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CHAPTER 2
The literature reviews are centered on my research
variables and research questions. These variables are eight
perspectives, transformational leadership, leadership,
leaders, organization and inner-city communities. From the
research questions elements such as entrepreneurship,
transform the community, counseling and homework centre.
The chapter examines the views of other writer’s
comments on the affect of the application of the eight
perspectives of Transformational Leadership on the leaders
of an organization and an inner-city community and it also
identifies resources in the literature to support the vision
and implementation of the project that the leaders and heads
of departments of the Shortwood Teachers’ College (STC) wish
to take on.
The following books show how authors view leaders,
community organizational transformation through the
application of transformational leadership. They present
their own solutions to the problem posed and an analysis
will be done on how their ideas can influence this research.
The strengths and weaknesses will be included.
Leadership with a Difference
Transformational Leadership: Taking Responsibility for
Successful Schools by Lola Gray focuses on leadership
within schools. Gray brings out many insights in the book as
it relates to leadership. Two perspectives of
transformational leadership were identified such as
Reflective and Prophetic Leadership. Grey cited by James
McGregor-Barnes states that “leadership is about inspiring
actions, recognizing opportunities and transforming
outcomes.” 1 Gray states that “transformational leadership
creates positive changes in the life of the people as well
as the organization and organizational changes are made
through vision and goals.” 2 This comment is applicable to
the project, envisioned for the Grants Pen Community. She
also cites Bass who states that the transformational leader 1 Lola Lureen Gray, Transformational Leadership: Taking
Responsibility for Successful Schools (Belleville: Essence Publishing, 2010), 19
2 Ibid, 20
motivates followers by charisma, intellectual arousal and
individual consideration.” 3 These arguments definitively
underscore the concept of Reflective Leadership. Gray also
argues that transformational leaders often act as mentors to
their followers.
If the concept of mentorship is driven home to the
leaders in my organization then the institution would be
positioned to undertake some aspects of transformation.
People need motivation in order to produce and often the
motivation has to be sparked internally. If leaders can
become inspirational then the HODs will begin to believe
that the goals of the organization are attainable. Inspired
workers can become the greatest asset of the organization.
These people are more than able to bring transformation to
any inner city community. However, if leaders undermine
their HODs very little can be accomplished. Gray states that
“it is imperative that principals and teachers working with
their communities make collective decisions and take
collective actions.” Gray cited by Tom Peters that
3 Ibid, 20
“leadership is all about getting people engaged, involved
and excited about a vision that is about quality and
innovation.”4
4 Ibid, 24
Gray spoke about the leadership initiative at the
school of which she was principal. A part of her strategy
was to involve the community in the transformation process.
She desired to see it become reality. One of the phrases
which she coined for this project was “the community of
learners.” 1 This community of learners involved not only
the students but the teachers as well as the parents. She
also emphasized teamwork and the value of acknowledging and
commending persons in their professional capacities. Gray
also underscores the importance of the commitment of all
stakeholders if change is to take place. Prophetic
Leadership can be clearly seen here as the transformation of
a vital institution such as the school requires that
everyone plays their part. This is endorses the plan that
the HODs have for the Grants Pen Community; that both
leaders and workers get involved in transforming the
community.
1 Ibid, 30
The book speaks to the attributes of the organization,
leadership strategies, collaborative leadership,
transformational leadership and instructional leadership.
The language in the book is melodious, flavored with
fascinating phrases such as “a transformational leader
motivates as well as creates a community of intellectuals
seeking new ways of working and altering the work
environment.” 1 Although it is an excellent book I believe
more emphasis should be placed on the perspectives of
transformational leadership and how they would affect the
leaders and the inner city. The book’s focus is on
education, the transforming power of good and equitable
leadership strategies were limited to the scenario which
took place in one catholic school.
Gray helps the reader to understand the concept that
the transformational leader allows stakeholders to develop
pride, feelings of mission and to identify the goals of the
organization.
1 Ibid, 9
Collaborative Leadership- Although collaborative
leadership is not one of the perspectives covered under EPTL
it gives some insights into effective leadership. Gray cited
by John Gardener states that “a good community nurtures its
members and fosters an atmosphere of trust. This leadership
style emphasizes teamwork and recognizes the worth and
potential of others.
Culturally Responsive Leadership- Culturally responsive
leadership highlights diverse learning needs of students.
Gray states that “it enable teachers t learn about students’
language and culture.” This is vital to the leader and HODs
because it will enable them to understand the culture of the
community and the background of the people.
The Leader God Wants You to Be
Three years ago I read the book entitled ‘Be the Leader
You Were Meant to Be’ by Leroy Eims. It can be described as
a spiritually uplifting guide for those who are desirous of
making full use of their ministry as leaders in the church
and in the society at large. This book give me deep insight
on how a good leader should respond and lead others. It
describes the qualities that a leader should possess and the
attitudes they should have. Leaders should be willing to
share with others they should have a servant’s heart which
means to serve others first and to possess a sensitive
spirit. Eims states that “leaders must be sensitive to the
needs of the people and compassionate in their dealings with
them.” 2
This book is relevant to the topic because it
introduces to the reader good principles of leadership such
as faith and humility. Eims argues that “A humble spirit is
the hallmark of the person God uses.” 3 It highlights the
fact that when we are chosen as leaders we should make the
effort to train others to become responsible leaders. This
2 Leroy Eims, Be the Leader You Were Meant to Be (Colorado Springs, Lo: Nexgen, 1975), 50
3 Ibid, 36
speaks to authority. Eims had no need to undermine his
followers and other leaders. What qualifies Eims to write on
the subject is the fact that he was called to be a leader
and therefore he saw the need to share with others the good
qualities that leaders should possess. He wrote the book
thirty-seven (37) years ago and did so with the intent of
addressing “the development of leaders committed to
excellence in their personal lives and being an example to
those whom they lead.” 4 It is an excellent and classic
book and is written for those who are in leadership training
as well as pastors administrators and heads of government.
This book explains how a leader should honor leadership,
always recognizing the voice of lord and to live by example.
The tone of the book reflects the passion of the author with
regard to leadership. The organization of the book also
allows the reader to quickly follow the different steps of
leadership.
Eims further states that “before people take on a
leadership responsibility they should weigh the matter
4 Ibid, 6
carefully.” 5 Leaders should know their role well they
should know how to demonstrate their power effectively
without showing any form of bias or undermining others. This
of course, is exactly what leaders of the Shortwood
Teachers’ College will need to consider as they grapple with
the problem of helping the Grants Pen Community.
The writer presents a claim and substantiates it by
making it reasonable enough to be considered as a good guide
for leaders. This book is compatible with the other books
that I have read. Nevertheless, I thought that some of the
sub-titles needed to have more examples to show persons how
to model good relationships. This would have shed more light
on the research topic. This book did not address any aspect
of the EPTL. I believe that if he had discussed some of the
issues it would have been more practical.
The Leader within You
Myles Munroe in his work In Charge: Finding the Leader
within You, places great emphasis on the concept of
5 Ibid, 11
leadership from the perspective of empowering individuals to
tap into their God-given abilities. He also causes the
reader to see their gifts and talents as avenues to unearth
the leader within them. Munroe also elevates the concept of
leadership from being given to a specific group of
exceptional people to being given to every human being.
Three of the perspectives were identified in the book
which is Calling-Based s Leadership, Servant-Leadership and
Reflective Leadership. Munore’s philosophy of leadership is
that each individual has “an inherent gift and must serve
that gift to the word.” 6 He argues quite candidly that many
people grow up in cultures which are built on the oppression
of the masses and are intent on keeping people in the mode
of continuously seeing themselves as mere followers who do
not qualify to aspire to any position of leadership. As a
result, many people fail to place the same value on
themselves as God does. Munroe reiterates this by concluding
that if we are to be fulfilled we must unleash the leader
within us.
6 Myles Munroe, In Charge: Finding the Leader Within You (New York: Faith Words, 2008)4
The Calling-Base concept of leadership which he
advocates for would guard against the undermining of
individuals because it would cause leaders to see the value
of those they have been called to lead. They would also
learn to accept people and give them enough room to grow and
to express themselves in their area of giftedness. Munroe
affirms this by stating that genuine greatness is “related
to the discovery, development, refinement and serving of a
unique ‘gift’…” 7 to humanity.
His concept of greatness centers on individuals’
ability to maximize their potential in any area of gifting.
Munroe also encourages people to have regard for and to
respect people in their various gifting. Munroe’s examples
concerning leadership help the reader to understand Calling-
Based Leadership. One such case is where he says “leaders
seek to understand God-given gifts, experiences….” 8
7 Ibid, 15 8
Munroe’s take on Servant-Leadership places a balanced
perspective on greatness. He states that we “….were born to
dominate an area of gifting, not to dominate people…..”1
Every leader is a servant and is required to serve humanity
to the best if this ability with the gifts and talents he
has been entrusted with.
Munroe states that ‘servant-leaders do not cultivate
fear or manipulate.” 2 When the culture of servant-hood in
embodied in an organization the tendency to dominate and to
crush people’s self worth or the manipulate or threaten
people into doing what they want them to do.
Munroe also reflects on the Greek and Roman
philosophies which suggest that “leadership was a product of
natural endowment, of birth traits, of divine providence.” 3
Reflective Leadership reflects on reality and lives in
reality. The leaders in an organization are to empower their
subordinates to express themselves in the community. The
1 Ibid, 43 2 Ibid, 773 Ibid, 68
reality is that no one person is gifted in every area. Good
leaders cannot be selfish and self-centered. Munroe spoke
about the destructiveness if insecure leaders who abuse
their power by seeking to “……destroy , oppress, or take
advantage of other people….”4 He mentions seven principles
among them is “becoming yourself for the benefit others.”5
I think that this book is very much in line with the
solutions which I brought concerning my dissertation. The
book was very insightful and places tremendous emphasis on
the role and function of effective leaders.
Servant-Leadership
The book entitled Insights on Leadership is a
compilation of essays and is written by Peter Block, Ken
Blanchard, Margaret Wheatley and James Autry. The book is
mainly focuses on servant-leadership and how it impacts
various social arenas. One of the first things which the
4 Ibid, 975 Ibid, 99
book addresses is he misconception that top level management
tends to have about the servant- leadership. The authors
address this issues by making reference the traditional
hierarchical structures of leader and the limitations which
they present. Servant- Leadership places the leader at the
lowest level of the scale of leadership and places the
worker at the highest point. In this kind of environment the
workers “……..become responsible and the job of manangement
is to be responsive to their people.” 6
The application of Servant-Leadership is applied in
this book and is applicable to the dissertation topic. The
authors argue that if managers understand the concept of
Servant-Leadership they will not feel as though they will
lose influence over those they serve. This idea confirms my
concept of Servant-Leadership and I realize that learning to
serve others is one of the greatest challenges which faces
cooperate organizations in Jamaica. The authors state that
“the whole mission if the institution is geared toward
6 Peter Block , Ken Blanchard, Margaret Wheatley and James Autry Insights on Leadership: Service, Stewardship, Spirit and Servant- Leadership (New York: John Rilely and Sons Inc , 1998)25
individual and social responsibility, which means to serve
contribute and make a difference.”7
The authors also highlight Calling-Based Leadership as
a part of their presentation on the dynamics of good
leadership. They argue that “……we all have a vocation……” and
the “we are all called to a unique purpose….”8
They also opened my eyes to the see that leaders have a
natural eye for stopping potential and strengths in their
workers. This ability is crucial especially as it relates to
where these individuals fit in an organization.
Although the book is geared towards Servant-Leadership
a few aspects speak to Prophetic-Leadership by stating that
we are co-creators of the world. They state that Prophetic –
Leadership by stating that “prophetic leaders have the
ability to create the world they manage and also have the
ability to determine the environment that their workers have
to labor in.” 9 The authors are of the view that if
7 Ibid, XVII 8 Ibid, 31 9 Ibid, 200
Prophetic-Leadership is emphasized in an organization the
workers will be empowered to effect change.
The book presented leadership in an interesting and
practical manner. My only issue with the book is that it
should have given insight on the other perspectives as the
book was heavily laced with the Servant-Leadership concept.
Work as A Calling
This book has shed some light on the topic on the topic when
the authors cited by Elizabeth Jefferies which states that
“…..one’s own calling in life and challenges each of us to
serve one another through our work.” 10 (Book particulars
not listed) The authors cited by Michael Novak also state
that not only is business a morally serious vocation, it is
a morally noble one in that it creates social connections,
lifts it participants out of poverty and builds the
10 Ibid, 29
foundations for democracy.11 The book gives some positive
highlight and shows how it relates to poverty and builds
others. Although it did not mention community but the
comments can be applied.
The authors give some good examples on how people
really know that the work they are doing is one they are
called to do. They state that if we want to change the
world, as cited by Greenleaf, “we must first know who we are
and where we stand.” 12 One of the authors said that work
must be looked as more than just a mere job but can be also
looked at as a ministry and a spiritual practice. This
statement sheds some light on the topic as the work being
done in the organization I am a part of should be seen as a
ministry.
The authors cited by Michael Novak present “four power-
points of a calling.” 13
1. Each calling is unique to each individual
11 Ibid, 3212 Ibid, 3213 Ibid, 34
This point gives a clear view that the leaders
and HODs of the XYZ Teachers’ College has a
unique call to go into the inner city to assist
and uplift the broken hearted.
2. A calling requires certain preconditions
This point states that calling must “fit our
abilities” and “love must be involved”. I
appreciate this point because it is in
accordance with the HODs capability to work in
the community and the love they have for the
people.
3. A true calling reveals its presence by the enjoyment and
sense of renewal energies its practice yields us.
The important point is that the HOD enjoys
their calling to work.
4. Callings are not usually easy to discover.
This gives a clearer view of the HODs’ calling
is not necessarily easy to discover by the
leaders. The authors state that “much patience
are often required…..” 14
Leaders Should Learn to Listen and be Effective Mentor
Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach, written by Jane
Vella is a very insightful and helpful book. This is book is
not particularly based on the principles of Transformational
Leadership but carries some insights which I believe are
relevant to effective leadership functions. Vella devoted an
entire chapter to what she tilted sound relationships. What
she portrays here is the importance of interconnectedness
and interrelation among individuals. This shows that XYZ
Teachers’ College can interconnect with the community of
Grants Pen and interact with them to show them that
something good can come out of that community. Vela states
that “sound relationships for learning involve respect,
14 Ibid, 34
safety, open communication, listening and humility.” 1 This
affirms that leaders should regard their workers and employ
humility when dealing with them. Building sound relations is
of utmost importance if leaders are to become as effective
as possible.
Vella also mentions mentorship which goes hand in hand
with Reflective Leadership. She also stresses the importance
of affirmation. She helps the reader to understand that
affirming workers is a vital ingredient that will allow the
organization to be successful and build wonderful
relationships.
The book speaks about building a relationship which
relates to what the leaders want to build in the Grants Pen
Community. Vella additionally deliberates about teamwork.
The information in this portion of the book will help to
construct the program for the community.
She also spoke about respecting the learner as a
decision maker. It allows the reader to have the aptitude to
relate well both her followers as well as their colleagues.
1 Jane Vella, Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach (San Francisco, CA, John Wiley and Sons Inc 2002), 85
It also gives insight on how to deal with the people in
Grants Pen.
The book is a good one, although it did not speak about
leadership or the EPTL but it gives guidelines on how to
teach and listen. In addition it tells us how to treat
workers and people in general. It also encourages leaders to
be aware of the intricacies involved in certain leadership
roles and function. Leaders are also discouraged from
attempting to override the suggestions of others.
The Leader As Mentor
The book The Making of a Leader by Robert J. Clinton
focuses majorly on leadership within the context of the
Church. While I think that the area of concentration makes
the book’s outlook narrow I was still able to glean some
insights on Calling-Based Leadership as well as Reflective
Leadership from it.
In the book Clinton defines a leader as one who
“influences a specific group of people to move in God-given
direction.” 2 Clinton attributes this influence to the
endowment of the Spirit of God through God-given ability or
calling. Clinton also argues that leaders who make decisions
for others need to understand the various factors that allow
convergence: role-match, giftedness, experience, destiny,
spiritual maturity just to name a few. This point is in line
with the topic because it helps leaders to consider the
needs of the individual as well as the organization. It will
give the leader the chance to realize that there gifted
people who are sometimes frustrated they fail to discover
their gifts and abilities. It agrees with the researcher
that leaders need to apply the EPTL to their organizational
plan and to the community of Grants Pen. He is obviously
speaking to leaders who refrain from maximizing their
workers potentials.
Clinton also deliberates on mentorship which I believe
has its roots in Relfective Leadership. He describes a
mentor as one who has the “…..capacity and the heart to see
leadership potential and take private and personal action to
2
help the potential leader develop.” ( Book details are not
listed)
Clinton’s concept of leadership shows that XYZ
Teachers’ College can adopt this principle and become a
mentor for the people in the Grants Pen Community. Clinton
furthers warns against the tendency of some leaders to
manipulate those under their leadership. He gives the HODs a
model of good mentorship. He also shares that mentorship
often makes mentees vulnerable to their mentors and it is
important that leaders walk in integrity and purity when
they become mentors for their followers.
The book was moderately helpful did very little to
inspire me where leadership is concerned. It had very little
information on transformational leadership as a whole. I
also thought that the author spent a great deal of time
talking about the character of a leader and not enough time
on the principles of leadership.
The Calling
Novak in his book, Business as a Calling writes from
the premise that involvement in business is as much of a
calling from God as any other aspect of Christian ministry.
The book underscores the concept of Calling-Based
Leadership. Novak considers calling to be “a sense of having
uncovered the personalities, talents or longings we were
born with.” 3 When we fulfill these gifts from beyond
ourselves it is like fulfilling something we were meant to
do.” 4 The question of calling is vitally important to all
those who are involved in the corporate world and must be
adequately answered by all. Novak states that “even if we do
not always think of it that way, each of us was given a
calling by fate, by chance, by destiny, by God. Those who
3 Michael Novak, Business as a Calling (New York: The Free Press, 1996)18
4 Ibid, 18
are lucky have found it.” 5 He states that “no two people
have exactly the same calling.” 6 This statement affirms the
EPTL’s concept of calling as each person is different and
each calling is different.
Novak further states that business practice depends
heavily on virtue. Therefore, business “cannot go forward”
unless there is a highly motivated and virtuous working
community.” 7
Reflective-Leadership will allow individuals to become
dynamic and has the power to make them change agents. Novak
underscores this by stating that “business being a creative
community is the greatest transformative power of the
condition of the poor on earth.” 8 Novak’s words are
encouraging and he advocates for leaders within
organizations to get involved in empowering and assisting
the poor within the Grants Pen Community. Novak identifies
ways that businesses can bring about transformation to poor
5 Ibid, 18 6 Ibid, 1157 Ibid, 1158 Ibid, 127
communities. One of the ways is by creating opportunities
through employment. This embraces the plan of the XYZ
Teachers’ College.
Novak has shed light on the fact that organizations
need to get involved in the community by penning these
words;
Part of the business vocation then is gettingtogether and forming a task-oriented community- acommunity, in other words not to satisfy all needsbut to get specific things done for the public,“to make a contribution to society” that no oneperson could make alone but must be made by manytogether.9
Novak encourages businesses to give back to the society. He
made mention of Andrew Carnegie who gave “decades of thought
to how best to give wealth away for the benefit of the
poor.” 10
The book gives an excellent view on calling and how one
should live in his or her calling.
9 Ibid, 25 10 Ibid, 193
Organization and Transformational Leaders
Organizational Behavior written by Stephen P. Robbins
and Timothy A. Judge focuses on the behavior which is
synonymous with organizations. The authors define
organizational behavior as follows; it is a field of study
that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and
structure have on behavior within organizations for the
purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an
organization’s effectiveness.” This definition gives the
reader a wider knowledge of the organization which can also
apply to the community. It gives valuable insight into the
definition of an organization. An organization is a
“consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or
more people that functions on a relatively continuous basis
to achieve a common goal or set of goals.” 11
11 Stephen P. Robbins and Timothy A. Judge, Organizational Behavior (Boston: Prentice Hall, 2011), 9
The authors also spoke about the issue of ethics. They
argue that “today’s managers (leaders) must create an
ethically healthy climate for his or her employees where
they can work productively with minimal ambiguity about
right and wrong behaviors” 12 All of the above is helpful to
leaders because it gives the leader greater understanding of
the role and calling of different people in the organization
and how to deal with each employee as that they can be
productive. Ethical issues are an integral part of
transformational leadership. Genuine change cannot
adequately manifest in an organization or community if the
ethical stance of either entity is not examine. This
underscores the point that if the EPTL is to be successful
in an organization or community there must the exercise of
ethical principles if the concepts are to be successful. If
there is an attempt to bring about change without touching
this vital area of concern change will at best be
superficial. The book also spoke about transformational
leadership. One of the positives that it states is that
12 Ibid, 22
“transformational leaders are able to increase follower
self-efficacy giving the group a “can do” spirit.” 13This
statement drives home the point that transformational
leadership cuts against the grain of simply just giving an
organization of face lift. The authors state that
Transformational Leadership “inspires followers to transcend
their self-interests for the good of the organization and
can have an extraordinary effect on their followers.”14
Robbins and Judge embrace the fact that
transformational leaders are “more effective because are
more creative and they also encourage those who follow to be
creative too.” 15 They also mention that “companies with
transformational leaders also show greater agreement among
top managers about the organization’s goals, which yields
superior organizational performance.” 16 This information is
critical to those who wish to get involved in the
transformation of the inner city as it would help them to
13 Ibid, 39014 Ibid, 39215 Ibid 392 16 Ibid 392
transfer this kind of thinking into a community where every
citizen would take ownership of the community and see
themselves as guardians of its welfare.
The book gives some helpful insight into organizational
ethics and transformational leadership. It did give me some
information which I think would be relevant for my research
topic.
Organization Transformation and Teamwork
The Book Principles of Business for CSEC written by
Karlene Robinson and Sybile Hamil focuses on various aspects
of business and the study of the principles which surround
it. The book offers some vital information about about
leadership we can be adopted into any organizational
structure as well as any community setting. The authors
define a business as “an organization that provides goods or
services or both, with the aim of making a profit.” 17 One
of the programs to be implemented in the community is
17 Karlene Robinson Sybille Hamil. Principles of Business for CSEC, with SBA Study Guide and Exercise (China: Prolong Press Limited, (Jamaica Carlong Publishers Ltd 2011), 11
training in entrepreneurship and this book gives an overview
of it. The authors state that “to succeed in business, one
has to be courageous in the decisions taken, creative and
prepare to take risks. A successful business person is
usually an entrepreneur.”18
The authors further state that a transformational
leader “identifies the need for change and as visionary uses
strategies that will inspire workers to change.” 19 Change
is never easy and in an organizational setting it can be
quite challenging. Transformational leaders have the unique
ability to present change in such a way that it is received
as progress and renewal. Robinson and Hamil state that a
transformational leader knows how to exercise influence and
not authority. The book also deliberates on the effect
teamwork. The power of teamwork cannot be overly emphasized
and its effect is often magnetized in a corporate setting.
Teamwork can strengthen the relationships between
workers as well as enhance the achievements of the
18 Ibid., 1119 Ibid., 88
organization. For the EPTL to be effective one of the first
steps which must be employed is to energize people to
embrace the positives of teamwork and to regard the
workplace as an environment for cohesion. These principles
can be applied to the transformation the Grants Pen
Community.
The authors have strengthened my resolve about
transformational leadership because they have reinforced the
simple truth that change is a necessary ingredient
organizational growth.
The Role of Business in a Community
The authors helped me to fully recognize that the main
interest of the organization is not only to make a profit
but also to employ persons in the community, to undertake
community development projects and to be involved in other
cultural and recreational activities. The authors emphasize
that “business organizations do not exist in isolation as
they operate within communities…..” “management therefore
should develop and maintain good public relationships and
thus a good public image or good corporate citizenship in
the community” 20 This statement is in accordance with the
motive of the topic to go into the community and build a
relationship with the people and assist the community by
making worthwhile contributions to its education, community
projects and training sessions.
The Mentor
Holy and Mischal in their book Educational
Administration; Theory, Research & Practice, talk about
leadership from the perspective of school administration.
The authors speak about power and the different levels of
authority and leadership in the school system. Several types
of power are mentioned in the book which can be used in a
school setting to influence the behavior of individuals.
Although the focus of this research is not on power it is
20 Ibid., 75
relevant because it will help the reader to understand how
it functions among leaders.
One type of power mentioned in the book is referent
power. This they define as the “ability to influence
behavior based on subordinates’ liking and identification
with the administrator” 21 This type of power rests with the
extraordinary personality and skilled interpersonal
relations of the individual. This allows the workers to
emulate and look up to their leaders which are in keeping
with the principles of transformational leadership. Holy and
Mischal state that “empowerment is the process by which
administrators share power and help others use it in
constructive ways to make decisions affecting themselves and
their work.”22
The authors’ discussion on empowerment is very
important to the transformational process. Transformation
cannot take place unless persons are empowered to the point
where they believe that they can make concrete changes in
21 Wayne K. Holy and Cecil G. Miskel Educational Administration22 Ibid., 229
their lives. The transformational leader is in essence an
empowerment specialist. Inner city communities have to be
empowered it they are genuinely going to experience change.
Empowerment transcends helping people it positions people to
eventually help themselves. Many inner cities have developed
a culture of dependence because they have been trained to be
dependent. Some of them genuinely do not think that their
lives are of much value and do not think they can change
their situation.
Additionally, Holy and Mischal endorse the path-goal
theory of leadership. Two of the elements of leadership
under this theory are achievement-oriented leader behavior
and supportive leader behavior. The first is defined by the
authors as “behavior that encourages excellent performance,
sets challenging goals, seeks improvement and shows
confidence that subordinates will attain high performance
standards.” 23 Much of what is described above can be
identified in the eight perspectives of transformational
leadership. Holy and Mischal state that transformational
23 Ibid., 443
leaders are proactive, raise awareness levels of followers
about inspirational collective interests and help followers
achieve usually high performance outcomes.”24
One of the areas of transformational leadership
highlighted in the book is what is termed idealized
influence according to the authors this “builds trust and
respect in followers and provides the basis for accepting
radical and fundamental changes in the ways individuals and
organizations do their work.”25
The book does not specifically list any of the eight
perspectives of transformational leadership it provided me
with much food for thought on the concept to leadership. It
has also given new ideas about the power of transformational
leadership as it has caused me to take a fresh look at what
transformation is all about.
Application of Incarnational Leadership
24 Ibid., 446 25 Ibid., 446
John Hayes in his book Sub-merge deals with the problem
of poverty and more precisely how the world’s poor and
viewed and treated. Hayes delves into the plight of the poor
and advocates for living among them so that they can be
adequately ministered to. He spoke about the welfare of
cities by stating that “a large percentage of Christians now
realize that seeking the spiritual social and environmental
welfare of cities is more significant to our collective
future together than ever before.”26
Hayes also speaks about the effect of community. He
states that “it takes a community to reach a community” (p.184)
Organizations in their own right are corporate communities.
He affirms community involvement by stating that we should
“invest heavily in maintaining a healthy community, mining
deep veins of spirituality and encouraging one another to
grow.” 27
26 John B. Hayes, Sub-merge: Living Deep in a Shallow World, Service’ Justice and Contemplation Among the World’s Poor (Ventura: Regal, 2006),15
27 Ibid., 187
Hayes dedicates an entire portion of his book to
incarnational ministry. He argues that it is only by living
among the poor that Christians can genuinely identify with
them and minister to them. Organizations should develop
sustainable relationships with the leaders in the inner city
so that partnerships can be formed. In so doing
organizational leaders will become acquainted with the
specific plights of particular inner cities.
This book gives some real life stories about the
application of Incarnational Leadership. It speaks about
Father Damien who left his home town and went to live the
Hawaiian lepers. Hayes states that “Hawaiians thought
leprosy to be so contagious and so dangerous that it might
wipe out their society altogether.” 28 “Father Damien’s
example reminds us that real compassion means suffering
means alongside. Pity weeps and walks away, so the saying
goes. Compassion comes to help and to stay.” 29 He also
states that Father Damien died on the island far from his
28 Ibid., 112 29 Ibid., 112
native Belgium of a leprosy related disease. The important
point here is that he gave up his life for the people. This
helps me to realize that the leaders and HODs are no
exception to the rule.
Hayes further states that “ the mystery and inspiration
of incarnation is that the Word became flesh and blood and
moved into the neighborhood.”30 This section of the research
has been a road map in my life, it has given me another
level to climb and maintain especially when Hayes says:
The world needs more words made flesh. The world needsmore people to live the good news incarnationally in away that can be seen, heard and handled. Inner-changeworks have been handled-often roughly. Work among thepoor steers you into a lot a heavy emotional traffic.Those of us who live in poor communities have beenthreatened, knocked down and even shaken down bypolice…., compelled, like Ezekiel to be ones who wouldstand in the gap on behalf of poor communities some ofus have found ourselves repeatedly standing in thecrossfire.” 31
This book gives me a greater understanding of
incarnational ministry and the role which it plays in
reaching poor neighborhoods. Another interesting portion of
30 Ibid., 113 31 Ibid., 114
the book states that “to Jews I become like a Jew to win the
Jews. To those under the law I become like one under the
law.” 32
The Model of Christ
“The word become flesh and made his dwelling among us”
(John 1:14), another example that inspire me that the
leaders and the HODs are on the right track in implementing
the program they were inspired to do. When Hayes quoted that
“for you know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that
though he was rich, yet for your sake he became poor so that
you through is poverty might become rich.” (2 Cor. 8:9)
Jesus came incarnationally to dwell among us.
Transforming and Organizing for Community
Action
32 Ibid., 116
Robert Linthicum says “power has the potential to
either be very ruthless and destructive (unlimited or
dominating) or very strengthening and liberating
(relational)”33He allows the reader to understand that power
must be used in a manner that can motivate others and help
them to build their confidence. Linthicum states that “power
can be openly acknowledged and understood, can enhance the
relationships between people, define and deliver on issues
of common importance……..build more loving and powerful of
faith.” 34
Linthicum also deliberates on the fact that God sends
us to places he chooses in order to accomplish his will. He
also encourages Christians to pray for their communities and
cities. He helps the reader to realize that organizations
like STC can follow this example and reach up to surrounding
communities like Grants Pen.
Linthicum further argues that a transformed community
must place “primary value on the people and their well-33 Robert Linthicum, Transforming Power: Biblical Strategies for
Making a Difference in your community (Downers Grove Il: IVP Books, 2003), 12
34 Ibid., 63
being.” 35 The reader does not believe that this should be
the core value. While the reader appreciates all that he has
written about transforming power and working for the shalom
on one’s city, the reader thinks that Linthicum should place
more emphasis on giving managers in organizations
information on how lead without abusing their power.
Nevertheless, the book has some solid insights on
transformational power which will be an asset in the
dissertation.
Linthicum gives a scenario about carton city where many
of its people lived in cardboard carton boxes with sheet-
metal roofs. The government could not tolerate the existence
of carton city and therefore the city was destroyed. He goes
to say that “sixteen months after carton city was
transformed into solid two and three room mud-brick
houses”.36
Hope for the City
35 Ibid., 2936 Ibid., 149
The book Renewing the City written by Robert Lupton
gives insights into city renewal. One of the ways that
Lupton endorses for city transformation is what he terms
becoming a strategic neighbor. He writes, “there is a world
of difference in the attitudes of urban workers who commute
into a community and those who have become vested
neighbors.”37 Janoff Barry confirms this by saying that
“sometimes there are problems in finding someone to work in
certain areas but it is not so in the case of the inner-city
where the rate of unemployment is higher and the workforce
is trainable and ready to go.” 38 The arguments which
surround this statement are based on his theory about
settling into communities to aid their transformation.
This book has given the reader the assurance that
although Grants Pen is a violence prone community-one of the
first inner cities to be rated as having one of the highest
crime rates on the island. It citizens are primarily poor
37 Robert Lupton, Renewing the City: Reflections on Community Development and Urban Renewal (Downers Grove IL: Inter Varsity Press, 2005), 172
38 Janoff Barry, Urban: Retailers are Discovery that Innercity neighborhoods once crucial to the Industry, growth have become vital centers of attention?
and unemployed or underemployed. The book has some aspects
of Reflective Leadership it allows the reader to reflect on
what had happen in carton city and able to encourage others
and to make a meaningful living.
What the reader garnered from the book is that if
leaders utilize power in the right way they can re-organize
and transform any a community-even Grants Pen. It gives
examples of cities that were in the slums and through great
effort they have been rebuilt. It highlights the city of
carton and states how the people used power to re-organize
it. It helps me to plan the action of Grants Pen.
Lupton is of the view that organizations need to become
good ‘neighbors’ in the communities they are situated in. He
further argues that people who wish to work in communities
must be willing to share their joys, sorrows, triumphs and
challenges. He assists the reader in recognizing that some
organizations shy away from this level of involvement
because of the heavy price connected with such endeavors. If
organizations adopt this kind of posture they can become
change agents in just about any community.
The author gives valid insights on transformation and
city renewal. For these principles to become applicable to
STC the mindset of the leaders will have to be adjusted and
they should be willing to adopt to the new strategies which
will be involved. Another point which Lupton brings up in
the book is that of becoming a servant to the city. If STC
can see the community as a place of servant-hood work in the
community will take on a whole new meaning. Some
organizations are viewed as oppressive and indifferent to
the citizens of communities which they surround. The
Servant-Leadership approach would defiantly change this.
Lupton also argues on the point of community
involvement. He argues that “if the fullness of the gospel
is to have redemptive impact on the city it must penetrate
into every strata of urban life.” 39 The conclusion that
Lupton left in the mind of the reader’s mind is that it is
not enough for organizations to be resident in a community
only to give handouts or to start goodwill programs but the
organization must also stand up against the injustices which
39 Ibid., 226
often face the poor. The organization should also become a
voice for the voiceless in the community and should move to
protect its most vulnerable citizens.
The book caused the reader to see that every person can
make a difference can make a difference in a community
whether they are attached to an organization or not. The
reader realizes that the process of change begins and ends
with what one persons decides to do.
The Realities that are found in the inner-city
To Live in Peace: Biblical Faith and the Changing
Inner-city by Mark Gormik propels the reader into the
realities found in the inner-city. It also challenges those
who desire to change to look beyond helping inner city
people to empowering them to change the situations they find
themselves in. One of the first things which comes across
forcefully to the reader is the fact that Gornik understood
the destructiveness of unemployment in inner-city
communities. Gornik writes citing Bourdieu and Wilson
conclude that work “is not simply a way to make a living and
support’s one’s family …. Employment sets goals and helps
give structure to life family and community.”40
This thought gives the leaders and HODs a clear vision
of empowering the citizens of Grants Pen. Empowering the
citizens by training the citizens to become entrepreneurs
this will enable them independent.
The author uses elements of Shalom-Leadership and
Incarnational-Leadership as methods of transforming the
inner city. Gornik describe community development in the
following way. It is “about the people of the community
engaging in culture-shaping activity for the shalom of their
neighborhoods.”41 Shalom means peace and all round
prosperity.
Gornik cited by Stoecker that states the he “proposes
greater focus on community organizing, local planning and
greater developmental capacity.”42 Gornik also argues about
40 Mark Gornik, To Live in Peace: Biblical Faith and the Changing Inner-city (Grand Rapids, MI: Williams B Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002), 45
41 Ibid., 156 42 Ibid., 157
the ability and effort to enhance a neighborhood’s power
social networks.” 43This is in accordance with the topic as
it gives insights on how the leaders and HODs can impact on
the communities by allowing the people to be empowered-
educating them to become great entrepreneurs and business
persons. He advises that leaders must be prepared to invest
time and resources into the inner city community and that
they should not demean their accomplishments or disregard
them and this will cause renewal in the city. Gornik also
states that “community rebuilding requires a set of
distinctive practices, commitments and skills.” 44 He made
mention that after the rebuilding of the community
sustainability is required. Sustainability will not only
take in housing, education, and healthcare but employment
and security as well. This has shed some light on the
research because training the people in the community result
in sustainability.
43 Ibid., 157 44 Ibid., 148
The author states that “shalom speaks to the presence
of right and harmonious relationships imbued with delight
and flourishing before the Lord.” 45 The author helps the
reader to understand Shalom-Leadership first and foremost
ensures that shalom is present in the organization before
attempting to reproduce it in the community. The leader
would consider his network of employees as a community in
itself with specific needs. Another important aspect of
Shalom-Leadership is that it pursues reconciliation.
The author has reinforced the thought that leaders
should practice the art of reconciliation because workers
tend to gravitate towards leaders who are honest enough
admit when they fail and are mature enough to face their
weaknesses. Reconciliation is possible in organizational
structures and is equally achievable in communities. This
gives the leaders and HODs a better understanding of the
fact that STC can renew the hope of Grants Pen and the
change the mindset of its residents and in so doing cause
the community to transcend to new heights.
45 Ibid., 99
The author states that “shalom is one the most
important images for us to recover if a new situation is to
be proposed and developed in the inner city.” 46
The Future of the City
Gornik reassures the reader that the city can be
changed. He argues that although there is unemployment,
economic crisis, inequality and poor conditions the
situation can be changed. He states that “God makes it clear
that he has not abandoned, forsaken or forgotten the poor.”
47 The author goes on the say “…witness to hope and to
life against death and to peace over the violence of the
powers” then “our frame of reference is a vision of God’s
new city of peace…..” 48 The reader realizes that for STC to
make a ministering to the inner-city a reality it will have
to lay down roots in the community. A signet of its
commitment to the uplifting of the community for a better
future.
46 Ibid., 10047 Ibid., 20648 Ibid., 208
Global Change
Thomas L. Friedman in his book the Lexus and the Olive
Tree speaks about how half of the world embraces
globalization while the other half does not. The author
states that “globalization means the spread of free-market
capitalism to virtually every country in the world.” 49
Globalization has the power to affect the activity in every
locality in the world. The ripple effect of world markets
and cultural mergers can affect the happenings in STC as
well as the Grants Pen Community. The author goes on to
state that “globalization has brought down many of the walls
that limited the movement and reach of people and because it
has simultaneously wired the world in networks it gives more
power to individuals……” Friedman helps the reader to
understand the complexity of today’s global and economic
trends and how these occurrences can affect a community such
as Grants Pen. The books elaborates on globalization but did
not speak much about Global- Leadership and how it affects
49 Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Anchor Books, 2000),9
the leader and the community. The author does speak about
social safety and poverty but it would have been helpful if
these issues were addressed from a community perspectives.
Respect for Others’ Culture
The book Orthodox Alaska: A Theology of Mission, really
speaks to some aspects of Contextual-Leadership. Alaska is
an independent state that has its own culture, its own
amenities and regulations. The author speaks about the
spread of Christianity through the Russian Orthodox Church.
The Russians were successful in spreading the gospel because
they contextualized it to fit the culture they were
ministering to. This gives the leaders and HODs some
knowledge of how approach the Grants Pen Community. He wants
leaders to know that they can go into the community and work
with what they have instead of attempting to do more than
they are able to. The people in the community are accustomed
to a particular way of living because they are “developed
within a certain cultural context.” 50 The author states
50 Michael Oleska, Orthodox Alaska: A Theology of Mission (Crestword: St. Valdimirs Seminary Press, 1992)1993
that “without a positive cultural identity, the ability of
any individual to fulfill the potential for divinity to
become all that he or she was called to be from all eternity
is severely limited.” 51 Oleska argues that one of the most
devastating effects of ministry efforts is when the western
church imposed their culture on the people they ministered
to. The author wants leaders to acknowledge the work of
others when they go into different countries and build on
it.
The author is adamant that people fail to respect the
cultures of others. He wants the reader to understand that
in order for transformation to take place there should be a
balance as it relates to culture. The reader felt the
passion the author has for the people of Alaska. The author
further states:
The church has always understood her mission thereforein cultural as well as personal terms; for eachperson’s language and culture constitute an indelibleand permanent foundation and context for that person’sunderstanding of the world as well as his or her self-identity. One must love one’s neighbor as one’s self
51 Ibid., 194
but no one can love himself and despise his ancestry,his race, or his cultural heritage. 52
Gene Rice in her journal entitled Elijah’s Requirement
for Prophetic Leadership states that “Elisha fulfills
Elijah’s requirement and becomes his successor in the course
of a suspenseful journey of the two prophets from Gilgal to
the Jordon and beyond during which Elijah emerges
empowered.” 53 This will help the leaders and HODs to
understand that there are real people, real problems and
real situations to tackle and therefore they must approach
the Grants Pen Community with humility and love.
Rice states that Isaiah carried out “ministry of
confidence and hope in the midst of very trying times. 54
The author gives the leaders and HODs a clear understanding
of the fact that Prophetic-Leadership based on the
requirement of 2 Kings 2:1-18 is needed in today’s world
because many of our problems are complex so overwhelming so
52 Ibid., 194 53 Gene Rice, Elijah’s Requirement for Prophetic Leadership 54 Ibid., 11
intimidating that they seem insoluble. In spite of these
issues Prophetic leaders must stand their ground preach and
warn the people about any form of destruction that it about
to take place. Rice argues that “Elijah’s fallen mantle, the
symbol of the prophetic office
( I Kings 19:19) and a reminder of Elijah’s unfinished
mission and Elisha went back to Jordon.” 55
The journal met the requirements of explaining the
importance of Prophetic-Leadership. It gives fruitful
information and easily understood examples. The readings has
heighted the reader’s interest in Prophetic-Leadership. One
key point which remains in the mind of the reader is that
God never leaves any task unfinished everything he does must
be completed.
The Prophet
Walter Brueggemann in his book entitled n Introduction
to the Old Testament: The Cannon and Christian Imagination
states that “the prophetic refers to the character and
55 Ibid., 9
horizon of the material in the final form. This material
contains specific references about named (and unnamed )
prophets.” 56 He also mentions that “it is conventional
among more conservative Christian interpreters to understand
“prophetic” as an exercise in prediction, in foretelling the
future.” 57
The author reinforces the reader’s understanding of the
role of the Prophetic-Leader. The leaders should speak the
truth with love and through power. This reminds the reader
that the leaders and HODs must possess these qualities in
order to win the community.
William Dyrness says that Moses was the first prophet who
received a particular call from God and he was a mediator
between God and the people according to Ex. 33:11 his
relationship with God was unique.” 58 Moses warned the
56 Walter Brueggemann, An Introduction to the Old Testament: The Cannon and Christian Imagination (Louisville: Westminister John Knox Press, 2003) 103
57 Ibid., 83 58 William Dyrness, Themes in Old Testament Theology (Downers
Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1977), 212
people not to allow the practices of the nations to drive
them out of the land. 59
Bruggemann explains the plight of Micah how he practiced and
exploited the vulnerable and violated the will of YHWH for
economic justice in the community.” Micah had given an
account of his unprofessional behavior to the Lord. This
sanctions the leaders and HODs to be truthful in all aspects
when ministering to the people of Grants Pen. The author
wants the reader to know that God requires honest people who
can bring about change to a broken community.
59 Ibid., 213
Chapter 3
Context of Organization
Transformational Leadership is regarded as one of the most
prominent leadership approaches around today. It deals with
employees, community development, leadership issues,
government issues and private issues. Gretchen M. Spreitzer,
Kimberly Hopkins Perttula and Katherine Xin confirm the
researcher’s point of view by stating that “transformational
leadership has gained academic attention over the last
twenty (20) years as a new paradigm for understanding
leadership.” 60 Although Transformational-Leadership can be
operated at any level the researcher would like to see how
it affects the leaders of STC and the Grants Pen Community.
This chapter will be focusing on the historical background
of STC and the Grants Pen Community, the current situation
60 Gretchen M. Spreitzer, Kimberely Hopkins Perttula and KatherineXin
of the community,, the HODs and leaders the relevant,
personal, congregational, community and global issues and
how the project will transform a particular aspect of the
organization.
Historical Background
The STC “formerly named Jamaica Women’s College was founded
on September 28, 1885 under the leadership of Archbishop
Enos Nuttall.” 61 The college is financed by the government
and is located at 77 Shortwood Road, Kingston 8 . The
college was erected to train only females teachers as it was
felt that “women would stay in the profession longer” than
their male counterparts. We are now living in a new era
where the mindset of leadership has changed and after long
deliberations the decision was made to enroll male students.
“In 2001 the college accepted three (3) male students to
pursue programs in Modern Languages and English. The college
currently accepts male students in all its programs.”62
61 Shortwoood Teachers’ College: Information Brochure. http://www.stcoll.edu.jm
62 Ibid.,
The STC information brochure states that “in 2006 a
degree in early childhood and secondary education was
established on conjunction with the Consortium of
Institutions for Teacher Education (CITE) but is now
terminated and replaced by the University Council of Jamaica
accredited Bachelor of Education Completion Program. 63 The
college has also supported development programs in various
institutions such as the Institutional University of the
Caribbean (IUC) to prepare teachers for the diploma in early
childhood and T.A. Marryshow Community College in Grenada.
It also offers a Masters of Arts Degree in early childhood
education in collaborative with the University of South
Florida (USF).
STC has always used leadership styles such as
autocratic/authoritarian, democratic/participative,
charismatic and Laissez-faire leadership. There are times
when autocratic/authoritarian leadership is sometimes
applied to certain situations which arise in the college.
The results are sometimes fruitful while at other times it
63 Ibid.,
becomes chaotic. Robinson and Hamil argue that the
“autocratic/authoritarian leadership is adopted by the
person who believes in leadership have full control of the
entire decision-making process.”64
STC has also displayed a great deal of
democratic/participative leadership. The leaders involve
workers in the decision making process as much as is
possible. Robinson and Hamil assert that
“65democratic/participative leadership requires the leader
to involve the workers in decision making.” Staff is really
enthused and appreciate when they are involved the affairs
of the college. This helps to improve the self-esteem and
confidence of workers.
64 Karlene Robinson and Sybille Hamil, Principles of Business for CSEC: SBA Study Guide and Exercises (Newport West: Carlong Publishers, 200) 86-87
65 Ibid., 87