figures © cambridge university press 2006
TRANSCRIPT
FIGURE 1.1Views of the vocal tract. A. A magnetic resonance image of a mid-sagittal section (sideways slice) of the vocal tract B. A
sonograph image of the surface of the tongue. C. A digital waveform showing sound pressure variations during one second of speech. (Images A and B courtesy of Dr. Maureen Stone, Vocal Tract Visualization Laboratory, University of Maryland,
Baltimore)
B
A
C
FIGURE 1.2Parts of the vocal tract
(after J. Laver, Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge University Press, 1994)
FIGURE 1.3Areas of the tongue
(after J. Laver, Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge University Press, 1994)
FIGURE 1.4The International Phonetic Alphabet
FIGURE 1.5English vowels
FIGURE 1.6Syllable structure for the
word print
FIGURE 1.7The hearing mechanism
FIGURE 1.8Waveforms for the utterance A phoneme?
FIGURE 3.1Projection of two simple NPs
FIGURE 3.2Projection of a transitive VP from want
FIGURE 3.3NP puppy merges with the complement NP node projected from D a to create DP a puppy
FIGURE 3.4DP a puppy merges with complement DP node projected from V want to create VP want a puppy
FIGURE 3.5Two phrases resulting from mergers
FIGURE 3.6Projection of IP from PRES
FIGURE 3.7Merger of DP and VP into the specifier and complementizer positions of IP
FIGURE 3.8Projection of CP from that
FIGURE 3.9(I heard) that those children want a puppy
FIGURE 3.10(Those) little children (in the park want a puppy badly)
FIGURE 3.11(Those) little children in the park (want a puppy badly)
FIGURE 3.12(Those little children in the park) want a puppy badly
FIGURE 3.13Complementizer Phrase with a specifier
FIGURE 3.14That Key left as part of the complement of said and adjacent to said
FIGURE 5.1Speech situation and functions. Each facet of the situation is in upper case; the language function is in brackets. Terms that
have been used interchangeably with Jakobson’s terms are in italics.
FIGURE 6.1In some cultures, even very young infants are treated as valid conversational partners.
FIGURE 6.2The Wug test
FIGURE 7.1The brain. Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is composed of four lobes. Below the cerebrum in the back of the head is the
cerebellum, which is also made up of two hemispheres
FIGURE 7.2A lateral view of anatomical structures in the left hemispheres of the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The same structures are
found on the right side
FIGURE 7.3A neuron and its parts
FIGURE 7.4Brodmann’s areas of the lateral part of the left hemisphere. The same areas are found in the right hemisphere. Not shown are
the Brodmann’s areas of the medial part of the cerebrum
FIGURE 7.5A whole-head view of some subcortical structures, including the basal ganglia. In each hemisphere, the basal ganglia consist
of several substructures, of which the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus are indicated here
FIGURE 7.6A medial view of the cerebrum, including the hippocampus and various structures to which it is closely connected
FIGURE 7.7A person being prepared for an MRI scan. He will slide into the open hole (the “bore”), around which the MR magnet is
situated. The subject’s head is enclosed in a “head coil,” which transmits the radio waves that knock the hydrogen atoms out of alignment within the magnetic field. The head coil also receives the signal back from the hydrogen atoms as they return
to a stable alignment
FIGURE 7.8The process of measuring event-related potentials (ERPs) (adapted from Hillyard and Kutas 1983)
FIGURE 7.9Left hemisphere regions implicated in language, as discussed in this section. These regions include classical Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas. Wernicke’s area is generally taken to correspond to the posterior portion of the superior temporal gyrus (BA 22). Broca’s area refers to BA 44 and BA 45 (that is, the opercular part and the triangular part, respectively, of the inferior
frontal gyrus)
FIGURE 7.10A left lateral view of the cerebrum showing greater activation for the production of sentences as compared to word lists (see
text). The two overlapping (crosshatched) areas of activation, which encompass BA 44 and the frontal operculum, reflect two experiments that used the same stimuli on two different sets of subjects. (Figure adapted from Indefrey et al. 2004)
FIGURE 7.11A recent MEG study of past-tense production. Displayed here are two areas that showed significant differences in activation between regulars and irregulars at particular points in time after the presentation of the prompt (see text; figure adapted from
Dhond et al. 2003)
FIGURE 8.1The Great Vowel Shift in English
FIGURE 8.2The Indo-European language family
FIGURE 9.1The regular patterning of a prestigious dialect feature according to social class and speech style: r in New York City English
(adapted from William Labov 1972, Sociolinguistic Patterns, p.114. Reprinted by permission of the University of Pennsylvania Press)
FIGURE 9.2The regular patterning of a stigmatized dialect feature by social class and speech style: [t] for [θ] (e.g. wit for ‘with’) in New
York City English (adapted from William Labov 1972, Sociolinguistic Patterns, P. 113. Reprinted by permission of the University of Pennsylvania Press.)
FIGURE 9.3Dialect areas of the United States, based on telephone survey data (from William Labov, Sharon Ash and Charles Boberg
2006, Atlas of North American English, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, map 11.15. Reprinted by permission).
FIGURE 11.1Use of English and Spanish: 1999 Survey of Latinos
FIGURE 11.2Language Dominance: 2002 Survey of Latinos
FIGURE 12.1Chinese sample text (simplified script): beginning of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
FIGURE 12.2Evolution of Chinese characters (selected scripts)
FIGURE 12.3Hiragana
FIGURE 12.4Katakana
FIGURE 12.5Japanese sample text: beginning of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
FIGURE 12.6Hangul consonants
FIGURE 12.7Hangul vowels and diphthongs
FIGURE 12.8Korean sample text: beginning of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
FIGURE 12.9Letters for selected Arabic consonants
FIGURE 12.10Arabic sample text: beginning of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
FIGURE 12.11Naxi Dongba script example (Daniels and Bright 1996)
FIGURE 12.12Naxi pictograms (superscripted numbers refer to pronunciation)
FIGURE 12.13Naxi rebuses
FIGURE 12.14Excerpt from transcription of Berlin Papyrus n° 3024 (R.O. Faulkner, “The man who was tired of life,” Journal for
Egyptian Archeology, 42 1956: 22-26)
FIGURE 12.15Evolution of the Roman alphabet
FIGURE 13.1Selected ESL/EFL teaching methodologies