due to the natural

increase of the population in the town, the city Municipality was currently unable to meet

the demand of all the land requests, Because of administrative and financial problems.

49 | P a g e

5.1.2 Causes of Informal Settlement

The results of findings from obtained information include, the major causal factors for that

contribute to the expansion of informal settlement were long process of municipality to

access land, shortage of income, far more deficits in housing supply and high rent, high

rising of land market in lease competition and fear of lease interest which was forbidden

by Muslim religion, lack of alternative ways to have owners of house rather than

competition of lease and fear of dispossessor from their plot that encroached to urban were

the major factors for squatters. Additionally, the results of findings affirm that most of the

informal settlers in the study area were that relatively middle income and high-income

groups. This shows that shortage of income was not the only factors that aggravating for

the expansion of informal settlements. On the other hand, brokers played a significant role

through misleading the peripheral farmers to sell their farm land to informal settlers with

low cost because of the city administration confiscate their farm land.

5.1.3 Methods of Land Acquisition by Informal Settlers

The majority of dwellers purchased from farmers, by using different methods most of

these were from the mechanism, who owned slightly bigger pieces of agricultural fertile

land often subdivided and sold the land as a „gift‟ by making a fake contract because they

knew selling of land is illegal according to Ethiopian law. Following to those inherited

from their family, transfer, adjudication, allocation by state /community and Invention

respectively, were the means they acquired the plot in the study area. problems that

enforced to settle in this way, majority of the responses was due to lack alternative option

to be owner of house because of Inflation and current expensive of life they were unable

to afford land provide by legal form, following by due to search better life, need of owner

of house in simple way or privacy, get hold of free gifted plot from kin and share of the

land from parent they gave, proximity to work, due to lease has interests, which was

forbidden in Muslim religion and was due to Fear of dispossessor from their plot that

encroached to urban respectively were among reasons people prefer to live in the area

without having any building permit.

50 | P a g e

5.3 Recommendations

Based on the objectives and the findings of the survey, the following feasible

recommendations were forwarded to the concerned bodies to rectify the observed

problems related to the factors that contributing to the expansion of informal settlement in

the case of Haramaya town

1. The town administrative should provide adequate, flexible and affordable land for

housing by participating stakeholders: The town administration cannot solve alone

the housing problems to meet the demand of all the land requests residents of the

Municipality due to its huge resource requirement. Therefore, the town

administrative needs to involve PPP/public-private partnership/ from the private

sector, Haramaya University and other donor agencies in the improvement of the

housing and living conditions of the residence. They need to be forums whereby

different stakeholders, including the government, come together and negotiate at

the investments of real estate in the future of the place. The town administrative

should encourage the stakeholders on constructing of affordable houses in the

town. The stopped Condominiums project in Haramaya town should continue to

reduce the deficiency of housing on the market.

2. Facilitate allotment manner of urban land to highly discriminated groups: The

government should facilitate allotment manner of urban land to the civil servants

and extended families whose are highly discriminated groups of cases of lack of

capitals. To encourage the participation of communities in housing construction,

the government facilitates the loan and all available ways of housing provision

modality like provision of integrated housing development program, public rent

house, cooperative house, and the like.

3. Assure good governance: First, and most importantly, the recommendation which

can be made here is that Haramaya town administration should assure good

governance, which reduces the long process of municipality to access land there

were excessive bureaucracy; inadequate institutional arrangements and a lack of

honesty and transparency in Haramaya Town land allocation procedures. The

Haramaya Town administration is better to look insist effective service delivery

service system based on the BPR /Business Process Reengineering/ to improve the

customer satisfaction and reduce boring strategies of the land allocation process.

To confirm the transparency of the community before implementation of policy

51 | P a g e

and redesigning first the public awareness should based on trust. So, the

government should facilitate the discussion within all stakeholders and should

work together with concerning the bodies.

4. Create strong urban rural linkage: Haramaya town should create strong urban-rural

linkage which reduces farmers in the town periphery revealed they were fastened

to transfer their land illegally by selling and gifting to the third body before the

government-controlled for Residents, Industry, Commerce and for another

purpose. Especially, a plot of land legally acquired before the urban center entered

into the leasehold system or a land provided as compensation in kind to person

evicted should pay the appropriate benefit. Therefore, the government should

confirm secured the land right to the owners, to develop the trust of community on

sustainable land management.

5. The town administration should increase the supply of land for urban dwellers. So,

the Haramaya town administration is better performing reasonably to increase the

supply of land and to cope up with the increasing demand.

6. The city government should strengthen the local governments to gain ability to

control the emergence of new informal settlements

Further Studies

Based on the findings of this study further studies should be done on the affordability of

the lease land delivery system to addressing middle and low income groups, the impact of

paying interest on the remaining payment of lease which contradicting of some religion on

residence for equal access to land in the study area.

52 | P a g e

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I

Annexes - 1

Ethiopian Civil Service University

Institute of Urban Development Studies (IUDS)

Department of Urban Housing Development and Management

Dear Respondent

Thank you for your willingness to participate in the study by devoting your time. I‟m

student in Ethiopian Civil Service University second year masters program in Housing

Development and Management department.

My topic of research is The factors contributing for expansion of Informal Settlements

in Haramaya Town as partial fulfillment for the requirement of master‟s degree in Urban

Housing Development and Management

The purpose of this questionnaire is to capture first hand information on the issues under

consideration. All questions to be answered are purely for academic purpose. Your

individual response will be kept strictly confidential. Your response is very important for

the success of the study. Hence, feel free to respond to the questions and no reference will

be made to you in particular.

Note

a. It is not necessary to write your name on the questionnaire.

b. Please also be informed that the information you give will be kept secret and

hence try to express your ideas as much as you can.

Direction

a. Please try to answer every question in accordance to the instruction provided.

b. For multiple choice questions, please answer by putting‟‟√‟‟ sign in the box

provided.

c. For questions that require your opinion, please give short, precise and honest

answer.

Thank you in advance for your truthful response!

II

Appendix A:

A Questioner to be Filled by the Households of Informal Settlers.

Part I: - Back Ground Information of Households of Informal Settlers.

Instruction: - please mark “ √ “mark in the boxes that corresponds to your back

ground.

1 age A 20-30 C. 41-50

B 31-40 D. > 51

2. Sex A Male B Female

3. Educational status

A. Illiterate B. Read and write C. Elementary completion

D. Secondary school completion E. College diploma F. First degree and above

4. What is your current occupation?

A. self employed B. public servant C. part time payer

D. farmers E. business person F. student G. other

5. Level of your monthly income

A. Less than 1000 birr B. 1001-3000 birr C. 3001-5000 birr

D. 5001-10,000 birr E. Above 10,000 birr

6. Marital statuses

A Married B Single C Divorce D widowed E. other

7. Family size of the house holds

A 1-4 B 5-9 C. 10-15 D. Above 15+

III

Part II: Issue Related to Examine the Trends of Informal Settlers in the Town

2. How would you examine the supply of land in informal settlements?

No supply of land in informal

settlements

Strongly

Agree

Agree Fairly

Agree

Disagree Strongly

disagree

A Adequate

B Inadequate

C Flexible

D Inflexible

E Affordable

F Unaffordable

2. Is access to land equal for all groups of for the informal settlers?

A. yes B. no

3. If no, which groups are discriminated against land acquisition?

A. extended family B. business men

C. civil servant D. politician E. officials

4. What is the root causes of the discrimination?

A. law B. culture C. Ideology

D. attitude E . capital F. other(specify) _____________________

Part III: Issue Related Causes of Informal Settlement

1. What are the factors that push you to informally settled?

A. Shortage of income B. Long process of municipality to access land

C. High rising land markets D. Lack of residential House

E. other (specify)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Do you have alternative land for house in the town? A. Yes B. No

3. If yes, how did you hold the land?

A. through lease B. Inherited from family

C. purchased from farmer D. acquire from government by free hold

E. other (specify)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. How much is the area of your plot?

A. below150m2 B. 151- 200m

2 C. 201-250m

2

D. 251-500 m2 E. > 500m

2

5. Material from which your house built?

A. wood and mud B. Cement and bricks C. other

IV

Part IV: Issue Related to How the Informal Settlers Capture the Land Informally

1. How did you acquire the plot??

A. purchase B. inheritance C. allocation by state/community

D. transfer E. invasion F. adjudication

G. other (specify)----------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. When did you come to settle here?

A. 2002 and before E.C B. 2003 E.C C 2004E.C

D.2005E.C E . 2006. E.C F. 2007 G. 2008

3. Where were you before settling here?-------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Why did you choose to settle here?----------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Is there Infrastructures development provision on this area before you settled here?

A. yes B. No

6. If your answer of quotation number 5 is “yes”, List infrastructure development, that

provided.

_____________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

7. What rights do you have over the land?-----------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. Do you have a building permit? A Yes B. No

V

Appendix: B

Interview Questionnaire to be answered by the Municipality and Kebele Manager

Part I: Causes of Informal Settlement

1. List the factors which push the expansion of the informal land allocation and

building sub standard houses in the town?-------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------

2. Why do farmers transfer land to the third bodies without legal ground?---------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------

3. Why was people want to settle in informal settlements than formal settlements? ----

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------

Part III: How the Informal Settlements Capture the Land Related Interview

Questions

1. What mechanism they use to transfer land?--------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

VI

Appendix: C

Interview Questionnaire to be answered by Land Administration and Development

Agency Manager and Experts

Part I: Causes of Informal Settlement

1. List the factors which push the expansion of the informal land allocation and

building sub standard houses in the town?----------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------

2. What is your opinion in providing serviced plot of land to the residents

according to the intended demand? ------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------

3. Is there continuous monitoring and registration of vacant public land?-------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Part II: Trends of Squatter Related Interview Questions

1. What changes do saw among the previous 5 years in this area?-----------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. list mechanism for land transfer exist?-----------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

VII

Appendix D

Interview Questionnaire to be answered by Farmers/Inhabitant

Part I: Causes of Informal Settlement

No Possible causes of

informality

Strongly

Agree

Agree Fairly

Agree

Dis agree Strongly

disagree

1 Poverty

2 High price of land

3 Absence of affordable

housing

4 Delay and inefficient land

administration

5 Expensive building

standard code

6 Weak administration of

land

7 Rural urban migration

8 Lack of housing finance

and credit

9. Other specify the causes that pushes to squatting -----------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

----------------------------------------------------------------------

VIII

Annexes- 2

Sample Images of Informal Houses in Haramaya Town.

Source: Field survey

IX

Sample Images of Informal Houses in Haramaya Town.

Source: Field survey