fiber optic lighting: a guide for specifiers, 2nd edition
TRANSCRIPT
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title: FiberOpticLighting:AGuideforSpecifiers
author: DeVeau,RussellL.publisher: TheFairmontPress
isbn10|asin: 0881733253printisbn13: 9780881733259ebookisbn13: 9780585317663
language: English
subject Lighting,Fiberoptics,Lighting,Architecturalanddecorative.
publicationdate: 2000lcc: TH7725.D482000ebddc: 621.32
subject: Lighting,Fiberoptics,Lighting,Architecturalanddecorative.
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FiberOpticLightingAGuideforSpecifiers
SecondEdition
ByRussellL.DeVeau
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
DeVeau,RussellL.Fiberopticlighting:aguideforspecifiers/byRussellL.DeVeau.2nd.ed.
p.cmIncludesbibliographicalreferences.ISBN0-88173-325-31.Lighting.2.Fiberoptics.3.Lighting,architecturalanddecorative.I.Title.
TH7725.D482000621.32dc2100-033854
Fiberopticlighting:aguideforspecifiers/byRussellL.DeVeau2nded.©2001byTheFairmontPress.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.
PublishedbyTheFairmontPress,Inc.700IndianTrailLilburn,GA30047
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
ISBN0-88173-325-3FP
ISBN0-13-032121-4PH
Whileeveryeffortismadetoprovidedependableinformation,thepublisher,authors,andeditorscannotbeheldresponsibleforanyerrorsoromissions.
DistributedbyPrenticeHallPTRPrentice-Hall,Inc.ASimon&SchusterCompanyUpperSaddleRiver,NJ07458
Prentice-HallInternational(UK)Limited,LondonPrentice-HallofAustraliaPty.Limited,Sydney
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Prentice-HallofAustraliaPty.Limited,SydneyPrentice-HallCanadaInc.,TorontoPrentice-HallHispanoamericana,S.A,MexicoPrentice-HallofIndiaPrivateLimited,NewDelhiPrentice-HallofJapan,Inc.,TokyoSimon&SchusterAsiaPte.Ltd.,SingaporeEditoraPrentice-HalldoBrasil,Ltda,RiodeJaneiro
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Thisbookisdedicatedtothelightingprofessionalwhowantstoexpandhisorherbaseoftechnicalknowledgeinordertocreateboldandcreativenewlightingdesigns.
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Contents
Preface xi
Introduction xiii
Chapter1.FundamentalsOfFiberOpticLighting 1
IntroductionandHistory 1
TheoryofOperation 3
DesignandConstruction 7
Components 7
ApplicationsandCharacteristics 9
Chapter2.TheIlluminatorAndFibers 17
TheIlluminator 17
TheLightSource 21
Low-VoltageHalogenLamps 24
Higher-WattageQuartzHalogenLamps 24
MetalHalideLamps 24
XenonMetalHalideLamps 26
SelectingtheRightLamp 26
TheLampOperatingintheSystem 26
TheFiber 29
GlassorPlastic? 29
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CoreandCladding 29
DiameterandLightOutput 30
MeasurementofFibersinABundle(Glass) 30
TailsAllowedPerIlluminator(GlassandPlastic) 32
LightDistribution(End-orSide-Emitting) 34
PhotometricDataandLightLevels 43
Chapter3.PrinciplesOfOperation 47
PrinciplesofLightTransmissionandDistributioninaFiberOpticLightingSystem
47
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Chapter4.LightLoss 59
Introduction 59
LightLossesattheIlluminatorandComponents 60
LightLossatRelatedComponents 61
LightLossesattheFiber 61
LightLossesattheInputandOutputEnds 61
LightLossesBasedOnCross-SectionalArea 64
LossesDuetoDirtandDust 66
TransmissionLossesBasedOnDistance 66
LossesDuetoFiltration 68
LossesDuetoFiberImperfections 69
LossesDuetoSevereBending 69
Chapter5.GlassorPlastic? 73
GlassVersusPlastic 73
ColorShift 73
AbilitytoWithstandHeatFromtheLamp 75
UltravioletLight 77
Harnesses 78
CuttingtheFibers 84
VariationsInLightColorandIntensity 84
BendingtheFiber 86
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Price 88
HowLongWillItLast? 88
MixingGlassandPlastic 88
Chapter6.Accessories 89
AccessorizingtheFiberOpticSystem 89
Fixtures 92
FixturesForDownlighting 92
DecorativeFixturesForDownlighting 94
EyeballFixtures 94
LandscapeLightingFixtures 94
ExteriorLightingFixtures 95
ShowcaseandDisplayFixtures 95
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SwimmingPool,FountainandUnderwaterFixtures 96
DecorativeLightingElements 97
CustomFixturesBasedOntheApplication 97
SpecialEffectsAccessories 98
ColorWheels 98
Gobos 100
Synchronization 100
DimmingAccessories 101
AdditionalAccessories 101
Cost 101
MountingtheFiberOpticSystem 102
Illuminators 102
Fibers 102
Fixtures 103
Chapter7.ApplicationPresentations 105
Chapter8.TheStar-LikeDisplayPuttingItAllTogether 131
ApplicationDetails 131
TheStar-likeDisplay 131
TheStar-likeDisplay,SelectingFiberType 132
OptimumIlluminatorPlacement 137
TheLargerApplicationSomeAdditionalFactorsto 137
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Consider
TheSizeoftheDisplay 137
TheSizeoftheCommonEndandtheSizeoftheFibersDeterminesHowManyFibersWillAttachtotheIlluminator
139
TheNumberofPorts 139
LayingOuttheApplication 139
CreatingtheStar-LikeDisplay,theFormula 142
HowManyFibersWilltheStar-likeDisplayRequire?
142
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HowManyIlluminatorsWillBeNeededtoCompletetheDisplay?
142
WhatistheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheDisplay?
143
InstallingtheStar-likeDisplay 144
TheIlluminator 144
Ventilation 144
Chapter9.PerspectivesOnthePresentandFutureofFiberOpticIllumination
151
WheretofromHere? 151
MoreApplications 151
IndustryGrowth 151
AttenuationImprovements 152
OpticalControl 152
LightSourceDevelopment 153
TheNeedForMoreEducation 153
LookingattheBenefitsObjectively 154
"FiberOpticLightingCanSaveEnergy" 155
"FiberOpticLightingCanReduceMaintenanceCosts"
155
PhotometricData 156
Fiberspeak 156
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TheRoleOfTheSalesRep 157
GettingtheBestResults 158
Mock-ups 158
GettingInformationFromtheInternet 159
HowDidItWork? 159
MoreInformationIsNeeded 160
AppendixI.BibliographyofSources 161
AppendixII.ASelectionofManufacturersandRepresentatives
169
AppendixIII.HowtheResearchWasDone 173
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PrefaceFiberOpticLighting:AGuideforSpecifiers,SecondEdition,iswrittenforprofessionalsandstudentsinterestedintheartandscienceoflightingdesignspecificationand/ormanagement.Theseprofessionalincludelightingdesigners,architects,engineers,interiordesignersandfacilitiesmanagers.
FiberOpticLightning'sintentistointroducethereadertofiberopticilluminationsystems.Thecontentsofthebookaredesignedtomakeselectionandspecificationoffiberopticlightingsystemsmoreunderstandable.Itfocusesonperformancecharacteristics,drawingonbothphysicsandpracticalissuesrelatedtodesign.Asfiberopticlightingcontinuestoemergeasa\dynamictechnologyinthefieldoflightingdesign,itisessentialtounderstandthefullspectrumofissuesfromanon-biasedsource,thenrelatetheseissuestomanufacturer'sandsupplier'sliterature,forbestresults.
Sincethefirsteditionwasprintedinearly1998,theindustryhasgonethroughmanychanges,mainlyintheformofcorporatemergersandpartnerships.Theserelationshipshavebeenformed,forthemostpart,toallowcorporationstosharetechnologiesandresearch.Specifiershavebenefitedfromthesepartnershipsbybeingabletotakeadvantageofmorediverseandcompleteproductofferingsfromsinglesources.
Includedinthissecondeditionisachapterthatintroducesthedesignertothestar-likedisplayapplicationdevelopmentprocess.Thestar-likeapplicationisoneofthemostpopularfiberopticapplications,butisoftenextremelydifficultforthedesignertospecify.Thischapterwalksthedesignerthroughsomeofthemajorstepsinvolvedindevelopingtheapplicationandoffersinsightintothe
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installationprocesssothatprojectlayoutandspecificationismoreunderstandable
AfterreadingFiberOpticLighting,youshouldbeabletounderstandthetechnologytotheextentthatyoucanappreciateitscapabilitiesandlimitations,createbetterspecifications,viewmanufacturer'ssalesclaimswithamoreeducatedeye,andasktherightquestions.
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IntroductionResearchforthisprojectincludednumerousconversationsaboutfiberopticlightingwithstudentsandprofessionalsworkinginthefieldofinteriorandlightingdesign.Someoftheseconversationswereformalinterviews,otherswereinformaldiscussions.Theoverallresultoftheseconversationshasunequivocallyproventhatthereisaconcretemysterywithinthedesigncommunitysurroundingfiberoptictechnology.Fromtheclassroomtoprofessionalseminars,remarkssuchas"Idon'tunderstandit"or"It'stootechnicalforme"havenotbeenuncommon.Therearetwomainreasonsfortheconfusionsurroundingthistechnology.
First,thecommunicationsindustryhasdoneaspectacularjobatmaking"fiberoptics"intohouseholdwords.Often,thedesignerwhoisunfamiliarwithfiberopticilluminationsystemsassociatesthelightingtechnologywiththewidelypublicizedinternationalcommunicationssystems.Becausethetechnologyrelatedtofiberopticcommunicationsisnotgenerallyunderstoodbythedesigner(asmostdesignershavehadnoneedoropportunitytobecomeexposedtothetopic),itfollowsthatperceptionsrelatedtofiberopticilluminationsystemsarecenteredaroundacommunicationstechnologythatisgenerallyperceivedasbeinghighlytechnicalanddifficulttounderstand.
Second,thepublicationsrelatedtofiberopticlightingdonotoftenreduceoreliminatetheperceptionscreatedbythecommunicationsindustry.Agreatdealofthepublishedinformationrelatedtofiberopticlightinginevitablyincludesastatementabouthowthetechnologygrewfromthecommunicationsindustry.Thesestatementsonlyservetoreinforcetheperceptionsthatfiberopticilluminationistechnology-orientedandnoteasytounderstand.Promotionalliterature
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producedbythefiberopticindustryoftendoesnothelptoreducetheseperceptions.
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Mostcompaniesinvolvedinthemanufacturingoffiberopticproductshaveapromotionalcatalogavailablethatincludesproductdescriptionsandacertainamountoftechnicalinformation.Often,thistechnicalinformationwillincludetermsthatareborrowedfromthecommunicationsindustrywithoutprovidinganadequateexplanationastowhatthosetermsmeanandhowtheyrelatetolighting.Andbecausethefiberopticilluminationindustryhasalwaysbeeninastateofgrowth,themajorityofthepromotionalliteraturesurroundingthistechnologyisconstantlychanging.Readinginformationaboutnewandupdatedproductsisoftenoflittlevalueifthebasicconceptsrelatedtothetechnologyarenotunderstood.
Somecompaniesofferphotographsanddescriptivetextrelatedtocurrentandpotentiallightingdesignpossibilitiesintheirmarketingliterature.Photographsarehelpfulinactuallyseeinghowacompletedinstallationlooksandtextassistsinintroducingtheapplication,butthistypeofmarketinginformationtendstolackspecificclarityastohowthesystemworksandwhyafiberopticsystemshouldbeconsideredforaparticularapplication.
Booksdevotedtolightingarealsonotalwayshelpfulineducatingthereaderonthissubject.Manybookstendtoofferlittleonthetopicoffiberopticsanddonotofferthereaderconcreteassistanceinrelatingwhatinformationispresentedtocurrentlightingdesignpossibilities.Somebookswillalsointroducetechnicaltermsrelatedtofiberopticswithoutdefiningtheminthecontextoflightingdesign.Themostupdatedlightinghandbooksoftenprovideanexplanationrelatedtototalinternalreflection(thetermusedtodescribehowlightistransmittedalongthelengthofafiber),butlittleelseonthesubjectoffiberoptics.
Variousmagazineswillfrequentlypublisharticlesrelatedtolightingdesignprojectswherefiberopticilluminationsystemshavebeen
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utilized.Manyofthesearticlesalsofeaturephotographsofalightingprojectandoffertextexplainingwherefiberopticlightingwasusedintheapplication.Similar
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tothepromotionalliteraturementionedabove,thesearticlesaresatisfactoryinintroducingfiberopticsasatoolforillumination,butoftentheydonotassistineducatingthereaderastohowthislightingtechnologyworks,whereitmayworkbest,whyitwasselectedfortheproject(asopposedtoamoretraditionallightingsystem)and,perhapsmostimportantly,howtheparticularinstallationmayberelatedtootherlightingdesignprojects.
Thisbookwaswrittentoassistineliminatingtheconfusionandmysteryassociatedwithfiberopticilluminationsystems.Itwillexplainhowthetechnologyworksandtherefore,whyitmaybetheappropriatechoiceforaparticularlightingapplication.Inaddition,becausetherearecurrentlynumerousfiberopticcomponentsandsystemsavailable,thisbookwillalsoprovideinformationthatmayassistthedesignerinaskingmanufacturersandrepresentativestheappropriatequestionsabouttheirproductsandhowtheycanrelatetocurrentorpotentiallightingdesignapplications.
InMarchof1996,IreceivedaletterfromMs.PamelaVandeVeldeofPinpointFiberOpticsLtd.inBeverlyHills,CA.ThisletterarrivedatatimewhenIwasreceivinginformationfromnumerousfiberopticcompaniesandrepresentativesfromaroundtheworld.Sortingthroughthesematerialsbecamedifficultbecauseofthemanystatementsdevelopedspecificallyformarketingpurposesratherthaneducationalandcomparisonpurposes.Ms.VandeVeldeclosedherletterwithaparagraphthatIhavereferredtonumeroustimesthroughoutmyresearchforthisproject.Irecommenditasapointofdepartureforanyoneinterestedinlearningmoreaboutfiberopticsbeforemoreformal(asopposedtopromotional)informationisavailable:
Beverycarefulinyourassessmentofmaterialsandexpertise.Theburgeoningfiberopticsindustryisfilledwithpartisanopinion.And
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thereare''independentvoices"whichinreality,haveacommercialaffiliation.Thetruthisthatthereareadvantagesanddisadvantagestoeverytypeoflamp,toevery
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typeoffiberandtoeverytypeofsystem...
Althoughthisbookdoesnotprovidethereaderwithanenormousamountofdetailrelatedtothephysicsoffiberoptictechnology(whichinmostcasesisnotrelevanttolightingdesignneeds)anddoesnotrecommendparticularcompaniesorsystems,itdoesseektoprovideabridgebetweenthenumerouspublishedarticlesonfiberopticlightingandthetechnicalandpromotionalinformationproducedbythefiberopticlightingindustry.Thespecificgoalofthisbookistoallowthereadertogainabasicunderstandingofhowfiberopticlightingtechnologyworkssothatthisknowledgecanberelatedtocurrentorfuturelightingdesignprojects.
InChapter1,thereaderisintroducedtobasicfiberopticsystemstoimpartageneralunderstandingofhowfiberopticswork;itisintendedforthereadertorelatethisunderstandingtothefiberopticilluminationsystemsinusetoday.Abriefhistoryofexperimentsinvolvingtheconceptsoffiberopticlightingispresentedaswellaswhyfiberopticsarebecomingapopularchoiceinnumerouslightingapplications.
InChapter2,anintroductiontotheilluminatorandlightsourcesispresented.Thetwotypesoffiberthatareusedinfiberopticilluminationsystemsarediscussedaswellaspossibleconfigurationsforutilizingside-emittingfiberinlightingdesign.Anexampleoffoot-candlelevelsisalsopresented.
InChapter3,theconceptoftotalinternalreflectionandhowthisphenomenonrelatestofiberopticsisdiscussed.
InChapter4,welearnthatallfiberopticlightingsystemsexperiencelightloss.Thischapterintroducesexamplesofhowlightcanbelostbeforeitreachestheilluminatedenvironment.
InChapter5,somevaryingcharacteristicsrelatedtoglassandplastic
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fiberarepresented.Informationincludedinthischapterprovidesthedesignerwithcertainissuesthatmayneedtobeaddressedwhenconsideringaparticularfiberopticsystem.
InChapter6,someoftheaccessoriesavailableforfiberopticlightingsystemsarepresented.Equipmentaddressedin
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thissectionshouldbeviewedasarepresentationofthenumerousaccessoriesandfixturesthatarecurrentlyavailabletothedesigner.Thischapterisincludedtoassistthelightingdesignerinunderstandinghowacompletefiberopticlightingsystemcanwork.
InChapter7,aselectionoffiberopticlightingprojectsispresentedsothatthereadercanrelatetheinformationdiscussedinpreviouschapterstoactuallightingdesignapplications.
InChapter8,wereviewadditionalissuestoconsiderifthedesigneristomoreeasilyrelatetheinformationpresentedinpreviouschapterstoactuallyworkingwithfiberoptics.Industrygrowthandissuesrelatedtocompanypromotionalliteraturearediscussed.Someadditionaleducationalresourcesareincluded.
InAppendixI,abibliographyofsourcesusedtogeneratethistextispresented.
InAppendixII,aselectionoffiberopticmanufacturersandsuppliersispresented.
InAppendixIII,thereaderisprovidedwiththemethodologyusedtoproducethisbook.
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AcknowledgmentsIamgratefultotheindividualswhohavereadvariousdraftsofthemanuscriptandofferedsuggestionsandcritique.Althoughtheseindividualsarenotresponsibleforthecontentsofthisguide,theirassistancewasinvaluable.
TheseindividualsareRobertM.Hughes,ProductManager,SchottCMLFiberopticsLLC;ScottR.Mangum,DirectorofApplicationEngineering&Development,RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.;MichaelMuehlemann,President,IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.;andPamelaVandeVelde,PinpointFibreoptics,Ltd.AdditionalthankstoRobertProuse,Director,MFALightingDesignProgram,ParsonsSchoolofDesign;andZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.AveryspecialthankstoAlisonDerrick,whoseeditingskillshelpedtokeepmeontrack,andtoMaryEllenBurns,whoeveryoneshouldbesoluckytoknow.
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Chapter1FundamentalsofFiberOpticLightingMostdesignersdonotneedtoknowthedetailedtechnologyassociatedwiththeworkingsofafiberopticcommunicationsorimagetransfersystem.However,allfiberopticsystemssharebasicconcepts.Whenthebasicconceptsandhistoryoffiberopticsareunderstood,thetechnologybecomeslessmysteriousandthereforemoreusefultothedesigner.
IntroductionandHistory
TheWebster'sDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguagedefines"fiberoptics"asthestudyandtechniqueoflightandimagetransmissionviaflexibletransparentfibers(glass,plastic,etc.).Althoughthetechnologyrelatedtofiberopticsisrelativelynew,theconceptoftransmittinglightthroughatransparentmaterialhasbeenrecognizedthroughouthistory.Oneoftheearliestapplicationsinvolvingthisphenomenoncanbefoundintheuseofprisms.Variousformsofprismshavebeenusedforcenturiestodirectlightbymeansofatransparentmedium.
Experimentsthatdirectlycontributedtothedevelopmentoffiberoptictechnologywereperformedinthelate19thcenturybytheBritishphysicistJohnTyndall.Tyndallwasknownforhisworkrelatedtotheconductivityofheatbygases,ontheaudibilityofsoundandonthequalitiesofatmosphericlight.In
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KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
Bundle-Individualfibersthataregroupedtogethercalledbundles.
CoherentFibers-Individualfibersthatarepositionedwithinabundlesothateachfibermaintainsanexactrelationshiptoeveryotherfiberwithinthebundle.Coherentfibersareusedtotransmitimages.
Light-EmittingDiode-Allfiberopticsystemsrequireasourceoflighttomakethemworkwithintheguidelinesofaparticularapplication.Thelight-emittingdiodeisasemiconductorlightsourceusedinmanyfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystems.
Non-CoherentFibers-Individualfibersthathaverandomlocationswithinabundle.Non-coherentfibersareusedinthefieldoflightingdesign.
1870,TyndalldemonstratedtotheRoyalSociety(anindependentBritishbodyofscientificscholarsfoundedin1660)anexperimentutilizinganilluminatedcontainerofwater.WhenTyndallreleasedthewaterbymeansofasmallopening,heillustratedhowthewaterconductedlightasitflowedfromthecontainer.
Tenyearslater,in1880,AlexanderGrahamBelldevelopedthe
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"Photophone,"whichutilizedlighttotransmitspeech,andWilliamWheelertookoutapatentonaninventionthatquiteliterally"piped"lightfromonesourcetoseveralindependentlocations.
Thefirstformalapplicationutilizingfiberopticswasdevelopedinthe1920s.Multipleglassrodspositionedsidebysideinacircularformationwereusedtocarrypicturesforuseintelevision.Althoughpatentswereissued,furtherdevelopmentsweregenerallynotexploredformanyyears.
Duringthe1950s,significantdevelopmentsrelatedtotheconstructionofglassfibersallowedforadditionalapplications
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tobeimplementedinthemilitaryandmedicalfields.
Inthe1970s,fiberopticswereutilizedinnumerouscommunicationsystemsandsincethattime,applicationsmakinguseofthetechnologyhaveincreasedatanastoundingrate.
TheoryofOperation
Abasicunderstandingofhowfiberopticsystemsworkcanbeachievedbystudyingasimpleconduitsystem.Aconduitsystemcanbedescribedasaseriesofcomponentsthat,whenincorporated,willhavetheoverallgoaloftransportingaparticularmediumfromonelocationtoanother.Whenthemediumthatisbeingtransportedarrivesatthedesireddestination,itwillbeutilizedpertherequirementsoftheapplication.
Perhapsthemostfamiliarconduitsystemsarethosethatareusedintransportingwaterorelectricity.Abasicplumbingsysteminvolvestransportingwaterfromaparticularlocationbymeansofpipestoanotherlocation,whereitwillbeutilizedasnecessary.Abasicelectricalsystemconsistsofagenerator,whereelectricityisproduced,andaninsulatedwirethatcarriestheelectricitytovariousdevicesthatwillmakeuseofit.Theterm"conduit"canbedefinedasthecomponentwithinthesystemwherethemediumthatisbeingtransportedactuallytravels.Theconduitinaplumbingsystemisthepipeandtheconduitinanelectricalsystemisthewire.Figure1-1and1-2demonstratetheconceptofaconduitsystem.
Afiberopticsystemcanbecomparedtoanyotherconduitsystem.Themediumbeingtransportedinafiberopticsystemislightandtheconduitusedtotransmitthelightisafiber.Thefibersusedinthesystemtransportlightfromaparticularlightsourcetoafinaldestination,whereitcanbeutilizedforavarietyofspecificapplications.
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Figure1-3demonstratesthebasicconceptofafiberopticsystemasrelatedtoaconduitsystem.
Inthefieldoflightingdesign,thelightcomingfromafiber
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Figure1-1.Aconduitsystemtransportingwaterfromacentral
sourcetoareaswhereitwillbeutilized.
Figure1-2.Aconduitsystemtransportingelectricityfromacentralsourcetovariousequipment.
isusedtoilluminateanareaorobject,ortosimplycallattentiontoitself.Inthefieldofdentistry,thelightmaybeusedtoperformaparticulartask,suchashardeningnewdentalwork.Inthemedicalandindustrialfields,thelightoftencarriesanimage.Thecommunicationsindustryutilizesthelighttocarryasignal.
Aconventionalwire-basedcommunicationssystemreliesonelectricalsignals.Thesesystemsgenerallyconsistofatleastthreecomponentsatransmitter,metalwireandareceiver.Thetransmitterinabasic
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telephonesystemisusedtoconvert
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Figure1-3.Thebasicfiberopticlightingsystemaconduitsystem
utilizingfiberstotransportlightfromacentrallightsource.
soundintoelectricalsignals.Theseelectricalsignalsthentravelthelengthofaconductingwiretothereceiver.Inthereceiver,theelectricalsignalsareconvertedbackintosound.
Abasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystemalsopossessesatransmitterandareceiver.Electricalsignalsarenottransmitted,however.Wiresarenotrequired.Fiberstransmitsignalsbymeansoflight.
Thepurposeofthetransmitterinabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystemistocreatelight.Inmanyapplications,alight-emittingdiodeisutilized.Electricalsignalspowerthelight-emittingdiodeandlightneartheinfraredportionofthelightspectrumisproduced.Theseinvisiblelightsignalsenterandtravelthelengthofthefibersuntiltheyreachthereceiver.Thereceiverinafiberopticsystemcontainsalightdetectorandiswherethelightsignalsarechangedbackintoelectricalsignals.Thesenewlycreatedelectricalsignalsthentravelbywiretofamiliarequipment.Figure1-4ontheprecedingpagesillustratesthecomponentsandoperationofabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem.
Fiberopticshavebecomeinvaluabletothecommunicationsindustry
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becauseoftheirabilitytotransmitsignalswithoutinterferencefromexternalelements.Fibersareconstructedtotransmitlight,notelectricity.Conventionalelectricalsystemsareofteninterrupted,by,amongotherthings,electricalsurgesandelectromagneticradiation.Lightbeingtransmitted
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Figure1-4.Thecomponentsofabasicfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem.
withinafiberisnotaffectedbytheseadversities.Fiberopticsystems,therefore,canbeinstalledinareaswhereconventionalelectricalsystemscouldprovetobetoodangerousorunreliabletooperate.
Giventheabilitytotransmitsignalswithoutinterruption,itisnotsurprisingthatitwasthecommunicationsindustrythatwasresponsibleforthemajorityofsignificantadvancementsrelatedtofiberoptictechnology.Inthe1970s,afiberonekilometerinlengthtransmittedonlyonepercentoftheoriginallightthatenteredit.Inthe1990s,fibersthatpossesslengthsexceedingfiftykilometerstransmit10percentoftheoriginallightthatentersthem.
Butbecausefiberopticsignaltransmissionsutilizefibersthatareconstructedtotransmitlightatinvisibleportionsofthelightspectrum(i.e.,infrared),thedistancesandamountsoflighttransmittedareoflittlevaluetothelightingdesigner.Itwas,however,becauseoftheimprovementsinglassfibersrealizedbythetelecommunicationsindustry,thatfiberoticsystemscouldbecomearealistictechnologyinthefieldoflightingdesign.
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DesignandConstruction
Afiberisanindividualunit,buttheyarefrequentlygroupedwithotherfiberstoformabundle.Bundledfibersfallintotwocategories,coherentandnon-coherent.
Coherentbundlesoffibersareproducedbypositioningseveralfiberswithinabundlesothateachfibermaintainsanexactrelationshiptoeveryotherfiberinthebundle.Coherentbundlesareusedtotransmitimages.Whenapictureisprojectedontooneendofthebundle,itistransmittedbymeansoflighttotheoppositeendofthebundle,whereitisre-formedasthesamepicture.Coherentfibersarefrequentlyfoundintoolsutilizedinthemedicalfield.Thesetoolsincludetheendoscope,aninstrumentusedtoexaminetheinsideofthebody,andthegastroscope,aninstrumentusedspecificallytoexaminethestomach.Coherentfibersarealsousedinnumerousapplicationstoseetheinsideofanobjectwithoutactuallyhavingtoopenortaketheobjectapart.Figure1-5,onthenextpage,illustratestheconceptofcoherentfibers.
Unlikecoherentbundlesoffibers,non-coherentbundleshaverandomfiberlocationswithinabundleandareonlyusedfortransmittinglight.Therefore,whenbundledfibersareutilizedinthefieldoflightingdesign,theyarenon-coherent.
Components
Similartoathree-partfiberopticsignaltransmissionsystem,atypicalfiberopticilluminationsystemalsoconsistsofthreecomponentsalightsource,fibersforthetransmissionofvisiblelightand,whenappropriatetothedesign,variousoutputdevicestocontrolanddirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.
Fiberopticlightingsystemsalsosharesomeofthebenefitsthatfiber
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opticcommunicationssystemsenjoyabsolutelynoelectricityinthefibersandthereforenoelectromagneticinterferencefromexternalenvironments.
Figure1-6onafollowingpageillustratesabasicfiberopticilluminationsystem.Thelight-carryingfibersextendfromthe
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Figure1-5.Coherentfibersareindividualfibersthataregroupedtogethertoformabundle.Eachfiberis
inexactrelationshiptotheotherfibersinthebundlefromthebeginningofthebundletotheend.AdaptedwithpermissionfromSchottFiberOptics.
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lightsourceandaredirectedtovariousareaswherelightisdesired.NoticehowthisdrawingcomparestothethreepartfiberopticcommunicationsystemillustratedinFigure1-4.
Smalldiameterplasticfiberswereintroducedinthe1970sandplasticfiberswithlargerdiameterswereintroducedin1986.Today'sfiberopticilluminationsystemsutilizeeitherglassorplasticfiberstotransmitvisiblelight.
ApplicationsandCharacteristics
Originaldesignsmakinguseofglassfiberswerefoundininteriordecorativeenvironments.Manypointsoflightwereobtainedfromonelampbyilluminatingtheendsofnumerousfiberstocreatedesignsthatproducedastar-likeeffect.Earlyapplicationsutilizingplasticfiberswerefoundprimarilyintheilluminationofswimmingpools.Today,inadditiontodecorativeandswimmingpoolapplications,fiberopticilluminationsystemsareusedextensivelyinenvironmentsthatincludearchitectural,residentialandcommercialinteriorandexteriorspaces.
Ingeneral,fibercanbeconsidereddurableandflexible.Certainfiberscanwithstandsubstantialextremesintemperature.Theseattributes,combinedwiththefactthatthereisnoelectricityassociatedwiththelightbeingtransmittedinafiber,allowforsomefiberstobemountedalmostanywhere.Typicalapplicationsmakeuseoffibersbypositioningtheminarchitecturalcovesorbuildingfacades.Moreuniqueapplicationsplacefibersincement,grout,brick,glass,waterandavarietyofotherlocationswheretraditionallightingislimitedbecauseofelectricalandmaintenancerequirements,thesizeandweightofcomponents,andheat.
Alllightingsystemsgenerateacertainamountofheatcausedbytheoperationofelectricalcomponents.However,asdemonstratedin
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Figure1-6onthepreviouspage,afiberopticsystemhastheuniqueabilitytolocatethesecomponentsina
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Figure1-6.Thebasiccomponentsandoperationofafiberopticilluminationsystem.
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Figure1-7.Fiberopticsystemusedtoilluminatesensitiveworksofart.
PhotographcourtesyofSchottFiberOptics.
locationawayfromtheilluminatedarea.Thismeansthatthedesignedenvironmentwillnotexperienceanyheatbuild-upassociatedwiththeoperationoftheelectricalsystem.
Thelampsthatarecurrentlyusedasthesourceoflightinmanyfiberopticilluminationsystemsareoftenthesameasthosethatareusedintraditionallightingapplications.Theselamps,likeeveryothersourceoflight,produceheat.Allfibersusedforilluminationpurposesareconstructedtotransmitwavelengthswithinthevisiblespectrumoflight,butcertainfibersarebetterthanothersattransmittinginfrared.Thisheatcanalsobepreventedfromreachingtheilluminatedenvironment.Bypositioningtheappropriatefilterbetweenthelightsourceandthefibers,infraredwavelengthscanbestoppedbeforetheyenterthefibersfortransmission.
Ultravioletwavelengthscanalsobepreventedfromenteringthefibersbyutilizingtheappropriatefilter.Becausefiltra-
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tioncanremovethedamagingraysemittedbythelamp,onlythevisiblewavelengthsareallowedtoenterthefibers.Lightthatisfreeofultravioletandinfraredwavelengthshasofferedthedesignerincreasedflexibilityinilluminatingworksofart,chocolate,flowersandnumerousothersensitivematerials.
Inmanyapplications,afiberopticsystemeliminatestheneedtoutilizemultiplelampsbecauseindividualfibersorfiberbundlesextendfromonelamptoprovidelighttomanyindependentlocations.Thismaybebeneficialforthreereasons,allofwhicharerelatedtoeconomics.
First,dependingonthespecificapplication,itispossiblethatenergycostscanbereducedbecauseonlyonelampisutilized.
Second,theprocessofreplacingonelampthatislocatedinaneasilyaccessiblearearequireslesstimethanchangingmultiplelampslocatedinplacesthatmaybedifficulttoreach.Thetimerequiredtochangeindividuallampsisreduced.
Third,becauseonlyonelampisrequiredtodothejobofmany,fewerlampsneedtobepurchased.
Lighttransmittingdirectlyfromfiberscanbeusedwithoutfurthermodificationtoprovidegeneraldownlighting,wallwashingorhighlightingeffects.However,whenusingtheappropriateoutputdevices(whicharepresentedinChapter6),thereisanenormousamountofflexibilityinbeingabletodirectlightofvariousintensitiesandbeamspreadstoprecisepointsinthedesignedenvironment.Figure1-8demonstrateshowfibersextendingfromonelampprovidelighttoseveralindependentlocations.
Utilizingfiberopticstoilluminatedisplaycasesisbecomingincreasinglystandard.Theabilitytofilterpotentiallydamagingwavelengthsandpreventheatfromadverselyaffectingtheexhibitare
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twoofthereasonsattributedtothisincrease.However,additionalbenefitsapply.Thelightemittingfibersaremountedwithinthecase,therebyreducingoreliminatingreflectionsthatcanbecausedbyanexternallightsource.Andbecausethelightsourceislocatedatanareaawayfromthe
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Figure1-8.Individualfibersorfiberbundlesextendingfromonesourceoflighttoilluminateseveral
independentlocations.
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Figure1-9.Fiberopticilluminationsystemsusedtoilluminatejewelrydisplaycases.
PhotographcourtesyofPinpointFibreOptics,Ltd.PhotographbyNormanMcGrath.
exhibit,thecontentsofthecaseandlightoutputdevicesareneverdisturbedwhenalampneedstobereplaced.Oncebeamspread,focus,andintensityofthelightarecreatedpertherequirementsofthelightingdesign,thereisnoneedtoreopenthecaseduringthelifeoftheexhibit.
Theinstallationofafiberopticsystemtendstobeeasierthaninstallingaconventionallightingsystem.Manyfiberopticlightingapplicationsdonotrequiretheservicesofanelectricalcontractorforsysteminstallationbecausethelightsourcessimplyplugintoastandardelectricaloutlet.Additionalwiringisnotnecessarybecauselighttransmittingfibersattachdirectlytoanyoutputdevicesthatmaybeutilized.Becauselesswiringisneeded,thepossibilityofelectricalshortcircuitsisreduced.
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Theabilitytoreduceshortcircuitshasmadefiberopticilluminationsystemswell-suitedtolightinghazardousareas.Traditionallightingsystemscanbeunsafetooperateinenvironmentswherethepossibilityofsparkscouldleadtofireorexplosion.Fiberopticsystemscanbeutilizedinthesedangerousareaswithoutdirectconcernforissuesrelatedtoelectricalsafety.Becausethesourceoflightandallelectricalrequirementsarelocatedawayfromthehazardousarea,fiberopticilluminationsystemsareprovidinglighttoenvironmentswhereatraditionallightingsystemcouldneverbeinstalled.
Fiberopticilluminationsystemstendtoexcelovertraditionallightingmethodswhencomparingoptionsrelatedtocreativityandflexibility.Becausethebenefitsassociatedwithfiberopticlightingcanbesubstantialincertainenvironments,newandpotentialapplicationsareconstantlybeinginvestigated.Althoughthetechnologycurrentlypossessescertainlimitations,manyapplicationsarelimitedonlybytheimaginationofthedesigner.
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Chapter2TheIlluminatorandFibersAtypicalfiberopticilluminationsystemconsistsofthreecomponentsalightsourcehousedwithinanilluminator,fibersforthetransmissionofvisiblelightand,whenappropriatetothedesign,variousoutputdevicestocontrolanddirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.Inthischapter,wewilldiscussthecharacteristicsoftheilluminator,fibersandtherangeoflightsourcesavailabletoproducelight.
TheIlluminator
Theilluminatorcontainsalamp(orlamps)thatprovideslighttothefibers.Thesizeoftheilluminatorwillgenerallybedeterminedbytheilluminationlevelsdesiredand,therefore,theneedtoutilizeaparticularlamp.Dependingonthelightingdesignspecifications,theilluminatorwillalsocontainreflectors,anyelectricalcomponentsthatthelampmayrequire,coolingdevicesandfilterstheparticularsystemmayutilize,andaccessoriesthatwillbeusedtoobtaintheoveralllightinggoal.
Illuminatorscanbemountedinavarietyoflocationsandhavebeenmanufacturedforbothwetanddryenvironments(thelightsourceandallelectricalcomponentsmustalwaysbekeptdry).Therearenumerousilluminatorsavailabletothelightingdesignerwithvaryingcharacteristicsrelatedtolightoutput.Whatiscommonofallilluminatorsisthattheycontainthelightsourcenecessarytomakethesystemwork.
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KeyTermsUsedInThisChapterClosedLoopThetermusedtodescribeside-emittingfiberthatstartsandterminatesinthesomeilluminator.
CommonEndThecommonendisacomponentthatistypicallyusedtogrouptheinputendsoffibersorfiberbundlestogether.Thecommonendattachestotheilluminatorsothatthefibersreceivelight.Theexactmethodofattachingfiberstoanilluminatorwillvary.However,the,termcommonendcanbeappliedtomostsystems.Dependingonthemanufacturer,thecommonendmaybereferredtoas''fiberhead,"coupler"or"bushing."Whenglassfibersareutilized,thecommonendistypicallyreferredtoasthe"mainferrule."
DaisyChainingThetermusedtodescribeside-emittingfiberthatconnectstomultipleilluminators.
End-emittingFiberFiberthatisdesignedtoemitlightatitsend.
FerruleFerrulesaredeviceslocatedattheoutputendofbundled
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fibers.Theyaregenerallyusedtokeepindividualfiberscorrectlypositionedwithinthebundle.
LightGuideTheterm"lightguide"usuallyreferstothetailsusedinthe,system.
HarnessTheharnessconsistsofacombinationofcomponents,the"commonend,""tails"(sometimesreferredtoas"arms"or"legs"),andthe"tailend"ofthefiberorfiberbundle.Notallsystemsutilizeaharness.
IlluminatorTheilluminatoristhecomponentofthefiberopticsystemthatcontainsthelightsource.Theilluminatormaybereferredtoasthe"source,""projector"or"lightbox"Theilluminatormayhouseanytransformersorballaststhatarerequiredbythelamp,reflectorsorlensestoassistindirectinglighttothefibers,coolingfans,filters,safetydevices,anddevicesforspecialeffectsandcolorchange.
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InputEndTheendofthefiberorfiberbundlethatwillreceivelightfromthelamp.
MainFerruleThe"mainferrule"isusuallyassociatedwithsystemsthatutilizeglassfibers.Itisanothernameforthe"commonend."
OutputEndTheendofanend-emittingfiberwhereligtwillexit.Maybereferredtoas"tailend"or"terminatingend."
PortTheportistheaperture(openingintheilluminatorthatallowsforlighttobereleasedontothefiber'sinputends.Theportiswherethecommonendattachestotheilluminator.Illuminatorsmaycontainmorethanoneport.
Side-emittingFiberFiberthatisdesignedtoemitlightalongitsentirelength
TailJailsareindividuallight-carryingfibersorfiberbundlesthatextendfromtheilluminatortoareaswherelightisdesired.Alsoreferredtoas"lightguide.''
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TailEndorTerminatingEndTheendofafiberorfiberbundle.Thetailendmayincludeaferrule.
AselectionofilluminatorsarepicturedinFigure2-1andFigure2-2.
Theharness,althoughonecomponentwithinafiberopticsystem,isgenerallyreferredtoinsections(seeFigure2-3).Thesesectionsincludethecommonend,thefibers(whichmaysometimesbereferredtoaslightguides)andtheterminatingendofthefibers(whichmayalsobereferredtoasthetailendsoroutputendsofthefibers),Noteveryfiberopticilluminationsystemwillutilizeaharness,butthetermsrelatedtotheharnessconceptcanbeappliedtomostsystems.
ThecommonendiswhereallofthefibersutilizedinthelightingSystemcometogethertoreceivelightfromtheillumi-
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Figure2-1.Anilluminator.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Figure2-2.Illuminators.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
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nator.Althoughsomelightingdesignscallforonlyonelargediameterfibertobeattachedtotheilluminator,othersrequirenumerousfiberstoattachtothelightsource.Regardlessofhowmanyfibersareutilizedintheoveralldesign,theywillallreceivelightatthecommonendfromthelampwithintheilluminator.Insystemsthatutilizeglassfibers,thecommonendistypicallyreferredtoasthemainferrule.
Thecommonendoftheharnessfitsintotheapertureoftheilluminator.Thisapertureiscalledtheportanditistheareathatallowsforlighttoleavetheilluminatorandenterthefibers.Illuminatorstypicallycontainoneport,butmanyilluminatorswillhavemorethanone.
Light-carryingfibersthatextendfromthecommonendarecalledtailsandsometimesarmsorlegs.Tailsmakeupthesecondsectionoftheharnessandmaybeindividualfibersormanyfibersgroupedtogethertoformbundles.Thethirdsectionoftheharnessistermedthetailendorterminatingend.Thisisthepartoftheharnesswherethefibersliterallyendand,dependingonthefibersthatareutilized,lightwillexit.Somefibersmaypossessaferruleattheterminatingendofeachfiberorfiberbundle.Ferrulesaregenerallymadefromaluminum,stainlesssteelorbrassandareusedtokeepindividualfiberscorrectlypositionedwithinthebundle.Theferruleinsertsintoanyoutputdevicesthesystemmayemploytofurtherdirectthelightcomingfromthefibers.Figure2-3illustratestheconceptofaharness.
TheLightSource
Thegoalofanylampandopticalaccessoriesusedinafiberopticilluminationsystemistodirectthemaximumamountoflightontothefiber'sinputends.Dependingontheapplication,anylightcomingfromthelampthatdoesnotenterthefibersisconsideredlostinafiberopticsystem(thispointisfurtherdiscussedinChapter4).The
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optimumsourceoflight
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Figure2-3.Aharnessusedinmanyfiberopticsystems.Theharnessconsistsofthe"commonend"(whichmaybereferredtoasthe"mainferrule"insystemsthatutilizeglassfibers),"tails"(whicharebundledglass,orindividualorbundledplasticfibers),andtheterminatingendofthefibers(whichmaybereferredtoasthe"tailend''or"outputend"ofthefiberorfiberbundle.Theterminatingendmayincludeaferrule.Tailsareoftenreferredtoas"lightguides."Thecommonendoftheharnessattachestotheilluminator
bymeansoftheport.
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isonethatoffersanextremelyhighlumenoutputwhileprovidingoutstandingcontrolofThelight.
Ingeneral,thefiberopticlightingindustryhasreliedonlightsourcesdevelopedforuseinconventionallightingapplicationstomakefiberopticsystemswork.Thesesourcesincludelow-voltagehalogenlampswithbuilt-indichroicreflectors,higher-wattagequartzhalogenlamps,andmetalhalidelampsthatareusedwithcustomizedreflectors.Recently,axenonmetalhalidelampandballastsystemwasdevelopedforusespecificallyinfiberopticsystems.Althoughthereisextensiveresearchcurrentlyunderwaytodevelopadditionallampsforusewithfiberoptics,itistheselamptypesthataremostcommonlyfoundinfiberopticilluminationsystemstoday.
Figure2-4.Ahalogenlampusedinfiberopticsystems.CourtesyofSuperVision
International,Inc.
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Figure2-5.Ametalhalidelampusedinfiberopticsystems.CourtesyofSuperVision
International,Inc.
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Low-VoltageHalogenLamps
Low-voltagehalogenlampsarecommonlyusedindisplay,accentandstar-likeceilingapplications.Theselampsaredimmable,availableinseveraldifferentwattages,andpossessoutstandingcolorrenderingcapabilities.Comparedtootherlamps,theyarerelativelylowincost.Thedesignofthelampmayincludeaprealigneddichroicreflectorthatisattachedtothelamp.Thelampispositionedwithintheilluminatorandthefocalpointofthelightbeamisaimedattheinputendofthefibers.
Figure2-6isanilluminatorplanillustrationrepresentingahalogenlampwithanattachedreflector.Thedrawingrepresentshowlightcomingfromthelampcanbefocusedontothefiber'sinputendsfortransmissionalongthelengthofthefiber.Thelinemarked"A"illustratesthelocationofheatorultravioletfiltersthatmaybeutilizedinthesystem.
Higher-WattageQuartzHalogenLamps
Higher-wattagequartzhalogenlampsaregenerallyutilizedwhenincreasedilluminationlevelsarerequired.Theselampscanalsobedimmedandofferoutstandingcolorrenderingcapabilities.Reflectorsareusedtoassistindirectinglighttothefiber'sinputends.Quartzhalogenlampscanbefoundinsystemsthatareusedtoilluminatelandscapes,poolsandfountains.Theyarealsousedextensivelyinsystemsdesignedtoprovidetaskandaccentlighting.
MetalHalideLamps
Metalhalidelampsaretypicallyusedinarchitecturalenvironments.Theselampsareusedinlightingsystemsthataredesignedtodefinebuildingandobjectperimetersaswellastoilluminatecovesandprovidedownlighting.Whenincorporatedintofiberopticsystems,metalhalidelampsaregenerallyavailableinwattagesofeither150or
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400.Theselampsalsousereflectorstodirectlighttotheinputendsofthefibers.Aswithmetalhalidelampsusedintraditionallightingapplications,
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Figure2-6.Alow-voltagehalogenlampmountedinanilluminatorandfocusinglightontotheinputendsofthefibers.AdaptedfromM.SikkensandJ.P.M.Ansems,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"
internationalLightingReview,March1993.
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theselamps,whenutilizedinafiberopticsystem,requireaparticularamountoftimebeforetheyreachfulllumenoutput.
Figure2-7isanilluminatorplanillustrationrepresentingametalhalidelampusedwithcustomizedreflectors.Thedrawingrepresentshowlightcomingfromthelampcanbefocusedontothefiber'sinputendsfortransmissionalongthelengthofthefiber.Thelinemarked"A"illustratesthelocationofheatorultravioletfiltersthatmaybeutilizedinthesystem.
XenonMetalHalideLamps
GeneralElectricintroducedaxenonmetalhalidelampandballastsystemin1994.Becausethislampandballastsystemwasdevelopedspecificallyforusewithfiberoptics,itofferscertaincharacteristicsthatarcbeneficialtotheentiresystem.Accordingtocompanyliterature,this60Wlamp"providestwoto10timestheluminance[photometricbrightness]ofstandardmetalhalidesources,"whileemittingmuchlessultravioletlight.Thelampisprefocussedandscaled.Noadditionalreflectorsarerequiredintheilluminator.Inaddition,thisxenonlampandballastsystemallowsforhalfofthetotallightoutputtobeobtainedinunder20seconds.
SelectingtheRightLamp
Aswithanylightingapplication,theselectionofalampwilllargelydependonthecolorcharacteristicsandilluminationlevelsrequiredinthedesignedenvironment.Whenselectingalampforuseinafiberopticapplication,however,additionalfactorspertainingtotheperformanceoftheentiresystemmayalsoneedtobeconsidered.Manyoftheseconsiderationsarediscussedinthechaptersthatfollow.
TheLampOperatingintheSystem
ArepresentationofanilluminatorisillustratedinFigure2-8.As
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mentionedabove,theexactcomponentswillbedeterminedbythelightingdesignrequirements.Dependingonthespecificapplication,theilluminatorwillcontainthelampand
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Figure2-7.Ametalhalidelampusedinconjunctionwithreflectorswithintheilluminatortofocuslight
ontotheinputendsofthefibers.Manysystemsutilizingmetalhalidelampsusecustomreflectorstodirectthemaximumamountoflighttotheinputendsofthefibers.AdaptedfromM.Sikkens
andJ.P.M.Ansems,"RemoteSourceLightingPartI,"InternationalLightingReview,March1993.
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Figure2-8.Elevationrepresentationofanilluminator.
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anyaccessoriesthelampmayrequiresuchasaballastortransformer,reflectors,devicestoassistincooling,filters,dimmingcontrolsandanycomponentsrequiredtocreatecolororspecialeffects.
TheFiber
AsmentionedinChapter1,fiberopticilluminationsystemsutilizefibersthatcanbemadefromeitherplasticorglass.SmalldiameterplasticfibersareoftenreferredtoasPMMA(indicatingachemicalcompositionofpolymethylmethacrylate)orSmallPlasticFibers.LargediameterplasticfibersaremadeofapolymerandcanbereferredtoasLargeCorePlasticOpticalFibers(LCPOF)orLargePlasticFibers.Glassfibersareavailableinavarietyofdifferentgrades,withthehighestqualitybeingmadeofsilica.
GlassorPlastic?
Thedecisiontoutilizeafibermadefromglassorplasticwillgenerallybebasedupontheoverallgoalofthelightingdesign(includingfactorsrelatedtoeconomics)andtheparticularperformancecharacteristicsofthefiber.BothglassandplasticfiberspossesscertainqualitiesthatarcdiscussedfurtherinChapter5.Regardlessofwhatafiberismadeoforhowitispositionedwithinthesystem,however,allindividualfiberspossessatransparentcoresurroundedbyatransparentcladding.
CoreandCladding
Thecoreisthelighttransmittingsectionofthefiber.ThecladdingisThematerialthatcompletelysurroundsthecore.Whenlightstrikestheboundaryofthecoreandcladdingatacertainangle,itwilltransmitthelengthofthefiberbymeansofmultiplereflections.SeeFigure2-9.
Thisprocess,aswellasadditionaldiscussionrelatedtothecoreand
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cladding,canbefoundinChapter3.
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DiameterandLightOutput
Thediameterofindividualglassfiberstypicallyrangesfrom50to150um(um=onemillionofameter).Althoughothersizesareavailable,thesesizesaremostoftenusedinlightingdesignapplications.Individualsmallplasticfiberscanhavediametersfromapproximately100to3000um,whilelargecoreplasticfibersmayrangefromapproximately3to20mmindiameter.Theamountoflightthatistransmittedthroughanindividualfiberpossessingasmalldiameterisoflittlevaluetoalightingdesigner.Glassfibersarethereforealwaysbundledtogethertoformlargerdiametertails.Plasticfibersmayalsobebundledtogethertoformtails,butunlikeglassfibers,itisnotalwaysnecessary.ThenumberoftailsthatcanbeobtainedfromoneilluminatorutilizingglassorplasticfibersisbasedonthediameterofthecommonendandTheoveralldiameteroftheindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatmaybeutilized.Thediameterofthecommonandisgenerallydeterminedbyhoweffectivelytheopticalaccessoriesemployedinthesystemfocuslight.Figure2-10demonstrateshowlightisfocusedtodeterminethediameterofthecommonend.
MeasurementofFibersinaBundle(Glass)
Manufacturersofglassfibersdevelopabaseunitofmeasurementtoestablishtheamountoffibersinastandardbundle.Onemanufacturerofglassfibersoffersabundlethatcontains400individualfibers.Eachindividualfiberwithinthebundlemeasures50umindiameter.Thisbundleisreferredtoas"Size1"andisthisparticularmanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementforobtainingalladditionalbundlesizes.Giventhisexample,theamountoffibersinabundlewillincreaseinmultiplesof400toobtaindifferentbundlesizes(assuminganindividualfiberdiameterof50m).Therefore,"Size12"bundleswouldcontain4,800fibers(12x400)and"Size24''bundleswouldcontain
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9,600fibers(24x400).
Thefollowingexamplewillmakeuseofacommonendthatis30mmindiameterinordertodemonstratehowtailsare
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Figure2-9.Twopartsofthefiberthecoreandcladding.
Figure2-10.Determiningtheoptimumsizeofthecommonend.
createdutilizingbundlesofglassfibers.Themaximumnumberofindividual50umdiameterfibersthata30mmcommonendwillaccommodateis160,000.Todeterminethenumberof"Size1"bundlesthatcanextendfromthis30mmcommonend,thedesignerwilldividethe160,000totalfibersavailablebythe400fiberscontainedinthe"Size1"bundle.Bycompletingthemath,thedesignerwillrealizethat400tails,eachcontaining400individualfibers,canbeobtainedbyutilizinga30mmcommonendand"Size1"bundles.Since"Size12"bundlescontain4,800individualfibers,dividing160,000by4,800provides
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aquotientof33.33.Thismeansthat33individualtails,eachcontaining4,800individualfibers,canbeobtainedbyusingthe30mmcommonendand"Size12"bundles.
Somelightingdesignswillrequiredifferentilluminationlevelsatvariousareaswithinthedesignedenvironment.Increasingthesizeofthebundleutilizedwillincreasetheamountoflightattheilluminatedarea.Therefore,creatingdifferentilluminationlevelsfromthesameilluminatorcanbeaccomplishedbyusingdifferentbundlesizesextendingfromthesamecommonend.Bundlesof"Size1,""Size12,""Size24,"andothersizesaswellcouldallextendfromthesameilluminator.
Anycombinationofbundlesizescanbeutilizedinthesamesystemprovidedthatthesizeofthebundleisobtainedbyusingthemanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementforastandardsizebundle.Theexampleaboveutilizedabaseunitof400fibersperbundle,butthisfigurewillvarydependingonthefibermanufacturer.Thetotalnumberofindividualfibersneededforallbundles,however,cannotexceedthemaximumnumberoffiberswithinthecommonend.Figure2-11demonstrateshowindividualglassfiberswithinthecommonendarebundledtocreatetails.
TailsAllowedPerIlluminator(GlassandPlastic)
Likeglassfibers,thenumberoftailsthatcanextendfromoneilluminatorutilizingplasticfibersisdeterminedbythediameterofthecommonendandthediameteroftheindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatareutilized.Verysmalldiameterplasticfibersarebundled.Smallplasticfiberswithlargercoresareusuallybundled,butdonotalwaysneedtobeinordertoprovidepracticalamountsoflight.Typically,theverylargecoreplasticfibersareneverbundled.Aswithsystemsthatutilizeglassfibers,differentdiametertailscanbeutilizedinthesamesystem.ThedrawingsinFigure2-12demonstratehowtailsconsisting
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ofplasticfibersarecreated.Eachdrawingrepresentsacross-sectionofacommonend.
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Figure2-11.Shownhereisthetotalof50umdiameterglassfibersthatwillfitintoa30mmdiametercommonend.
Theindividualfiberswithinthecommonendaredistributedtoeachtail.Differentsizetailscanextendfromthesamecommonendaslongasthetotalamountofindividualfibersutilizedinallofthetails
doesnotexceedthemaximumamountthatisavailableinthecommonend.Tailsixesaredeterminedbythemanufacturer'sbaseunitofmeasurementpertainingtothenumberoffibersinastandard"Size1"
bundle.Fourhundredfibersina"Size1"bundlesacommonnumber,butthisfiguremayvarydependingonthemanufacturer.
Theamountoffibersavailablefordistributiontoindividualtailswillvarydependingonthenumberoffibersthatthecommonendcanaccommodate.Commonenddiametersforglassfibersvary.Typically,
thatrangefrom10to40mm.
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LightDistribution(End-orSide-Emitting)
Fibersusedforilluminationfallintotwocategories.Thefirstcategoryistermedend-emittingandthesecondiscalledside-emitting.
End-EmittingFibers
End-emittingfiberstransmitlighttodevicesthatprovidethedesignerwiththeabilitytowallwash,downlightorutilizevariousdirectionalsystems.Figure2-13illustratesafiberopticsystemutilizingend-emittingfibers.
End-emittingfibersaremadefromglassorplasticandgenerallyneverexceed60feetinlength.Allfiberspossesscharacteristicsthatdiminishandalterlightasittravelsthroughthem.Therefore,theexactlengthofanend-emittingfiberwillbedeterminedbythedesiredilluminationlevelsandqualityoflightthatisrequiredattheilluminatedarea.Figure2-14illustratesalargecoreplasticend-emittingfiber.
Figure2-15illustratesanapplicationutilizingend-emittingfibers.
Side-EmittingFibers
Side-emittingfibersemitlightalongtheirentirelengthinamannerthatresemblesneon.Althoughtherearecertainglassfibersthataredesignedtoemitlightfromtheirsides,themajorityofside-emittingfibersaremadefromplastic.Plasticside-emittingfibersallowlighttoescapealongthefiber'slengthbecausetheyarespecificallydesignedwithimperfectionsattheboundaryofthecoreandcladding.Duringthemanufacturingprocess,thesurfaceofthecladdingsurroundingthecorecanberoughenedbyphysicalorchemicalmethods.Lightrefractsfromside-emittingfiberwheneveritencountersanareaofthecoreandcladdingthathasbeenaltered.Someside-emittingfibersare"braided"or"twisted"toallowlighttoescapealongtheirlength.
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Figure2-16illustratesside-emittingfiberthatis"braided."
Side-emittingfibersaretypicallyasolidlargecoreplasticfiberoranumberofindividualsmallplasticfiberssurrounded
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Figure2-12.Thesedrawingsdemonstratehowtailsconsistingofplasticfibersarecreated.Eachdrawingrepresents
acrosssectionofacommonend.
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Figure2-13.Afiberopticlightingsystemutilizingend-emittingfibers.
Figure2-14.Anend-emittingfiber.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
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byaPVCjacket.Onemanufacturer'spatentedside-emittingfiberconsistsofmultiplestrandsofbraidedfibersurroundingareflective"centercore,"allofwhicharesurroundedbyaPVCtubing.Thecentercore,althoughnotafiber,providesareflectivesurfacethatassistsinmakingthebundleappearbrighter.
Inmanylightingapplications,side-emittingfiberisbeingspecifiedasanalternativetoneon.Whencomparedtoneon,side-emittingfiberspossessparticularadvantages.Becausetheyareflexible,theycanbebentatthejobsite.Fiberopticsystemsmayuselessenergythanneonand,ifnecessary,maybere-usable.Atypicalneontubeis4feetinlength,whileavisiblerunofside-emittingfibercanvarydependingonthedesignwithoutinterruptingthepathoflight.Noelectricityinthefibersmeanstheycanbemountedinareaswhereneoncouldneverbeused.Becausethefibersaregenerallymadefromplastic,thereisnoglasstobreak.Inmanyapplications,oncethefibersareinstalled,theyrequirenoadditionalmaintenance.
Figure2-15.Anapplicationutilizingend-emitting
fibers.CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
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Perhapsthegreatestadvantageofside-emittingfiberoverneonisitsabilitytoeasilychangecolor.Byusingacolorwheellocatedbetweenthelampandtheinputendsofthefibers,thecoloroflightbeingtransmittedcanconstantlychange.Figure2-19illustratesacolorwheellocatedbetweenthesourceoflightandtheinputendsofthefibers.
Side-emittingfiberscanbeusedforaccent,coveandsteplightingaswellasfortheilluminationofsidewalksandbuilding
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Figure2-16.Side-
emittingfiberthatis"braided."CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
Figure2-17.Afiberopticsystemutilizingside-emittingfibers.
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Figure2-18.Crosssectionsofside-emittingfibers.DrawingArepresentsalargecorefiberwhiledrawingBrepresentsseveralfiberssurroundingareflective"centercore"allofwhicharesurroundedbyPVCtubing.Thesedrawingsarenottoscale.ReferencestodrawingAcourtesyofLumenyteinternationalCorporation.ReferencestodrawingBcourtesyofSuperVisioninternational,Inc.
Figure2-19.Colorwheelscanbeaddedtothesystemtoproducedramaticcoloreffects.Thisdrawingillustratesthelocationofthecolorwheelwithintheilluminator.
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Figure2-20,2-21.Lightingapplicationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.Photoscourtesyof
LumenyteInternationalCorporation.
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perimeters.Underwaterorwetlocationapplicationsincludepools,spas,fountainsandaquariums.Numerouslightinginstallationshavemadeuseofside-emittingfiberstocreatespecialeffects.Theseapplicationsincludelightsculptures,signageandthedelineationofamusementparkrides.
Generally,fiberopticmanufacturersrecommendamaximumlengthof100feetforside-emittingfibers.Theexactlengthwillvarydependingonthemanufacturer.Utilizinglongerrunsdiminishestheintensityofthelight.Extendingtheusablelightruncanberealizedbyconnectingbothendsofthefiberstoanilluminator.Inapplicationsthatutilizerelativelyshortlengthsoffiber,orindesignswherefibersdonotneedtobeattachedtoanotherilluminator,anendcapisappliedattheterminatingendofthefiberorfiberbundle(seeFigure2-16).Theendcapservesasalightterminationdeviceandprovidesprotectiontothefiber.
ThedrawingsinFigure2-22representpossibleconfigurationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.DrawingsAandBillustratefibersystemsthataredaisychained.Whenadaisychainingconfigurationisutilized,fibersstartinoneilluminatorandendinanotherilluminator.Considerablelengthsoffibercanbeutilizedwhilemaintainingconsistentlevelsofbrightnesswhenseveralilluminatorsaredaisychainedtogether.Theseconfigurationsaretypicalinapplicationssuchastheilluminationofbuildingandbridgeperimeters.DrawingCrepresentsaclosedloopconfigurationwherefibersbeginandendinthesameilluminator.Thissystemdesignisgenerallyusedinsmallerareassuchasinsignage,aroundsmallroomsorinpatios.
Thebrightnesslevelsdesiredwilldeterminethetypeoflampandnumberofindividualfibersorfiberbundlesthatwillbeutilized.Thenumberofside-emittingfibersthatcanextendfromoneilluminatoris
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determinedbythesameproceduresthataredescribedearlierinthischapter.Thedesignershouldnotethatwhenmultipleilluminatorsareutilized,eachindividualilluminatormustbewiredtoreceivepower.
Certaindesignsmaycallforacombinationofside-and
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end-emittingfiberstoattachtothesameilluminator.Utilizingbothfibertypeswillofferthedesignertheabilitytocreatemultiplelightingeffectsfromonelamp.Figure2-23illustratesafiberopticsystemwherebothside-andend-emittingfibersextendfromthesamecommonend.
Figure2-22.Possibleconfigurationsutilizingside-emittingfibers.Thedesignerisnotlimitedtotheseconfigurations.Almostanyconfigurationispossible.
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Figure2-23.Asystemdesignedtoutilizebothsideandend-emittingfibers.
PhotometricDataandLightLevels
Currently,thereislittlephotometricdataavailableforside-emittingfibers.Someindividualshavesuggestedthatperceivedbrightnesslevelsofside-emittingfibersaredeterminedbytheamountofambientlightintheenvironmentwheretheyareused.Onemanufacturerstatesthatperceivedbrightnessisbaseduponvariablesthatincludetheintensityofthelightsource,backgroundcolorcontrast,theviewingangleofthefiberandthecoloroflightinthefiberrun.
Makingcomparisonsinfootcandlelevelsobtainedfromend-emittingfiberscanbedifficultbecausemanufacturersofferphotometricdatautilizingdifferentlampsanddifferentsizesoffiberpossessingvaryingopticalcharacteristics.Whenmakingcomparisonsofilluminationlevelsbasedontheinformationprovidedbymanufacturers,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountaccessoriesthatmightbeemployedinthesystemsaswellasdifferencesinlightsourcesandfibers.Illuminancevaluessuppliedbymanufacturersaregenerallytakenatparticulardistancesfromthefiber'soutputendafterthelighthastraveledthrough10feetoffiber.Thedesigner,however,does
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havetheabilitytoinfluencefootcandlelevels.
Theamountoflightthatwilltransmitinafiberisdirectlyrelatedtothesizeofthecross-sectionalareaofthecore.Assumingthatthereisasufficient''spot"oflightfromthelampattheinputendofthefibers,doublingthecoreareaofthefiberwilldoublethelightoutput.Inapplicationsthatneedtocompensateforlightloss(seeChapter4)shorteningthelengthofthefiberfromtheilluminatortoTheterminatingendmayprovidegreaterlightlevelsattheareatobeilluminated.Higherbrightnesscanbeachievedbyutilizingalensontheoutputendofthefiberorfiberbundle,andinsystemsthatemploydirectionaltrackormultispotaccessories,aimingmorethanonebeamatthesameareawillachieveadditionalbrightness(seeChapter6).
Figures2-24and2-25offeranexampleoffootcandlelevelsthatcanbeobtainedutilizingend-emittingfibers.Bothexamplesmakeuseofa150Wmetalhalidelampandtheglassfibersof"Size12"and"Size24"thatwerediscussedearlierinthischapter.ThelengthofThefiberis10feetfromtheilluminatortotheterminatingends.Figure2-24utilizesafixedunlenseddownlightattheterminatingendofthebundle.Figure2-25makesuseofanAdjustableLensedspotlightatthebundle'sterminatingend.
Footcandlelevelsandbeamspreadscanbeadditionallymodifiedbyutilizingotherfixturesattheoutputendofthefiber.Andasmentionedabove,usingalargerfibersizeorreducingthefiberlengthfromtheilluminatortotheoutputendwillincreaseilluminationlevelsatthemeasuredsurface.Shouldfootcandlelevelsneedtoincreaseadditionally,utilizinganilluminatorwithahigher-wattagelampmaybetheappropriatesolution.
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Figure2-24and2-25.Anexampleoffootcandlelevelsutilizingdifferentoutputdevices.Courtesyof
LightingServicesInc.
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Chapter3PrinciplesofOperationWeknowthatinafiberopticlightingsystem,thelightoutputofthelampintheilluminatoristransmittedthroughthefiberstobedistributedfromeitherthesidesortheendofthefiberInthischapter,wewilldiscusstheprinciplesofhowlightistransmittedanddistributedthroughthefibers.
PrinciplesofLightTransmissionandDistributioninaFiberOpticLightingSystem
Therefractiveindexisatermusedtodescribethespeedatwhichlightwilltravelinaparticularmedium.Alllight-transmittingmediasuchasglass,ice,airorwaterpossessacertainrefractiveindex.
AsmentionedinChapter2,fibersconsistofatleasttwosections.Thesesectionsarereferredtoasthecoreandcladding.Thecoreisthesectionofthefiberwherelightistransmitted.Thecladdingcompletelysurroundsthecore.
Becausethecoreandcladdingaretransparent,theyeachpossessaparticularrefractiveindex.
Thefunctionofthecorehasbeencomparedtothefunctionofawireusedinatraditionalelectricalsystem.Wherethewireinanelectricalsystemprovidesthemediumtoconductelectricity,thecoreofthefiberprovidesthemediumtoconductlight.Therefractiveindexofthecorewillalwaysbehigherthantherefractiveindexofthecladding.
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KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
AcceptanceAngle-Lightmustenterthefiberwithinaparticularangleifitistotransmitthefiber'slength.Thisiscalledtheacceptanceangle.
Cladding-Thecladdingsurroundsthecoreofthefiber.Thecladdingpossessesalowerrefractiveindexthanthecore.Itisthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingthatallowsfortotalinternalreflectiontooccur.
Core-Thecentralsectionofthefiberwherelightistransmitted.Thecorepossessesarefractiveindexthatishigherthanthecladding.
CriticalAngle-Theexactanglerequiredforlighttoexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Lightmuststriketheboundaryoftwolight-transmittingmediathatpossessdifferentrefractiveindicesatananglegreaterthanthecriticalangleinorderforittoremainconfinedtotheoriginalmedium.
NumericalAperture-Thetermnumericalapertureisusedtoexpressafiber'sacceptanceangleandisobtainedbasedonamathematicalcalculationinvolvingthecoreandcladdingrefractiveindices.
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Refraction-Lighttravelinginaparticularmediumchangesspeedanddirectionwhenitencountersamediumthatpossessesadifferentrefractiveindex.Thechangeindirectionisknownasrefraction.
RefractiveIndex-Lightwilltravelindifferentmediaatvaryingspeeds.Thespeedatwhichlightwilltravelinaparticularmediumisexpressedbythemedium'srefractiveindex.
TotalInternalReflection-Lightstrikestheboundaryattwomediapossessingdifferentrefractiveindicesatananglegreaterthanthecriticalangleandisreflectedbackintotheoriginalmedium.Inafiber,lightexperiencesmultipleinternalreflectionsinorderforittotransmitthefiber'slength.
Sheathing-Thesheathingisthesectionofthefiberthatcompletelysurroundsthecoreandcladding.Whenbundledfibersareutilized,thesheathingtypicallysurroundstheentirebundle.Thepurposeofthesheathingistoprotecttheindividualfiberorfiberbundlefromdamage.Thesheathingisoftenreferredtoasthe"jacket."Notallfiberspossessasheathing.
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Figure3-1.Thetransparentcoreandcladdingofafiber.
Thecladdinghasbeencomparedtotheinsulationthatsurroundsametalwireinanelectricalsystem.Thepurposeoftheinsulationinanelectricalsystemistokeeptheelectricitywithinthewire.Thepurposeofthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingistokeepthelightwithinthecore.
Lightwilltravelinastraightlineuntilitencounterssomethingthatwillallowforitsdirectiontobechanged.Lighttravelingataparticularspeedinaparticularmediumwillchangedirectionandbegintravelingatanewspeedwhenitentersamediumthatpossessesadifferentrefractiveindex.Lightchangesdirectionbecauseitchangesspeed.Thechangeindirectionaslightentersanewmediumisknownasrefraction.
Arayoflightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediaisreferredtoastheincidentray.Therayoflightthathasenteredthenewmediumisreferredtoastherefractedray.Howmuchrefractiontakesplacewilldependontheangleoftheincidentrayandtherefractiveindexofeachmedium.Figure3-2demonstratesrefraction.
Whentheangleofanincidentrayallowsforarefractedraytoenterthenewmediumandbegintravelingat90degrees,therefractedraywilltravelattheboundaryofthetwomedia.
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Figure3-2.Lightstrikestheboundaryoftwotransparentmediumsandisrefractedawayfromtheangleat
whichitwastraveling.
Theangleatwhichthisoccursestablishesthecriticalangle.Anylightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediaatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalanglecannotescapefromtheoriginalmediumbecauseitisreflectedbackinside.Figure3-3demonstrateshowthecriticalangleisestablished.
Whenlightisreflectedbackintotheoriginalmedium,totalinternalreflectionoccurs.Itistheprocessoftotalinternalreflectionthatallowsfiberopticstowork.
Lighttravelinginthecoreofthefiberstrikesthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladdingandreflectsbackintothecore.Inthisfashion,lightexperiencesmultipleinternalreflectionsandtransmitsthelengthofthefiber.Figure3-5illustratestheconceptoftotalinternalreflectionasitrelatestofiberoptics.
Forlighttotravelinafiberbeyondtherequiredcriticalangle,itmustfirstenterthefiberwithinaparticularangleofacceptance.Thisangleisreferredtoastheacceptanceangle.Lightthatentersthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewillexperiencetotalinternalreflection.
Acceptanceanglesvarydependingontheexactfiberutilized.Mostfibersusedinlightingdesignpossessacceptanceanglesthatrangefromapproximately60to80degrees.Manyfiberopticcatalogsandpromotionalmaterialssupplyinformationthatisrelatedtothefiber'sacceptancehalf-angle.
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Figure3-3.Lighttravelingatdifferentincidentangleswillhavedifferentanglesofrefraction.Whentherefractedrayhasincreasedsothatittravelsattheboundaryofthetwo
media,thecriticalangleisestablished.
Figure3-4.Lightstrikingtheboundaryofthetwomediumsatanglesgreaterthanthecriticalangle
willreflectbackintotheoriginalmedium.
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Figure3-5.Theconceptoftotalinternalreflectionasitrelatestofiberoptics.
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Figures3-6and3-7demonstrateafiber'sacceptanceangleandacceptancehalf-angle.
CalculatingNumericalAperture
Numericalapertureisthetermthatisusedtoexpresstheacceptanceangleofafiberandisobtainedbycompletingamathematicalcalculationbasedonthecoreandcladding'svaryingrefractiveindices.Fibersthatpossesslargernumericalaperturesarecapableofacceptingmorelightfortransmissionthanfiberswithsmallernumericalapertures.NumericalapertureisoftenabbreviatedasNA.
Theformulausedtocalculateafiber'snumericalapertureis:
where...
n1=refractiveindexofthecore
n2=refractiveindexofthecladding
Therefractiveindicesofthecoreandcladdingareavailablefromthefibermanufacturer.Thefollowingexamplecompletestheformulautilizingacorerefractiveindexof1.492andacladdingrefractiveindexof1.406.
1.Squaretherefractiveindexofthecore(forthisexample,thisequals2.22606)
2.Squaretherefractiveindexofthecladding(forthisexample,thisequals1.97683)
3.Subtractthecladdingindexsquaredfromthecoreindexsquared(forthisexample,thisequals0.24923)
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Figure3-6.Inorderforlighttoexperiencetotalinternalreflection,itmustfirst
enterthefiberwithintheacceptanceangle.
Figure3-7.Fibermanufacturersoftensupplyinformationrelatedtoafiber's
acceptancehalf-angle.
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4.Obtainthesquarerootofthisanswer.Thisnumberequalsthenumericalaperture(forthisexample,thisequals0.499)
Thenumericalapertureofafiberisnotalwaysincludedinthepromotionalliteratureproducedbythefiberopticindustry.Someglassandlargecoreplasticfibersmayhavenumericalaperturesofapproximately0.65.ThenumericalapertureofcertainPMMAfiberscanbeapproximately0.55.
CalculatingtheAcceptanceHalf-Angle
Theacceptancehalf-angleiscalculatedbyobtainingthesine(SIN)ofthenumericalaperture.Fortheexampleabove,theacceptancehalf-angleequals30,forafullacceptanceangleof60.
Lightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewillnotexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Becausethislightentersthefiberatanglesthatarelargerthantheacceptanceangle,itentersthecoreandthenrefractsintothecladding.Lightcomingfromthelampatanglesmuchgreaterthantheacceptanceanglewillnotenterthefiber.Thislightbecomestrappedintheilluminatorwhereitwillbeconvertedtoheatandeventuallyradiatefromthesystem.Figure3-8illustrateslightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceangle.Figure3-9illustrateslightstrikingthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandexperiencingmultipleinternalreflections.
Lightthatisacceptedfortransmissioninside-emittingfibersmustalsoenterthroughthefiber'sacceptanceangle.However,lightrefractsoutofthefiberwheneveritencountersadeliberatesurfaceimperfectionattheboundaryofthecoreandcladding(seeChapter2).Itisinthismannerthatside-emittingfibersemitlightalongtheirentirelength.Figure3-10representshowlightrefractsfromside-emittingfibers.
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Figure3-8.Whenlightdoesnotenterthefiberwithinthefiber'sacceptanceangle,itwillstriketheboundaryofthecoreandcladdingandeventuallyrefract
outofthefiber.
Figure3-9.Lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandexperiencing
totalinternalreflection.
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Figure3-10.Lightentersaside-emittingfiberthroughtheacceptanceangleandthenrefractsoutofthefiberbecauseofdeliberateimperfectionsattheboundaryofthecore
andcladding.
Figure3-11.Thecore,claddingandsheathingofafiber.
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Everyfiberpossessesacoreandcladding.Manyfibersalsocontainathirdsectioncalledthesheathingorjacket.
Thesheathingmaybetransparentoropaqueandcompletelysurroundsthecoreandcladding.Whenbundledfibersareutilized,thesheathingsurroundstheentirebundleofindividualfibers.Thesheathingaddsstrengthtothefiberorfiberbundlewhileprovidingprotectionfromexternalelementssuchasheatorwater.
Somecompanyliteratureandarticlesaddressingfiberopticsmaygivethereadertheimpressionthatthesheathingassistsintransmittinglight.Ashasbeenexplainedabove,totalinternalreflectionoccurswhenlighttravelinginthecorestrikesthelowerrefractiveindexofthecladding.Thelight-transmittingperformanceofafibercannotbeimprovedbyalteringthecompositionofthesheathing.
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Chapter4LightLossFiberopticilluminationsystemsarecommonlyperceivedasbeingaveryefficientlightingtechnologygenerallyspeaking,thisistrue,particularlywhenefficiencyisviewedastheabilitytoputlightexactlywhereitisdesired.However,ifefficiencyisdefinedintermsthatarefamiliartolightingdesigners,specifically,''lumensin,lumensout,"thenthedesignerwouldbenefitinexaminingwhathappenstolightcomingfromthesourceasitrelatestotheentirefiberopticsystem.
Introduction
Agreatdealoftheresearchanddevelopmentthathasbeenoccurringinthefieldoffiberopticilluminationhasbeendevotedtoreducingtheamountoflightthatislostwithintheentirefiberopticsystem.Significantadvancementshavebeenmadeinareasrelatedtofocusingmorelightfromthelampontotheinputendsofthefibersandinthereductionofattenuation.
Evenwithbetteropticalcontrolandlowerattenuation,however,acertainpercentageofthelightcomingfromthelampisstilllostbeforeitreachesthefiber'sinputend.Asthedevelopmentofmorelampsdesignedspecificallyforuseinfiberopticsystemscontinues,designerscanexpecttorealizeincreasedsystemefficiencyand,therefore,morelumensattheilluminatedenvironment.
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KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
Absorption-Particularwavelengthsemittedfromthelightsourceareabsorbedbythefiberastheyattempttotransmitthefiber'slength.Whatwavelengthsareabsorbeddependsonwhatthefiberismadeofandhowlongtheparticularwavelengthstravelinthefiber.
Attenuation-Lightthatislostasittravelswithinafiberisreferredtoasattenuation.Attenuationincludeslossesduetoabsorption.BendRadius-Thebendradiusreferstothesmallestbendafibercanwithstandbeforealossoflightwilloccur.Anybendsmallerthantheminimumbendradiuswillcauselighttoescapethecore.
PackingFraction-Thesizeofthelighttransmittingareaswithinacrosssectionofafiberbundlecomparedtothebundle'stotalcrosssection.Instandardbundles,thisnumberisapproximately85percent.
LightLoss-Thetermthatreferstolightthatislostsomewhere
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withinthefiberopticsystem.Lightlossincludeslossesduetoattenuation.
LightLossesattheIlluminatorandComponents
Currently,oneofthegreatestareasofresearchwithinthefiberopticilluminationindustrycentersonthedevelopmentoflampsthatwillfocusmorelightwithintheacceptanceangleoffibers.Ashasbeenpreviouslymentioned,manyfiberopticsystemsutilizelampsthathavebeendesignedforuseinnon-fiberopticapplications.Theselamps,evenwiththeuseofreflectors,donothavethecapabilityoffocusingalloftheir
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availablelightontotheinputendsofthefibers.Actually,onlyacertainpercentageofthelightcomingfromthelampwillstrikethefibersatall.Anylightthatdoesnotstrikethefiberscanbeconsideredlostwithinafiberopticsystem.Thepercentageoflightthatislostbecauseitcannotbefocusedintothefiberswillgenerallybedeterminedbythelampandopticalaccessoriesutilizedwithinthesystem,thelocationofthelampinrelationtotheinputendsofthefibers,andthesizeofthecommonend.Figure4-1providesarepresentationofhowlightislostbeforeitreachesthefibers.
LightLossatRelatedComponents
Themajorityoffiberopticsystemsutilizeareflector,filter,colorwheelorconnectioncomponentsthatlightmustpassthroughinorderforitreachthefiber'sinputends.Infact,manysystemsemployseveralaccessoriestoassistinachievingthedesiredlightingdesign.Whenlightpassesthroughanycomponentutilizedinthesystem,acertainpercentageofthelightwillbeabsorbedbythecomponentthelightispassingthrough,andacertainpercentagewillbereflectedawayasitentersandleavesthecomponent.Approximatelyeightpercentofthelightattemptingtopassthrougheachcomponentorconnectionutilizedinthesystemwillbelost.
ThislossisillustratedinFigure4-2.
LightLossesattheFiber
Besideslightlossesattheilluminatorandrelatedcomponents,lightlossesoccuratthefiber.
LightLossesattheInputandOutputEnds
Inprinciple,anylightthatstrikesthefiberswithintheacceptanceangleshouldbetransmittedbymeansoftotalinternalreflection.However,notallofthelightstrikingwithintheacceptanceanglewill
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successfullyenterthefiber.Acertain
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Figure4-1.Representationofhowlightislostbeforeitreachesthefibers.
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Figure4-2.Lightislosteachtimeitpassesthroughacomponentwithinthesystem.
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percentageofthelightwillbereflectedaway.Theamountofreflectionthatwilloccurdependsonthefiberthatisutilized,but,aswithanycomponentlightmustpassthrough,alossofapproximately4percentatthefiber'sinputendandanother4percentattheoutputendcanbeconsideredtypical.Figure4-3illustrateslightfallingwithintheacceptanceangleandreflectingawayfromthefiber.
Toachieveoptimumlighttransmittingperformance,certainfibersneedtobepolishedattheirinputandoutputends.Dependingonthefiberutilized,thisprocesswilleithertakeplaceatthefactorywherethefiberismanufacturedorathejobsitewherethefiberwillbeutilized.Plasticfibersarecuttotheappropriatelengthinorderforthemtobesizedtothedesign.Anadditionallossoflightcanbeexpectedatthefiber'sinputandoutputendsifthefiberisnotcutorpolishedproperly.
LightLossesBasedOnCross-SectionalArea
Applicationsthatutilizebundledfiberssufferfromanotherformoflightloss.Becauseindividualfibersaregroupedtogethertoformabundle,onlyacertainpercentageofthetotalareaofthebundlewillactuallybeusedfortransmittinglight.
Non-lighttransmittingareasinthecrosssectionofthebundleincludespacesthataretakenupbythecladdingofeachindividualfiber,variousvoidsthatarecreatedduetothepositionofeachfiberwithinthebundleandbyadhesivesthatareusedtoholdcertainbundledfiberstogether.Thesizeofthelighttransmittingcoreareaswithinthecrosssectionofabundlecomparedtothebundle'stotalcrosssectionisreferredtoasthebundle'spackingfraction.Somebundlescanlooseasmuchas30%ofthebundle'scrosssectionduetopoorpackingandareastakenupbycladdingcrosssections.Figure4-5illustratesacrosssectionofabundle.
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Figure4-3.Apercentageofthelightstrikingthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewill
bereflectedaway.
Figure4-4.Poorpolishingorunevencutswillcauseanadditionalamountoflighttobelost.
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LossesDuetoDirtandDust
Lightcanalsobelostduetoabuildupofdustonthesurfacesofthecomponentswithintheilluminator.Dirtaccumulatingonthelamp,reflectors,filters,fiberendsandanyotheraccessoriesutilizedinthesystemwilldecreasetheirefficiencyandcauselighttobescattered.Inaddition,dustaccumulatingonanythermalprotectors(heatsafetydeviceslocatedwithinsomeilluminators)usedinthesystemwillabsorbheat.Thisheatabsorptionmayincreasetemperaturestoalevelthatcancausethermalprotectorstoshuttheentiresystemdown.Recentdevelopmentspertainingtothesealingofcertainsystemshasreducedsomedustrelatedconcerns,butmanufacturersofparticularcomponentsrecommendedthatmaintenancepersonnelbetrainedinthepropercleaningtechniquesoffiberopticsystems.Figure4-6illustratesareaswithinthesystemwhereefficiencycanbereducedduetoabuildupofdust.
TransmissionLossesBasedOnDistance
Lightlossdescribedinthepreviousparagraphshasgenerallyreferredtolightthatislostbeforeitentersthefibers.Additionallightislostasittravelsalongthefiber'slength.Thetermattenuationisusedtodescribelightthatislostwhileittravelswithinthefiber.Therearecertainarticlesorotherpiecesofpublishedinformationthatmayrefertoattenuationusingthetermlineloss.
Measurementsrelatedtoattenuationareobtainedbyusingamathematicalcalculationbasedonlightlevelstakenatparticularpointsalongafiber'slength.Therefore,afiber'sattenuationcanbeviewedasarelativeindicationofhowmuchlightthereisatthebeginningofthefibercomparedtohowmuchlightthereisattheendofthefiber.Manypromotionalpackagesandcataloguesproducedbythefiberopticindustrydonotincludeinformationrelatedtolightthatislostduetoattenuation.Thedesignermustrealize,however,that
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theselossesmaybesomewhatsignificantasrelatedtothelength
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Figure4-6.Componentswithintheilluminatorthatcanbeaffectedbydust.Dustcanhaveamajor
impactontheefficiencyofthesystem.
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andtypeoffiberutilized.
Oneofthereasonsattenuationoccursisbecauseparticularwavelengthsemittedbythesourcewillbeabsorbedastheytravelthelengthofafiber.Becausecertainwavelengthsareabsorbed,theintensityoflightdiminishesandcolorisalteredaslighttravelsinafiber.Whichwavelengthsareabsorbedwilldependonthevariousmaterialsusedinthefabricationofthefiberandtheabilityofthosematerialstoabsorbspecificwavelengths.Theamountofabsorptiondependsonthedistancethewavelengthsmusttravelwithinafiber.Thismeansthatifafiberisconstructedofmaterialsthatabsorbwavelengthsat450nanometers,someamountofthebluelightat450nmwillbeabsorbedasittravelsthefiber'slength.
Sinceabsorptiononlyoccursoncethelightfromthelamphasenteredthefiber,itmustbenotedthatthespectraloutputofthelampandtheabsorptioncharacteristicsofthefiberareindependentofoneanother.Thespectraloutputofthelampwillbealteredaslighttravelsparticulardistanceswithinafiber.Publishedfiguresrelatedtoabsorptionaredependentontheexactfibersutilized.However,anexponentiallossof1-5percentperfootoffiberisconsiderednormal.
LossesDuetoFiltration
Absorptionshouldnotbeconfusedwithfiltration.Filtrationtakesplaceintheilluminatorwherelightpassesthroughafilterinordertoremovecertainwavelengthsbeforetheyenterthefibersfortransmission(seeFigures2-6and2-7).Asdescribedabove,absorptiontakesplacewhilelighttravelsinafiber.Filtrationremoveslightraysbymeansofeitherinterfacereflectionorabsorption.Therefore,anadditional8percentofthevisiblelightemittingfromthelampislostifaninfraredfilterisutilized.Morevisiblelightislostifthesystemrequiresadditionalfiltration.
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LossesDuetoFiberImperfections
Attenuationmayalsooccurduetominorimperfectionsinthefiberthatcantakeplaceduringthemanufacturingorshippingandhandlingprocess.Theseimperfectionscouldbetheresultofdustparticlesorotherenvironmentalimpuritiesenteringthefiberduringfabricationandmayincludebubblesorsmallbends.Whenlighttravelinginthefiberencounterstheseimpurities,itwillbeabsorbedorreflectedinsuchawayastodeviatefromtheanglewhichitwastravelingandbecomelost.Figure4-7(above)demonstratesimperfectionswithinthefiber.
LossesDuetoSevereBending
Attenuationwillalsooccurifafiberisbenttooseverelywithintheapplication.Allfiberspossessspecificationsrelatedtohowfartheycanbebent.Thebendradiusofafiberreferstothesmallestbendafibercanwithstandbeforelightwillescapethecore.Fiberthatisbentsmallerthanthebendradiuscausesthecriticalanglerequiredforlighttransmissiontobeexceeded.
Figure4-7.Lightraysstrikingimpuritiesinthefiberanddeviatingfromthecriticalangle.
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Therefore,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountbendradiuswhenplanningadesignthatrequiresfibertobebentaroundenvironmentalobstructions.
Thebendradiusisdeterminedbasedonthediameterofthefiberandreferstotheradiusofthesmallestcircleafibercanbebentaroundbeforelightislost.Insystemswherebundledfibersareutilized,thebendradiusappliestothediameterofeachfiberusedinthebundle.Completeinformationrelatedtobendradiusisnotoftenincludedinthegeneralpromotionalliteratureproducedbytheindustry.Somepublishedguidelinesrelatedtobendradiusstatethatthesmallestradiuscanbeobtainedbymultiplyingthediameterofthefiberby10.Exactguidelineswilldependonthefiberbeingutilizedandcanbesuppliedbythefibermanufacturer.Figure4-8illustratesbendradiusutilizingthegeneralguidelinesprovidedabove.Forthepurposeofexample,thediameterofthefiberis0.25inches.Multiplying0.25x10providesaradiusof2.5inches.Themostthisfibercanbebentisinacirclethatis5inchesindiameter,2.5-inchradius.Additionalbendingofthisfiberwouldcauseleakageoflighttooccurthroughthecladding.
Figure4-8.
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Afiber'sbendradius.
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Onemanufacturerofplasticopticalfibersstatesthatloose,largeturnstransmitlightfurtherthantightbendsorkinks.Additionally,infibersdesignedtoemitlightfromtheirsides,bendssmallerthanthesuggestedbendradiuswillcauseabrightspottooccurwherethebendislocated.Thefollowingillustrationdemonstrateshowlightcanescapefromthecoreifthefiberisbentsmallerthanthemanufacturer'ssuggestedbendradius.
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Chapter5GlassorPlastic?Utilizingafibermadefromeitherglassorplasticisperhapstheareaofgreatestcontroversywhencomparingliteratureproducedbyvariousmanufacturersandrepresentativesoffiberopticcomponents.Itisnotuncommonforcompanymarketingmaterialstomakeambiguousreferencesrelatedtothesuperiorityoftheirproductwhileindicatingthattheseclaimsarerelatedonlytotheglassorplasticfiberstheyrepresent.Fiberopticsystemspossesscharacteristicsthatarecommonregardlessofthefiberutilized.Somerepresenativesoffiberopticproductsrepresentbothglassandplasticsystemsandthereforemaintaintheaccuratepositionthatallfibersofferuniquebenefitsdependingontheapplicationneeds.
GlassVersusPlastic
Inthissection,wewilldiscussvariousgeneralcharacteristicsinwhichglassandplasticfibersdifferandaresimilarinperformance.
ColorShift
Chapter4describedhowfibersabsorbparticularwavelengthswithinthespectrumofvisiblelight.Theindividualwavelengthsthatcombinetoform''white"lightmaybeabsorbeddependingonthelengthandtypeoffiberthatisutilizedintheapplication.Theintensityoflightisdiminishedandthecoloroflightisalteredduetowavelengthabsorption.Thedesignerneedstorealizethatcompanyliteraturetendsto
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KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
Epoxy-Thematerialmostoftenusedtoholdbundlefiberstogether.
FusedFibers-Aprocesssometimesusedinthemanufacturingofglassandcertainsmallplasticfiber.Byutilizinghightenperatures,fibersarefusedtogetherattheirinputends.Epoxiesarenotrequiredwhenfibersarefused.Fusedglassfiberscanwithstandextremelyhightemperatures.
Randomization-Randomizationisaprocessthatdistributesacertainamountofthefibersinthecommonendtoeachindividualtail.Thisprocessisusedtoundothenon-uniformlightdistributionattheinputendsofthefibersthatiscausedbymostlightsources.
offerattenuationinformationasafactoriallossoflightperfootoffiber(seeChapter4).Itisextremelyraretofindpublishedinformationpertainingtothenanometerrangewherethislosswilloccur.Generally,plasticlargecorefiberwillabsorbwavelengthsthatshiftthecoloroflightcomingfromthefibertoyellow.Certainplasticandlowerqualityglassfibersmayshiftthecoloroflighttogreen.Glassfibersofthehighestqualitywillalsoabsorblightinthevisible
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spectrum,buttendtoexcelintheirabilitytotransmitwhitelight.
Itshouldbenotedthatinmanyapplications,colorshiftscausedbywavelengthabsorptionmaynotposeproblemstotheoveralllightingdesign.Theseareasmayinclude,butarenotlimitedto,certainarchitecturalandcommercialenvironments,numerousdecorativeapplications,installationsthatutilizecolorwheels,andthelightingofswimmingpoolsandfountains.Becausetheamountofcolorshiftthatwilloccurisdirectlyrelatedtothelengthofthefiber,relativelyshorterrunsoffiberwillhavelesscolorshiftsthanrelativelylongerruns.Inapplicationswherecolorrenderingisextremelyimportant,colorcorrectingfiltersareavailabletoassistinre-balancingthecolorshiftscausedbywavelengthabsorption.
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Color-CorrectingFilters
Thedesignershouldbeaware,however,thatcolor-correctingfilterswillremoveadditionallightraystocomplementthecolorsthathavebeenlost.Ifafiberabsorbswavelengthsthatshiftthecoloroflightcomingfromthefiberstogreen,acolorcorrectingfilterthatabsorbsorreflectsgreenlightwillbeutilized.
AbilitytoWithstandHeatfromtheLamp
Theamountofheatthatglassandplasticfiberscanwithstandattheirinputendsisconsiderablydifferent.Theacceptableoperatingtemperatureisestablishedbasedonthecompositionofthefiber.Glassfibersareinert,andthereforemoreabletoaccommodatehighertemperaturesthanthosethataremanufacturedfromplastic.Operatingtemperaturesforplasticfibersvary.Onecompanyoffersseveraldifferentplasticfibersthathaveacceptableoperatingtemperaturesthatgenerallyrangefrom-20°Cto85°Cdependingontheexactfiberutilized.Anothermanufacturerofplasticfiberhasatargettemperatureattheinterfaceofthefiberandtheilluminatorsetatorbelow50°C.Certainplasticfiberswillbegintolosetheirlight-transmittingabilitiesiftheyareexposedtotemperaturesabove70°C.Ifthesefibersarecontinuouslyexposedtotemperaturesthatexceed100°C,theywillmelt.Fibermanufacturersdonotalwaysofferinformationrelatedtooperatingtemperaturesintheirpromotionalliterature.Generally,theaverageacceptableoperatingtemperatureforplasticfibersattheinputendshouldnotexceed85°C.Innoticeablecontrast,typicalglassfiberscanwithstandtemperaturesatthecommonendofapproximately200°C.
Figure5-1illustratestheareaofconcernpertainingtoheatfromthelampandtheinputendofthefibers.Additionalconsiderationspertainingtofibertemperaturemustbetakenintoaccountthroughoutthedesignandinstallationprocess.Temperaturesensitivefibers
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shouldnotbeexposedtoanysourceofheatthatcouldallowforthefibertoexceedthe
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Figure5-1.Dependingonthefiber,thetemperatureattheinputendshouldnotexceed
approximately85°Cformanyplasticfibersandapproximately200°Cfortypicalglassfibers.
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recommendedoperatingtemperature.
Excessivetemperaturesfromthelightsourceattheinputendofanyplasticfiberwillcausedamageandthereforelimitthefiber'sabilitytotransmitlight.Althoughglassfibersarenotdirectlyaffectedbyheatfromthelamp,theadhesivesusedinmanyglasssystemstoholdbundledfiberstogethercanbedamagedbyhightemperatures.Epoxyresinsarecommonlyusedtoholdfiberstogetherinthecommonendandendferrulesofglassfibersystems.Manyplasticfiberassembliesarealsoheldtogetherwithepoxies.Overaperiodoftime,theheatfromthelampmaydeterioratetheepoxy,causingittochangecolorandeventuallydamagethefibers.Lightemittingfromthesefibersmaypossesspoorcolorcharacteristicsandbeoflesserintensity.Recentadaptationsinthemanufacturingofsomeglassandsmallplasticfibershasdoneawaywiththeneedforepoxies.Fibersinthecommonendarefusedtogether.Becausethereisnoepoxyusedtoholdthefiberstogether,considerablymorespaceinthecross-sectionofthebundleisusedtotransmitlight.Fusedglassfiberscanwithstandtemperaturesofapproximately350°C.
Heatfromthelampisusuallymanagedbyutilizingacombinationofacoolingfanandinfraredfilterslocatedintheilluminator.Generally,thegoalofinfraredfiltersistoremovewavelengthsabovethevisiblerange.Infraredfiltersandcoolingfansassistinkeepingthetemperatureofthefiber'sinputendsatorbelowthemanufacturer'srecommendations.Theserecommendationsaredevelopedbasedonthecompositionofthefiber.
Whenacoolingfanisutilized,designersshouldrealizethattheremaybeacertainamountofnoiseassociatedwiththefan'soperation.Certainsystems,suchasthosethatutilizefusedglassfibers,donotrequireafanforcooling.
UltravioletLight
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Ultravioletlightisanareaofprimeconsiderationwhenconsideringasystemthatutilizesfibersmadeofplasticor
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glass.Generally,highqualityglassfibersabsorbacertainamountoftheultravioletradiationemittedfromthelampafterthelighthastraveledafewfeetwithinthefibers.However,certainplasticfibersareextremelysensitivetoultravioletlight.Therefore,toensurethelongestpossiblelifeofplasticfibers,systemdesignsshouldeffectivelyremoveultravioletlightbelow390nmbeforeitreachesthefibers.Therearecurrentlyfiltersavailableforuseinfiberopticsystemsthatfilter99.9percentoftheultravioletlightemittedfromthelampbeforeitreachestheinputendofthefiber.
Harnesses
TheconceptoftheharnesswasintroducedinChapter2.Itwasstatedthatnotallfiberopticsystemsrequiretheuseofaharness.Manysystemsthatutilizeplasticfibersallowforindividualfibersorfiberbundlestoattachdirectlytotheilluminatorbymeansofacommonendormodifiedports.Whenaharnessisutilized,however,therearespecificdifferencesthatmayneedtobeconsideredwhenselectingasystemthatutilizesglassorcertainplasticfibers.
Allsystemsthatutilizeonlyglassfibersrequireaharness.ReferringtotheexampleinChapter2,itwasdeterminedthataharnessconsistingofa30mmcommonendcouldprovide33"Size12"bundlesofglassfibers.Thismeansthat33differentpointsoflight(tails)canbeobtainedfromthisonesystem(meaningonelamp)allofferingthesamebasicphotometriccharacteristics(dependingontheselectionofthefixtureattheoutputend,lengthoffiber,andissuesdiscussedinChapter4)asthosethatareillustratedinFigure2-24andFigure2-25.
Formanyapplicationsutilizingglassfibers,however,theharnessmustbecustom-builtbythefibermanufacturerbasedonthespecificapplicationrequirements.Theharnessisnotassembleduntilthedesignerprovidesthemanufacturerwiththenumberoftailsthatwill
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beused,therequiredtailsizestoobtainthenecessarylightlevels,andtheexactlengthofalltheindividualtailsthatwillextendfromthecommonendtoany
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outputdevicesthatmaybeutilized.Ifthedesignerfindsthatchangesarenecessarybasedonanynumberoffactors,theharnesswillneedtoberebuiltbythefibermanufacturer.Itisextremelydifficulttomakechangesatthejobsitewhenutilizingaharnessthathasbeenspecificallydevelopedforaparticularlightingapplication.
Therearecertainbenefitstohavingtheharnessassembledbythemanufacturer.Thesesystemsarethoroughlytestedatthefactorybeforetheyareshipped.Whenthesystemarrives,theharnessisinsertedintotheportoftheilluminatorandtheindividualtailsareattachedtoanyoutputdevicesthatmaybeutilizedinthedesign.Thelaborofdesigningthesystemwascompletedduringthelightingdesignprocess.Anditshouldbenotedthatmanyapplicationsmakinguseofglassfibersdonotrequirethattheharnessbecustom-built.Almostallmanufacturersofferstandardharnessesthatareappropriateformanylightingapplications.Aswithcustom-builtharnesses,however,theseharnessesdonotallowforagreatdealofflexibilityshouldthedesignneedtochange.
Amajordifferenceinharnessesusedinplasticsystemsversustheharnessesthatareusedinglasssystemsisthatplasticharnessesdonotneedtobecustom-assembledatthefactory.Shouldthedesignneedtochange,modificationscanbemadeatthejobsite.However,comparedtohavingthesystemreadytobeinstalledwhenworkingwithaglasssystem,plasticsystemsmayrequireacertainamountoflaboratthejobsiteinordertomakethemwork.
AssemblingaHarnessforPlasticFibers(SampleProcedure)
Somemanufacturersdonotincludetheinformationrequiredtoassembleaharnessintheirstandardpromotionalmaterials.Therefore,thefollowingstepsofferageneraloverviewoftheproceduresthatmayneedtobeperformedinordertoassembleaharnessutilizingcertainplasticfibers.Theexactproceduresmayvarygreatly
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dependingontheplasticfiberutilized.Certainsystemswillrequire
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additionalstepswhileotherfibersmaycallforfewerordifferentproceduresinordertoassemblethesystem.Manycompaniesthatmanufactureplasticfibersystemsofferaccessoriesthatassistincompletingsomeorallofthesesteps.AsdiscussedinChapter2,differentsizes,lengthsaswellasacombinationofsideandend-emittingfiberscanattachtothesameilluminator.
1.Thefirststepistosizethefiberstotheappropriatelength.Plasticfibersaregenerallyavailableinspoolsthatcanrangefrom100to1000feetinlength.Smallerlengthsareavailable.Somecompaniesrecommendthatfibersbeplacedagainstaflatsurface(suchasguidingthefibersagainstawall)foraperiodoftimeaftertheyhavebeenunrolled.
2.Thefibersarenowcuttotheappropriatesize.Itisimperativetoensurethatallcutsaremadeasstraightandcleanaspossible.Thedesignershouldrefertothefibermanufacturer'sguidelinesbeforemakinganycutinafiber.Anewsingle-edgedrazorbladecanbeused,butmanymanufacturesofferacuttingtool(usuallyatadditionalcost)designedspecificallyforcuttingfibers.
3.Plasticfibersthatpossessasheathingmayrequirethataparticularamountofthesheathingberemovedfromtheendofthefiberthatwillattachtotheilluminator.Thesheathingcanberemovedbyscoringaroundthefiberatacertaindistance(usually2-4inches)fromthefiber'sinputendandthenpullingthesheathingbacksothatthecladdingisexposed.Removethesheathingbycuttingcarefullyaroundthefiberorfiberbundle.
4.Thefiberscannowbearrangedintherequiredpatterntocreatethelightingdesign.Thestrippedendofthefiberswillcometogetherforinsertionintothecommonend.Fi-
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bersthatdonotneedtobestrippedcanbearrangedsothateitherendofthefiberattachestotheilluminator.
5.Itisatthispointthatcertainfibersmayhavetobesecuredtogetherforinsertionintotheilluminator.Teflon®heatshrinktubingiscutandinsertedoverthefibersthatwillattachtotheilluminator.Heatisappliedtoshrinkthetubingintoplace.Itisimportanttokeepthesourceofheatinconstantmotion,astemperature-sensitivefiberscanbedamagedifheatisappliedforaprolongedperiodoftime.Somemanufacturesrecommendpracticingthistechniquebeforeactuallyworkingwiththefibers.
6.Whenthefibersaresecured,theyareheldtogetherinsidethetubingbyepoxy.Onlyepoxyrecommendedbythefibermanufacturershouldbeused.Theepoxywillneedtobemanipulatedsothatitfillsallofthespacesnottakenupbythefiberswithintheheatshrinktubing.Thepurposeistocompletelyjointhefiberstogetherattheirsides.Theassemblyisthenheatedandinsertedintothecommonendsothataportionofthefibersextendfromtheopposite
Figure5-2.Anelevationandcrosssectionofafiberillustratingthecore,claddingandsheathing.
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Figure5-3.Certainfiberswillrequiretheremovalofthefiber'ssheathing
beforethefiberisinsertedintothecommonend.
Figure5-4.Tosecurethefibers,heat-shrinktubingisplacedoverthefibersandsized
byapplyingheat.
side.Theepoxywillsetwhilethefibersorfiberbundlesareinthisposition(thecompletecuringprocessmaytake24hours).
7.Whentheepoxyhashardened,anotherpieceofheatshrinktubingmayneedtobeappliedoverthecompletedassembly.
8.Thefibertipsextendingfromthecommonendarenowcutaway.Itisimportantthatthesefibersarecutsothattheyareevenwiththecommonend.Anunevencutwillaffecttheamountoflightthatwillenterthem.Somesmallplasticfibersmaynowneedtobepolished.
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Figure5-5.Theassemblyisplacedintothecommonend.Theepoxysetsinthisposition.
Figure5-6.Theextendingportionofthefibersarecutaway.Certainfibersmaynow
requirepolishing.
9.Thecommonendisnowreadytobeattachedtotheilluminator.
Dependingonthedesignandfiberutilized,additionalstepsarerequiredtoinstallfibersintooutputdevicesoralongmountingchannels(seeChapter6).Figure5-8offersarepresentationofaharnessthathasbeenassembledusingstepsthataresimilartotheonesillustratedabove.
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Figure5-7.Theassembledcommonendconsistingofallfibersorfiberbundlesutilized
inthedesignconnectstotheilluminatorbymeansoftheport.
CuttingtheFibers
Certainly,theabilitytocutplasticfiberstoaspecificlengthatthejobsitehasadvantages.Itisextremelyimportant,however,toensurethatanycutismadeascleanaspossible.Someplasticfibermayprojecttheimagesleftfromanunevencutintotheilluminatedenvironment.Asmentionedabove,harnessesutilizingglassfibersareoftencustom-assembledbythemanufacturer;therefore,glassfiberscannotbecutatthejobsite,althoughtheyalsopossesscharacteristicsthatmayallowforcertainprojectionstooccur.Whenlightcomingfromanybundledfiber(glassorplastic)ispreciselyfocused,thepatternoftheindividualfiberswithinthetailmayprojectontotheilluminatedsurface.
VariationsinLightColorandIntensity
Inbothglassandplasticsystems,thereisthepossibilitythatthe''spot"oflightstrikingtheinputendsofthefibersmaybeunevenincolorandintensity.Metalhalidelampshavedistinctlyseparatecolorsblendedwithintheoutputspectrumand,therefore,lightofdifferentcolorsandintensitiescanenterintodifferentfibersextendingfromthesamecommonend.Theresultofnon-uniformlightattheinputendsofthefibersiscolorandintensityvariationsattheilluminatedsurfaces.
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Figure5-8.Representationofaharnessthathasbeenassembledusingthestepsdetailedinthetext.AdaptedwithpermissionfromLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
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Certainsystemsutilizevariouslenses,quartzrods,"couplers"orotherpatenteddeviceswithintheilluminatortoassistin"mixing"thesevariationsbeforelightreachesthefiber'sinputends.Mixingthelightbeforeitreachesthecommonendallowsforamoreevendistributionoflightacrosstheinputendofthefibers.Somesystemshavetheabilitytorandomizefibers.Randomizationisaprocedurethatdistributesacertainamountoftheindividualfibersinthecommonendtoeachtail.Varyinglightintensitiesoccurringatthecommonendarethereforedistributedtoeachtaildependingontheamountofrandomizationthatoccurs.
Thedesignercanspecifydifferentamountsofrandomization,eachofferingvariousdegreesofsuccessinmixingthelight.Theabilitytorandomizeiscommononlytoglassandsomesmallplasticfibers.ThedrawingsinFigure5-9illustratetheconceptofrandomization.
BendingtheFiber
Chapter4discussedtheamountofbendingthatafibercanwithstandbeforelightlossoccurs.Ashasbeenpreviouslymentioned,bendingisrelatedtothediameterofeachindividualfiberutilizedinthesystem.Becauseglassfibershavesmallerdiametersthanplasticfibers,theycanbebentmorewithintheapplicationbeforetheyexperiencealossoflight.However,ifglassfibersarebentsmallerthanthesuggestedbendradius,theylosetheirabilitytotransmitlightandeventuallybreak.Shouldaglassfiberbreak,acompletelossoflightwilloccurinthedesignedenvironment.Ifthelossoflightissubstantial,theentireharnesswillneedtobereplaced.Somemanufacturessuggestorderingaharnesswithextratailstosafeguardagainstthispotentialproblem.Therearecertainplasticfibersthatmayalsobreakiftheyarebenttooseverely.Butbecauseplasticfiberscangenerallyberemovedfromtheilluminatoratthejobsite,problemsrelatedtobreakagearemoreeasily(andcost-effectively)solved.
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Figure5-9.Exampleofrandomization.AdaptedwithpermissionfromSchottFiberOptics,Schottlite,FiberOptic
LightingfromSchott.
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Price
Fibersarepricedbasedonthematerialstheyaremadeof.Historically,glassfibershavecostconsiderablymorethanplasticfibers.Inmostapplications,thisisstilltrue.Duetoissuesrelatedtohighervolumedemandandincreasedproductionefficiency,however,pricesmayberelativelycomparableincertainlarge-scaleprojects.
HowLongWillItLast?
Thelifeofafiberwillgenerallybedeterminedbytheconditionsinwhichitoperatesandwillincludefactorsrelatedtoenvironmentandoverallsystemdesign.Theindustryhasnot,asyet,hadopportunitytodetermineexactlyhowlongafiberwilllastbasedonactualfieldapplications.Becausethetechnologyisrelativelynew,soarethemajorityofinstallations.Sinceglassfibersareinert,theycouldlastforever.
Plasticfiberscansufferfromexcessiveheat,ultravioletenergyandvariousotherenvironmentalfactors.Onemanufacturerofplasticfibershasrecentlystatedthatgivenpropersystemdesign,thefiberstheyproducehaveaproductivelifeof20years.
MixingGlassandPlastic
Untilveryrecently,glassorplasticfiberscouldonlybefoundindistinctivelyseparatesystems.Nooptionswereavailabletothedesignerthatallowedforacombinationofbothfibertypestobeutilizedwithoneilluminator.Therearecurrentlyilluminatorsmanufacturedthataccommodatebothglassandplasticfibers.Theportsoftheilluminatorsaredesignedtoallowstandardorcustomdesignedglassorplasticbundlesorindividualplasticfiberstobeattachedorremovedasdesired.Inaddition,illuminatorscanbecustomdesignedtomatchspecificfibers.Thedesignercanrealizea
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multitudeoflightingeffectsandcharacteristicswhenutilizinganilluminatorthatisdesignedtoworkwithavarietyofplasticorglass,sideorend-emittingfibers.
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Chapter6AccessoriesAccessoriesincludeclips,endcaps,fixtures,colorwheels,filtersandavarietyofotherdevicesusedtocontrollightdistribution,colorandproduceotherdesiredbenefits.Inthischapter,wewilldiscusstheseaccessories,andreviewproductsavailablefromseveralmanufacturers.
AccessorizingtheFiberOpticSystem
Chapter3discussedtheacceptanceangleofafiber.Lightacceptedintoafiberfortransmissionmuststrikethefiberwithintheacceptanceangleinorderforittoexperiencetotalinternalreflection.Generally,lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceanglewilltransmitoutofthefiberatthesameangle.
Theexactangleoflightcomingfromthefiberwillbedeterminedbyhowoftenthefiberisbentthroughouttheapplicationandhowexactingtheinstallerhasbeeninadheringtobendradiusspecifications.Ifafiberislaidperfectlystraight,thedesignercanexpecttorealizealightcut-offhalf-angleatthefiber'sterminatingendtobethesameastheacceptancehalf-angle.Aspreviouslydiscussed,certainglassandlargediameterplasticfiberspossessanumericalapertureofapproximately0.65whilethenumericalapertureofsomesmallplasticfibersisapproximately0.55.Thesenumericalaperturesleadtolightoutputhalf-angles,ofapproximately40and33degreesrespectively.Lightemittingfromfibersattheseanglesisoftenwellsuitedtocertainapplications.
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KeyTermsUsedInThisChapter
EndFittings-Theendfittingislocatedattheterminatingendofatail.Dependingonthefittingselected,theyareusedtoassistindefiningandshapingthelightemittingfromthefibers.Insomecasesendfittingsarereferredtoasfixtures,luminairesoroutputdevices.Manyfixturesserveonlyasdecorativelightoutputdevices.
Synchronization-Synchronizationallowsforcoordinatingspecialeffectsinnumerousilluminatorsoperatingwithinthesameapplication.
Mostend-emittingapplications,however,doutilizeanendfittingattheterminatingendofthetailtoassistindefiningthelight.Themostcommonendfittingisalens.Alensallowsforcontrolofthelightwhileprovidingthedesignerwiththeabilitytoadjustthebrightnesslevelswithinaparticularapplicationbyindividuallyfocusinglightfromnumeroustailsontocertainareasorobjectswithintheilluminatedenvironment.
Newaccessoriesarecontinuouslybeingdeveloped.Industrycatalogsthatonlytwoyearsagofeaturedalmostnooptionsrelatedtofixtureselectionhavebeenupdatedtoincludeabroadrangeofnewlydevelopedfixturesforuseininteriorandexteriorapplications.Whilesomefixturesarepurelydecorative,othersaredesignedtoperformaparticulartask.Themajorityoffixturesarepatented.Byappearance,
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manyofthesefixtureslookthesameasthosethatwouldhouseaconventionallamp.Butfibersattachtothefixture,notwires.Fixturesutilizedwithfiberopticsprovideilluminationwithouttheheatorelectricityassociatedwithatraditionallightingfixture.
Becausetherearenoelectricalrestrictions,moreandmoredesignersaredevelopingcustomfixtures.Designingafixture(andmountingmethods)isoftenonlylimitedtospecificationsrelatedtothedesignedenvironment.Fiberoffersthedesignertheabilitytotransformalmostanythingintoalightfixture.
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Figure6-1.Lightenteringthefiberwithintheacceptanceangleandleavingthefiber
atthesameangle.
Figure6-2.Fiberendcaps.Endcapsaremountedattheterminatingendofside-emittingfibersorfiberbundleswhenthedesigndoesnotrequirethattheybeconnected
toanotherilluminator.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternationalInc.
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Manyeverydayobjectssuchasfurniture,handrailsandsculptureshavebeenmodifiedordesignedtoaccommodatefiber.
Thefollowinglistrepresentssomeoftheaccessoriesthatareavailabletoassistinobtainingthedesiredlightingresults.Certainaccessoriescanonlybeusedwithspecificsystems;manyaccessories,however,canbeutilizedregardlessoftheilluminatororfibersemployed.Mostfixturesarecurrentlydesignedforusewithend-emittingfiber.
Fixtures
FixturesforDownlighting
Themajorityofcompaniesofferingaccessoriesmarketatleastonefixturedesignedtoprovidedownlight.Comparedto
Figure6-3.TheindividualPinpointDirectionalHead.Itfeaturesalensedballswivelforaimingandafocusinghoodthatslidesouttoadjustthebeampatternfromaspottoabroaderpattern.CourtesyofPinpoint
Fibreoptics.
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Figure6-4and6-5.IndividualPinpointHeadspositionedinamountingbar.Themountingbarcanbesizedtofittheexactdimensionsofadisplaycaseandupto60individualheadscanbepoweredwithonelamp.Courtesyof
PinpointFibreopticsLtd.
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traditionaldownlights,thesefixturesareincrediblycompact,oftenmeasuring1-3inchesindiameterand1-2inchesinheight.Attimes,theymaybeevensmaller.Duetotheirsmallsize,theyfitinareaswheretraditionallightingfixturescannotbeinstalled.Inmanycases,thesefixturesserveonlyasdecorativeceilingfittings.Atailattachestothefixturefromthebackandlightemergesdirectlyfromthefiberstotheareabeingilluminated.Thesefixturesareusedprimarilyfortask,accentanddisplayilluminationandareavailableinmanydifferentstylesandfinishes.
DecorativeFixturesforDownlighting
Similarinsizetofixturesdesignedtoprovideonlydownlight,decorativedownlightsusuallyincorporateanelementthatlightpassesthroughinordertoprovidereflectionsorglowingeffects.Thesefixturesaregrowinginpopularitybecausetheyaredesignedtoprovideadecorativelightingelementthatcombineswithorcomplementsinteriororexteriordesign.Suchfixturesmayincorporateacrylicmolds,crystalsorshapedclearorcoloredglassintotheirdesign.
EyeballFixtures
Severalcompaniesoffereyeballfixturesthatareadjustablebymeansofasocket.Thebeamoflightcanbeeasilyaimedatparticularareasforuseinwallwashingandaccentlighting.Manyofthesefixturesincludeanadjustablelensthatallowsforlighttobefocusedfromsmalltowidebeams.
LandscapeLightingFixtures
Numerousfixtureoptionsareavailableforilluminatinglandscapes,sidewalksandgardens.Thesefixturescanoftenbemountedflushtothegroundforuplightingorresemblebollardsthatcandiffuseorreflectlight.Somemanufacturersofferoutdoorfixturesthatare
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extremelyflexibleandcanbeaimedatvariousareasinthelandscape.Decorativeelementsthatglowareoftenincorporatedintothesefixtures.
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Figure6-6.Downlightforaimablespot,highlighting
oraccentlighting.
Figure6-7.Downlightforfixedspot,highlighting
oraccentlighting.
Figure6-8.Downlightforspot,highlightingoraccentlighting.Courtesyof
Fiberstars,Inc.
ExteriorLightingFixtures
Inadditiontofixturesdesignedtoilluminatelandscapes,wall-mountedfixturesforexteriorwallwashing,stairlightingandpatioandsidewalklightingarealsoavailable.Manyofthesefixturescomeinavarietyofshapesandallowforcontrollablelightoutput.Someofthesefixturescanbeburiedinthegroundormountedinconcrete.
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Decorativeoptionsareusuallyavailable.
ShowcaseandDisplayFixtures
Itisintheareaofdisplayilluminationwherefixtureselectioncurrentlyexcels.Althoughalmostanyfiberopticfixturecanbeusedfordisplayillumination,therearenumerousfix-
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Figure6-9.Steplight.
Figure6-10.Adjustablefloodforlandscape
lighting.CourtesyofFiberstars,Inc.
turesdevelopedspecificallyforthispurpose.Directionalsystemsaremountedinshowcasesorinceilingstoilluminatemanyindividualobjectsorentiregallerywalls.Thesesystemscancontainnumerouslightoutletsthatarepositionedinmountingbarsorrails.Feweroutletscanbeuseddependingontheilluminationrequirements.Theoutletsusuallyswivelinasockettodirectlighttoalmostanyareainthedisplay,whilealsoofferingtheabilitytofocusordiffuselight.
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SwimmingPool,FountainandUnderwaterFixtures
Manyfixturedescriptionsincludeastatementthattheyarewaterproof(thedesignershouldalwaysensurethatfixturesandsystemsaredesignedforuseintheappropriateenvironment);however,therearemanyfixturesthataredesignedspecificallyforunderwaterlocations.Thesefixturesusuallyincludeonlyalens,butcustomdecorativeoptionsareavailable.
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DecorativeLightingElements
Anassortmentofsmallfixturesdesignedtoprovidetinypointsoflightareavailablefromcertainmanufacturers.Althoughgenerallyusedfordecorativepurposes,someofthesefixturesmayoffersomedegreeoflightcontrol.Thesefixturesinclude''bullets"andChristmastreelights(suchas"icicles")andareusuallymadeofshapedclear,coloredorfrostedglass.
CustomFixturesBasedOntheApplication
Aswithanylightingapplication,standardfixturesmaynotalwaysbeappropriateforcustomdesigns.Inmanycases,fixturesaredevelopedbasedontheneedsoftheparticularapplication.Designersdevelopafixturebasedonthefibersutilizedandlightingeffectsdesired.Therearemanymanufacturers(includingfacilitiesnotdevotedspecificallytolighting)thatwilldevelopacustomfixturebasedonspecificationsprovidedbythedesigner.
Figure6-11.LowProfileLightingSystem.CourtesyofLightlyExpressedLtd.
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Figure6-12.EyeballSpotLuminaireTM.UsedwithpermissionfromNoUVIRResearch.
SpecialEffectsAccessories
ColorWheels
Theabilitytoeasilychangethecoloroflighttransmittinginafiberallowsforextremelyuniquelightingeffects.Themajorityofsystemscurrentlyavailableallowfortheoptionofincludingacolorwheelwithintheilluminator.Colorwheeloptionsvaryfrommanufacturertomanufacturer,butallcolorwheelsarelocatedbetweenthelampandtheinputendsofthefibers.Manycolorwheelsmakeuseofdichroicfiltersthateitherselectivelytransmitorreflectlight.Somecolorwheelsutilizeglassfiltersthatabsorbunwantedwavelengthsinordertocreatethedesiredcolor.Standardcolorwheelsaregenerallyavailablewitheitherfouroreightcolors,yetmostmanufacturersoffertheoptionofallowingthedesignertocreatecustom
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Figure6-13.TheDimmerSpliceTM.UsedwithpermissionbyNoUVIRResearch.
Figure6-15.Landscapefixture.Courtesy
ofSuperVisionInternationalInc.
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Figure6-14.Stairlight.CourtesyofSuperVisionInternationalInc.
colorwheelsthatcanincludeadditionalcolors.Colorwheelsrotatebymeansofamotor,generallyfrom1to7.5timesperminute.Otherrotationspeedsareavailable.
Asanexample,onemanufacturer,SuperVision,offersasstandardforitsfourcolorwheelproducts:
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·White,magenta,limegreen,cyan
·Clear(white),limegreen,magenta,mediumblue
·Clear(white),yellow,limegreen,orange
·Clear(white),primaryblue,yellow,turquoise,orange,darkblue,magenta,limegreen
Inaddition,optionalcolorsareavailablethatincludeclear(white),bluemagenta,hotpink,red-magenta,darkblue,primaryblue,mediumblue,cyan,turquoise,darkgreen,primarygreen,limegreen,yellow,amber,orangeandred(customcolorsareavailableuponrequest).
Gobos
Therearerotatingwheelsavailablethatprovideotherspecialeffects.Aperforatedgoborotatingonacolorwheelmotorallowsforcertainfiberstoreceivelightwhileothersdonot.Thisprovidesa"twinkling"effectattheoutputendsofthefibers.Variousshapesandholesizescanbeincorporatedintothegobotocreatedifferentlightingeffects.Whenutilizedwithcolorwheels,gobosallowforspectaculardisplaysoflight.
Synchronization
Manyilluminatorsusedinthesamedesigncanbeconnectedsothatcolorchangeandspecialeffectsoccurineveryilluminatorusedintheapplication.Thisprocessisgenerallyreferredtoassynchronization.Synchronizationcanonlyoccurwhenilluminatorsarewiredtogetherandtoa"master"illuminatororexternalcontroldevice.Everyconnectedilluminatormustbeequippedwiththeappropriateequipmentinorderforcontrolstobeaccepted.Controllingthespeedofthecolorwheelandgobos,strobingandcoordinatingcolorchanges
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tomusicarejustsomeofthemanyeffectsthatarepossible.Applicationsmakinguseofsynchronizationcanbefoundinsystemsinstalledinnightclubs,shoppingmalls,theaters,casinosandamusementparks.
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DimmingAccessories
Somecompanieshavegonetoexhaustivelengthsinordertodevelopcustomaccessoriestoperformaparticularlightingtask.Theseaccessoriesoftenincludemethodsfordimming.Dimmingmetalhalidelightsourcesisusuallyachievedbyutilizingawheelorotherdevice(locatedintheilluminatorandrotatingasacolorwheelorgobowould)torestricttheamountoflightenteringthefibers(seeApplication#15inChapter7).Othermethodsofdimmingincludepatentedadjustabledevicesdevelopedtointerruptthefiberruninordertoreducetheamountoflightthatistransmitted(seeFigure6-13).
AdditionalAccessories
Otheraccessoriesincludecustom-designedkitstocutandsecurefibersatthejobsite.Thesekitscontainvariousknives,bladesorothercuttingdevices.Iffibersrequirepolishing,kitsareavailabletoensurethatthefibersarepolishedquicklyandtothemanufacturer'sspecifications.Thesekitsincludevariousfilesormachinepolishingtools.
Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,otheraccessoriesincludefiltersandfanstocontrolheatattheinputendsofthefibersaswellasfiltersthatremoveultravioletenergyorcorrectcolor.
Cost
Dependingonthenumberofaccessoriesutilizedinaparticularapplication,theycanaddconsiderablecosttothesystem.Someaccessoriesarepricedextremelyhigh.Performancecharacteristicsmustbecarefullyweighed.Componentsmadeofhighqualitymaterialsorofferinguniquedesignbenefitscostevenmore.
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MountingtheFiberOpticSystem
Illuminators
Theilluminatorshouldalwaysbemountedinanareathatallowsforeasyaccess.Manyilluminatorsaresecuredtowalls,floors,shelvesandotherarchitecturalsupportsbymeansofscrews.Someilluminatorsarepre-attachedtoportablemountingdevicesandcanbemoved.Certainmanufacturersofferbracketsorotherdevicesthatattachtorecessedceilingsupportsorbetweenarchitecturalbeamsthattheilluminatorwillattachto.Thesedevicesaregenerallyusedformountingilluminatorsaboveceilingpanelsandinplenumareas.Someilluminatorswillneedspaceforaircirculation.Mostmanufacturershavestrictguidelinesastowhereandhowilluminatorsshouldbemounted.Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer'sguidelinesaswellasallcoderequirementsandlocalregulations.
Fibers
Theexactmethodofmountingfiberswillbedeterminedbytheapplication.Inthesimplestcases,fibersarehiddeninceilingsordisplaycaseswithlittleconcernforsecuringthem.Inothercases,however,therearestrictrequirements.Thesheathingofsomefibersmustmeetcertaincodesinordertobeplacedincertainareas.Someregulationsmayrequirethatfibersbeplacedinconduit.Thedesignermustmakesurethatfibersmeettherequiredcodesbasedonwhereandhowtheywillbemounted.
Whenfibersaresecured,particularlyside-emittingfibers,itisusuallybymeansofclipsormountingtrack.Clipsaresecuredtoawallorsomeothersurfaceandfibersrunfromcliptoclip,similartothewayneonissecuredwith"standoffs."
Mountingtracksareattachedtoaparticularsurfaceandtheentire
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lengthoffiber(sometimessecuredwithadhesives)isinsertedintoit.Somemanufacturersrecommendthattheirside-emittingfiberbesecuredinawhitemountingtrackinordertoachievemaximumbrightnesseffects.
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AsdiscussedinChapter2,side-emittingfibersmakeuseofanendcapattheendofthefiberrun.Ifside-emittingfibersarenotattachedtoanotherilluminatoror"looped,"anendcapwillmostlikelybeutilized.Endcapsprotecttheendofthefibersfromenvironmentaldamageandprovidetherequiredlightterminationpointattheendofthefiberrun.EndcapsareshowninFigure6-2.
Fixtures
Mostfixturesaresecuredwithspringclips.Aholeoftheappropriatesizeisdrilledintothemountingsurfaceandthefixturesareinsertedandsecuredinplacebytheclips.Otherfixturesaresimplyscrewedintoplace.Somemanufacturersmayrecommendusinganadhesivetoassistinkeepingthefixturessecure.Althoughtheexactmethodformountingwillvarydependingonthefixtureandfiberutilized,itgenerallytakesverylittletimetoinstallafiberopticfixture.
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Chapter7ApplicationPresentationsInthischapter,wewillpresentavarietyofapplicationswherefiberopticlightingwasemployed.
AsnotedinthePreface,thisbookwasprintedusinganewtechnologythatenablestheproductionofhighlyspecializedtexts.Assuch,althoughthisbookintersectsareasofvisualdesign,photographsareshowninblack-and-whiteasthistext'spurposeistoillustratetechnicalandpracticalperformanceprinciplesratherthandemonstrateaestheticcapabilities.Colorphotosdemonstratingaestheticenvironmentsmadepossiblebyfiberopticilluminationareavailablefrommanufacturersandfromthepagesofmagazinesdevotedtolighting.
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CaseStudy#1
ProjectLocation
BlumenthalPerformingArtsCenterCharlotte,NorthCarolina
ProjectDescription
Fiberopticceiling.
LightSource
Inthisproject,thereare72illuminatorseachutilizingan85Whalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibersprovidingover2,000pointsofindividuallight.
AccessoriesUsed
Colorwheelsarelocatedintheilluminators.Custom-madelensesarelocatedattheendofeachtail.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Developingasystemthatcouldbemaintainedremotelywasimperative.Acousticalbaffleswouldhaveblockedanyaccesstotraditionallightingfixtures.Accordingtothelightingconsultant,BenBoltin,ofTheatreProjectsInc.inHartford,CT,theprojectcouldnothavebeencompletedbyutilizingaconventionallightingsystem."We'retalkingabout2,000pointsoflightthatareatleast80feetintheair.Situatingthatmanypoints,thathighup,whilepreservingaccesstotheluminaireswouldhavebeenimpossiblewithanytechnologyotherthanfiberoptics."
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CourtesyofStarfireLighltingIncorporated.PhotographsbyJoannSieburgBaker.
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CaseStudy#2
ProjectLocation
ConEdisonClockTowerNewYork,NY
ProjectDescription
Thisprojectreplacedaconventionallightingsystemandinvolvedtheilluminationoffourclockfaces,each25feetindiameter,ontheupperfloorsoftheConEdisonBuilding.
LightSource
Atotalof44illuminatorsareused,11ateachclock.Eightilluminatorslighttheclock'sfacesandcontain60Wxenonmetalhalidelamps.Threeilluminatorslightthehandsofeachclockandutilizea150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Largeend-emittingplasticfibersareused.
AccessoriesUsed
Someilluminatorscontaincomputer-controlledcolorwheels.Aspeciallydesignedopticattheendofeachfiberspreadsthelightsothatthehandsappearbrightfromeveryviewingangle.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theformerincandescentsystemutilized860lampsthatrequiredcontinuousmaintenance.Colorchangesalsoaddedtomaintenancecosts.AccordingtoPeterJacobsonofConEdison,thefiberopticsystemreducedcostsassociatedwithmaintenanceby$40,000ayear.Theenergydollarsspentonlightingthe860incandescentlampsamountedto$12,501ayear.The44lampsusedinthefiberoptic
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systemcost$2,211dollarsayeartooperate.
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CourtesyofLumenyteInternationalCorporation.
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CaseStudy#3
ProjectLocation
128PrinceStreetNewYork,NY
ProjectDescription
Retailjewelryexhibitcaselighting(seeFigure1-9).
LightSource
Thetotalinstallationcontains12illuminatorsutilizing150Wmetalhalidelamps.
FibersUsed
Acombinationofglassandlargeplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Directionalheadslocatedinmountingbars.Afibertailattachestoeachhead.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theownerofthestorewantedthelightingtomeetthefollowingrequirements:
·Spotlightwithafocusedintensebeamthesmallpiecesdisplayed
·Havetheabilitytochangebeamdirectiontocoverthedisplaycase'scompletearea
·Havetheflexibilitytochangethebeamspreadfromatightspottoawidespread
·Evenlywashspecialobjectssuchaspearlnecklaces
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·Provideacrisplightwithoutagrainytextureforviewingobjectssuchasdiamonds
Thedirectionalheadwasspecificallydesignedtomeetthesevisualmerchandisingobjectivesandthispatentedsystemisnowusedextensivelytoilluminatedisplaycasesinvariousenvironments.
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CaseStudy#4
ProjectLocation
FederalOfficeBuilding290Broadway,NewYork,NY
ProjectDescription
''AmericaSong,"asculpturedesignedbyClydeLynds.
LightSource
Fourilluminators,eachusinga70Wmetalhalidelamparelocatedinstainlesssteelpanelsalongthesidesofthesculpture.
FibersUsed
Fivemilesofsmallplasticend-emittingfibersareusedinthisinstallation.Thefibersaremountedinconcrete.
AccessoriesUsed
Alensisusedtochangethedistributionpatternoflightemittingfromvariousterminatingendsofthefibers.Aspecialeffectswheellocatedwithintheilluminatorallowsforcertainfiberendstobeilluminatedatvarioustimeswhileothersarenot.Thisgivestheimpressionthatlightismovingacrossthesurfaceofthesculpture.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thelightingdesignrequirednumerouspointsoflightthatneededtobeinconstantmotion.Fourconvenientlylocatedlamps,combinedwiththeabilitytosequence,providethedesiredeffects.Accordingtotheartist,"Thelightingeffectsdesignedinthesculptureareonlypossiblewithfiberoptics."
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CaseStudy#5
ProjectLocation
Bentall'sShoppingMallLondon,England
ProjectDescription
Decorativeinteriorlighting.
LightSource
Theprojectused122illuminatorseachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Glassend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Thereare632pointsoflight.Eachtailemploysalensattheterminatingendofthefiber.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Atraditionallightingsystemwouldhavebeenrelativelyinaccessiblewhenitwastimetochangelamps.Fiberopticssavedspaceandreducedenergyuseinthisapplication.
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CaseStudy#6
ProjectLocation
BullRunShoppingPlazaManassas,Virginia
ProjectDescription
Exteriorarchitecturallightingdesignedtohighlightfourmainentrancestotheplaza.
LightSource
Thetowerhastwoilluminatorslocatedontherooftops.Thetotalprojecthas13illuminatorsthatuse150Wmetalhalidelamps.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Theilluminatorscontainacolorwheelthatislockedongreen.TheilluminatorsareULwetlocationlistedandcontainatimerforon/offcontrols.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theclientwantedaneasytomaintainalternativetoaneonsystem.Theabilitytopredictmaintenancecostswasparticularlyimportant,and,opposedtoneon,thereisnobreakageofthelightedpath.
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CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
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CaseStudy#7
ProjectLocation
TokyoDomeTokyo,Japan
ProjectDescription
Amusementparkferriswheellighting.
LightSource
Theferriswheelutilizes26illuminatorsthatcontain150Wquartzhalogenlamps.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Theilluminatorscontaincolorwheels.Eachspoke-setoftheferriswheelchangescolorinpattern.Afteralleightcolorsofthecolorwheelhavebeensequencedthrougheachspoke-set,theentireridecyclesthrougheightcolorchanges.Asafinale,randomcolorsfromthecolorwheelchangesindividualspoke-setswithalleightcolorsoflight.Theterminatingendsofthefibersarecutsothatlightescapesandilluminatesthecenterofthewheel.
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CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Neonwasconsideredtoobigofamaintenanceissueforthisprojectanddidnotallowforanycolorchanges.
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CaseStudy#8
ProjectLocation
ChurchoftheHolyTrinityGeorgetown,Washington,DC
ProjectDescription
TheCrosslocatedoverthepulpitisilluminatedwithfiberoptics.
LightSource
Thisapplicationutilizesoneilluminatorcontaininga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers
AccessoriesUsed
OnelampprovideslighttosixcustomfixtureslocatedwithintheCross.
ReasonforFiberOptics
TheheatfromtheformerlightingsystemwasdamagingtheCross.Thefiberopticsystemprovideslightabsentofheatandultravioletrays.Theonelamputilizedinthefiberopticsystemisconvenientlylocatedinthebasement,10feetfromthebottomoftheCross.Unlikethepreviouslightingsystem,changingthelampwhennecessaryiseasy.Churchrequirementsrelatedtothedesignincludedspecificationsthatnopointsoflightbevisibletothecongregation.Thecustom-designedfiberopticfixtureswereeasilyconcealedwithintheCross.
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CaseStudy#9
ProjectLocation
HardRockCafeUniversalStudios,Florida
ProjectDescription
Thisfiberopticapplicationreplacedaneonlightingsystem.Theaestheticlightingwasdesignedtobeviewedfromtheairaswellasfrompedestrianandautoareas.Theshapeoftheguitarsurroundsthebuildingandishighlightedbyfiberopticlighting.The"strings"oftheguitararefibers.
LightSource
Inthisproject,11illuminatorsutilizing400wattmetalhalidelampsareusedintheguitar"handle"and"string"sectionsofthisdesign.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticside-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Colorwheelslocatedintheilluminators.Thefibersareheldinplacealongtheguitarareasbytheoriginalneonmountingsystem.Thefibersareattachedtothe"strings"oftheguitarbymonofilamentfishingline.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Neonwasreplacedduetobreakageandmaintenanceproblems.Accordingtothedesigner,RobertLaughlinofRobertLaughlin&AssociatesinWinterPark,FL,"Fiberopticlightingwasselectedastheappropriatesourceto'mimic'guitarstrings.Thesize,texture,saggingproperties,etc.wereideal.Inaddition,thelightingsources
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wereconcealed.Looksgoodindaytimeandbetteratnight."
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CaseStudy#10
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidenceFlorida
ProjectDescription
Exteriordrivewayandpathlighting.
LightSource
One250Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.Themaximumlengthoffiberusedinthesystemis75feet.
AccessoriesUsed
Timersforonandoffcontrol.Colorwheelwithintheilluminatorandadjustableaccentfixturesatthefiber'sterminatingend.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thisprojecteliminatedtheneedtochangeindividualbulbsandgavetheoptionofprovidingdifferentcolors.Thefixturescanbemovedtodifferentlocationsprovidedthefiberlengthisadequate.
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CaseStudy#11
ProjectLocation
TrumanLibraryIndependence,Missouri
ProjectDescription
Theilluminationofamuralthatillustratesthegardenssurroundingthere-createdOvalOfficeofHarryS.Truman.Thethreedimensionalmuralispaintedonawallapproximately6inchesfromthefabricatedwindowsanddoors.Viewersseethemuralfromapointlocatedacrosstheroom.Thereisnonaturallightinthisspace.
LightSource
Fourilluminatorsperwindowarelocatedunderthefloorintheplenumspaceofthebasement.Eachilluminatorcontainsa60Wxenonmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Largeend-emittingplasticfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Certainfibersallowthelightthatiscomingfromthemtoilluminatethemuralwithouttheuseofaccessories.Otherfibersemployzoomfocuslensesattheirterminatingendstoassistindirectinglight.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thelightingdesignforthemuralcalledforeffectsthatwouldcomeclosetomimickingoutdoorsunlightvariations.Thelightcomingfromtheterminatingendofeachfiberisdirectedatvariousareasofthemuraltoassistincreatingthiseffect.Ultravioletandinfraredarefiltered.Inthisproject,192individualpointsoflightwereobtained
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from16lamps.Muchlessspaceistakenupbythesystemthanwouldhavebeenifaconventionallightingsystemwasutilized.Totaloperatingcostsperyearwerecalculatedtobe$1,300lessthanthosethatwouldhavebeengeneratedbyusingaconventionalincandescentlightingsystem.
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CaseStudy#12
ProjectLocation
Washington,DC
ProjectDescription
FiberOpticTreeTopperutilizedatthetopoftheU.S.NationalChristmasTreein1993.
LightSource
Thisapplicationutilizestwoilluminatorseachcontaininga60Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallend-emittingplasticfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Onecolorfilterineachilluminatorprovidingblueandorangelighttovariousareaswithinthefixture.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thiswasacustomengineeredprojectthatcouldbescaledtotheappropriatesizewithoutconcernforspacethatwouldhavebeenrequiredifindividuallampsandelectricalcomponentswereutilized.Theilluminatorsareconvenientlylocatedatthebottomofthetree,30feetbelowthefixture.
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CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
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CaseStudy#13
ProjectLocation
Orlando,Florida
ProjectDescription
ThisfiberopticinstallationislocatedintheconferenceandshowroomofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.Covelighting,wallandtablehighlighting,andastar-fieldceilingarepresented.Theroomdimensionsare12feetby12feet.
LightSource
Thereisoneilluminatorforeachspecificapplication.Thecove,table,andvideowallalluseanilluminatorthatcontaina150Wmetalhalidelamp.Thestar-fieldceilingusesa75Whalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Thecove,table,andvideowallutilizesmallplasticside-emittingfibers.Thestar-fieldceilingutilizessmallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Thecove,table,andvideowallare"looped"(seeChapter2)totheirrespectiveilluminator.Thestar-fieldceilingutilizesdimmingcontrolsandallilluminatorscontainacolorwheel.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thisprojectillustratesavarietyoffiberopticlightingpossibilities.Theobjectivewastointegratefunctionalapplicationswhiledemonstratingseveralfiberopticaccessories.Thecoveisextremelycompact.Accessformaintaininganeonorfluorescentapplicationwouldhavebeenalmostimpossible.Afterthefibersareinstalled,theyrequirealmostnoadditionalmaintenance.Colorchangewouldhave
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beenimpossibleifatraditionallightingsystemwasutilized.
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CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
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CaseStudy#14
ProjectLocation
WarwickCastle,England
ProjectDescription
Stairlightinginthetowersofanhistoriccastle.Thecastleisatouristattractionthatreceivescrowdsoftouristsonadailybasis.
LightSource
Threeilluminators,eachutilizinga150wattmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Glassend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Fiberbundlesaremountedwithinthehandrail.Lightisallowedtoexiteachbundlewithouttheuseofadditionalaccessories.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thelightinggoalwastoprovidesafelevelsofilluminationwithoututilizinganylightingfixturesthatwouldtakeawayfromthehistoricatmosphereofthecastle.Theexistinghandrailwasrebuilttoaccommodatethefibers.Nofurtherarchitecturalmodificationswerenecessary.
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CaseStudy#15
ProjectLocation
BeloitCollege,LoganMuseumofAnthropologyBeloit,Wisconsin
ProjectDescription
Museumlighting.TheLoganmuseumcontains225,000artifactsonpermanentdisplayrequiringsafe,conservationlevelillumination.
LightSource
30illuminators,eachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.Fiberlengthsaverage20feetfromtheilluminatortotheterminatingend.Atotalof25milesoffiberisutilizedintheapplication.
AccessoriesUsed
Five-and8-footcustomfixturesareutilizedthroughoutthisapplication.Acustomdesigned''variableaperturedimmingsystem"isinstalledineachilluminator.Thisdimmingsystemoperatesonacolorwheelmotorand,whenactivated,rotatesandstopstoallowthecorrectamountoflighttoreachtheinputendsofthefibers.Eachdisplaycaseisindividuallycontrolled.Acolor-balancingfilterisutilizedthroughoutthedesigntoachievelightoutputatapproximately3000K.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Controllingultravioletandinfraredwascritical.Theabilitytoeasilyfiltertheseraysbecameamajorreasonforselectingafiberopticsystem.Additionalpreservationbenefitsarerealizedbecausethe
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fibersproducenoheatattheilluminatedareas.ThelampsarelocatedawayfromthedisplaycasesinthebasementoftheMuseum.Becauseallmaintenanceactivitiestake
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placeataremotelocation,thecasesareneverdisturbedwhenalampneedstobechanged.Exteriorreflectionsonthefrontofthecasesarereducedbecausethelightcarryingfibersarelocatedinside.Fiberopticsalsoofferedflexibilitypertainingtothedesignofthecases.Becausethefibersandfixturesaresmall,theywereeasilyincorporatedintothesupportsystemofeachindividualcase.
CaseStudy#16
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidence,Florida
ProjectDescription
Swimmingpoolandlandscapeillumination.
LightSource
Sevenilluminators,eachutilizinga150Wmetalhalidelamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticsideandend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Numerouslensesdesignedforunderwateruseaswellasvariousfixturesdesignedtoprovideuplightingandwashingeffects.Colorwheelsarelocatedineachilluminatorandareindependentlycontrolledfromtheinterioroftheresidence.Thisallowsthehomeownertoselectsynchronizedcolorsoravarietyofdifferentcolorscomingfromeachilluminator.
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ReasonforFiberOptics
Fiberopticsisawidelyacceptedandexpandingmethodofilluminatingswimmingpoolsandspas.Therearenoelectricalconcernsbecausealloftheelectricalcomponentsarelocatedawayfromthedesignedenvironment.Byutilizingacombinationofside-andend-emittingfibersextendingfromacommonilluminator,bothlinearandpointlightingisachievedfromonelamp.Thistechniquewouldhavebeenimpossibleifanyotherlightingsystemwasutilized.
CourtesyofSuperVisionInternational,Inc.
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CaseStudy#17
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidence,CA
ProjectDescription
Theilluminationofrarewinesinacustomdesignedtemperaturecontrolleddisplaycase.Thecasemeasuresapproximately8feetinheight,12feetacrossand2feetdeep.
LightSource
Twoilluminators,eachutilizinga250Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Custom-designedfixtures.Colorwheelsarelocatedwithintheilluminator.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Therarewinesneededtobeprotectedfromultravioletandinfraredlight.Thiswasaccomplishedbymeansoffiltrationwithintheilluminator.Thetemperaturewithinthedisplaycasecouldnotbealteredbytheilluminationsystem.Becausethereisnoheatassociatedwiththelightcomingfromthefibers,noadditionaldemandsareplacedupontherefrigerationsystem.Reflectionsontheglassdoorsfromoutsidelightsourcesareminimizedbecausethefibersaremountedwithinthecase.
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CaseStudy#18
ProjectLocation
HuntingtonLibraryandBotanicalGardensSanMarino,CA
ProjectDescription
DisplaycaselightingfortheExhibition"MasterpiecesinLittle:PortraitMiniaturesfromtheCollectionofHerMajestyQueenElizabethII."
LightSource
Eachcasecontainsacustomizedilluminatorutilizinga75Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Glassandlargeplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
DirectionalHeadspositionedinU-ChannelMountingBars.
ReasonforFiberOptics
ThistravelingexhibitiononloanfromtheBritishRoyalCollectioncontained75pricelessminiaturesbymasterssuchasHolbeinandHilliard.Manyoftheportraitswerepaintedonsensitivematerialssuchasvellumandivory.TheQueen'sSurveyorhadprescribednomorethan5footcandlesinthecases.Theuseoffiberopticsallowedforfiltrationofultravioletandinfraredwavelengths.Andbecauseonelampprovidesilluminationtomanydirectionalheads,thepreparatorcouldfocusindividuallightbeamsoneachdelicateobjectwhilemaintainingthelowcuratorialilluminationlevels.
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CaseStudy#19
ProjectLocation
CedarCreekCinemaWausau,Wisconsin
ProjectDescription
DecorativelightingintheflooroftheCinema'slobby.
LightSource
Theilluminatorhousesa75Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Acolorandspecialeffectswheelislocatedintheilluminatorprovidingcolorchangeandtwinkling.Differentfiberswithinthecommonendreceivedifferentcolorsandamountsoflightasthecolorwheelrotates.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Thedurabilityofthefibersutilizedinthisapplicationallowsforthemtobemountedinthefloor.Thelightshowcreatedbytheaccessoriesisvisibletopatronsastheywalkto,from,andovertheinstallation.Lowmaintenance,specialeffectsandtheabilitytoeasilychangecolorwerethereasonsfiberopticswereselectedforthisproject.
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CaseStudy#20
ProjectLocation
PrivateResidenceOrlando,Florida
ProjectDescription
Theilluminationofartobjectsinrecessedniches.
LightSource
Oneilluminatorhousinga250Wquartzhalogenlamp.
FibersUsed
Smallplasticend-emittingfibers.
AccessoriesUsed
Afixedlensisutilizedattheterminatingendofthefibers.
ReasonforFiberOptics
Theareasthatneededtobeilluminatedarecompact.Thecomponentsutilizedinthefiberopticsystemareideallysizedtothespacelimitationsoftheenvironment.Theilluminatorislocatedinthegarageoftheresidenceandprovideslight,withoutheat,tofournichelightsandtwosteplightsinsidethehome.
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Chapter8TheStar-LikeDisplayPuttingItTogether
ApplicationDetails
We'veseenthecomponentsthatcanbeusedinthefiberopticilluminationsystemaswellasanassortmentofapplicationsmakinguseoffiber.Thischapterwilladdresssomekeypointsthedesignermaywanttoconsiderwhendevelopingastar-likedisplayoneofthemostpopularfiberopticapplications.
TheStar-LikeDisplay
Thestar-likedisplayusesfibertocreatepointsoflightthatoftenresemblesastarfilledsky(seeapplicationpresentation).Whilesomeoftheseapplicationsmayuseonlyoneilluminatorandafewfeetoffibertocreateindividualpointsoflight,otherswillrequiremanyilluminatorsandperhapshundredsofthousandsoffeetoffibertoobtainthedesiredlightingcharacteristics.
Asanincreasingnumberofdesignersincorporatestar-likedisplaysintoresidential,retailandcommercialenvironments,consultantsneedtounderstandbasicsystemlayoutandinstallationconceptsiftheyaretomaximizelightoutputcharacteristicsandcontroloverallsystemcosts.Althoughceilingstendtobethemostcommonareaforcreatingthestar-likeeffect,thedisplayisoftenincorporatedintofacades,floors,walls,domesandavarietyofotherinteriorandexteriorenvironments.
Thissectionwilldemonstratehowthedesignprocesscan
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KeyTermsUsedinThisChapter:
FiberDensity-Thetermassociatedwithhowmanyfibersarelocatedinasquarefootsectionofthestar-likedisplay.Atypicalfiberdensityisbetween3and5.
FiberMix-Fibermixreferstomixingthesizeofthefiberswithinthestar-likeapplicationtocreateaperceptionofdepth.Usuallydescribedinpercentages.Forexample;90-5-5.Thismeansthat90%ofthetotalfibersusedinthedisplaywillbeonesize,5%ofthefiberswillbeanothersizeandtheremaining5%areyetanothersize.
Section-Largeapplicationsaretypicallydividedintosectionsinordertocalculatehowmuchfiberwillberequiredfortheentireapplicationandtoensuremaximumlightoutputbasedonilluminatorlocation.Oftenreferredtoaszone.
beapproachedsothattheconsultantmaygainanunderstandingofhowthestar-likedisplaycanbespecifiedandinstalled.Theexamplesincludedbelowfocusspecificallyonaceilingdisplay,butthebasic
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conceptscanberelatedtoalmostanyapplication.
TheStar-LikeDisplay,SelectingFiberType
Althoughanyfibermaybeusedinthedisplay,themajorityofstar-likedecorativeapplicationstendtoutilizesmallplasticfiber.Theabilitytocutthefiberatthejobsiteaswellasmaximizethenumberofpointsoflightthatcanbeobtainedfromoneilluminatoraretwokeyreasonsforspecifyingsmallplasticfiber.Largeplasticfibermaybeappropriateforsomedesignsthatrequirelargerpointsoflightsuchasinhighceilingsorinareaswhereambientlightlevelsarehigh.Glassfibersareoftenspecifiedinapplicationsthatdemandabsolutelongevity.Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,differentfiberswillpossessesvaryinglighttransmittingcharacteristicsand
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factorsrelatedtocostandinstallationtechniquesmayneedtobeaddressedbeforetheexactfiberisspecified.Thischapterwillfocusonassemblingthestar-likedisplayusingsmallplasticfiber,butmanyoftheconceptswillapplytoglassandlargeplasticfiberaswell.
Somemanufacturesrecommendaparticular"fibermix"whenspecifyingastar-likedisplay.Fibermixreferstovaryingthefibersizeswithintheapplicationinordertocreatelightpointsofdifferentsizes.Thiscreatesaperceptionofdepththatcloselyresemblesanactualstar-filledsky.Differentmanufacturerswillrecommenddifferentratiosoffibermixing,butatypicalfibermixwillconsistof90%ofthefibersusedintheapplicationbeingofonesize.Another5%ofthefiberswilloftenbethenextsizeup,andtheremaining5%willbeofanevenlargersize.Figure8-1illustratesanassortmentofactualplasticfibersizes.
Figure8-1.Anassortmentofactualplasticfibersizes.RowArepresentssmallplasticfiber.RowBrepresentslargeplasticfiber.
HowMuchFiberIsRequiredtoCreateaStar-LikeApplication?
Theamountoffiberrequiredwillbedeterminedbythesizeofthedisplay,thelocationoftheilluminator(s)andthefiber"density."Fiberdensityisthetermthatreferstothenumberofpointsoflightpersquarefootintheapplication.
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Typicalapplicationswillemploy3to5pointsoflightpersquarefoot.Factorsthatmayinfluencefiberdensityareusuallyrelatedtotheoveralldesigngoal,butmayincludehowhightheceilingis,theneedtoincorporateuniquedesignsorshapesintothedisplay,andissuesrelatedtooverallsystemcosts.Figure8-2illustrateshowthetotalnumberoflightpointsaredeterminedbasedonaparticularfiberdensity.
The10x10footareamakinguseofafiberdensityof5willrequire500(100x5=500)pointsoflight.Thismeansthat500individualplasticfiberswillbeneededtoassemblethedisplay.Figure8-3illustrateshowfibersmountedinaceilingpanelcreatepointsoflight.
TheLocationoftheIlluminator
Thelocationoftheilluminatorwillsignificantlyinfluencetheamountoffiberthatisrequiredtomeetthelightingdesignobjective.Manufactureswilloftendeterminetheamountofplasticfiberneededfortheapplicationbyobtaininganoverall
Figure8-2.Thefirststepsindetermininghowmuchfiberisrequiredforatypicalstar-likedisplay.
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Figure8-3.Dependingonthefiberdensity,atypical2'x4'areaofthestar-likedisplaywillmakeuseof25-40individualfiberstocreate25-40
pointsoflight.
averagefiberlengthbasedonilluminatorlocationandsizeofthedisplay.Oncethelocationoftheilluminatorisdetermined,theshortestandlongestfibersneededintheapplicationarecalculated.Thenextstepistoaddanadditionalamountoffibertoboththeshortestandlongestfiberrun.Theextrafiberwillallowtheinstallertoeasilymovethefiberaroundanyarchitecturalobstructionswhileprovidingenoughfibertoaccommodatefinishingcuts.Manufactureswilltypicallysuggestaddingthreetofivefeetofadditionalfibertoeveryfiberusedintheapplication.Oncetheshortestandlongestfibersaredetermined,andtheextrafiberisaddedtoeach,theaveragefiberlengthisobtained.Figure8-4illustratestheshortestandlongestfiberthatwillbeusedintheapplication.
CalculatingtheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheApplication
Thedesignercannowcalculatethetotalamountoffiberneededforthe10'x10'application.Basedontheilluminatorbeinglocatedwithinthedisplayareaandafiberdensityof5,multiplyingtheaveragefiberlength(6.25')bytherequirednumberoflightpoints(500)providesananswerof3,125.Thismeansthat3,125feetoffiberwillbeneededtocompletethisdisplay.Loweringthefiberdensitywillsignificantlyreducetheamountoffiberrequiredfortheapplication.Forexample,usingthesameareawithafiberdensityof3
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reducesthetotal
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Figure8-4.Theshortestandlongestfiberusedinthestar-likedisplay.
Figure8-5.Calculatingaveragefiberlength.
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amountoffiberneededby1,175feetbecausemultiplyingtheaveragefiberlengthby300equals1950feet(6.5x300).Thismethodwillusuallyprovidethedesignerwithasolidguidelineforplanningtheamountoffiberneededtocompletethestar-likeapplication.Exactfiberneedswillbedeterminedbasedonspecificdesigncriteriaandwilloftenrequireinputfromthesystemmanufacture.
OptimumIlluminatorPlacement
Thedesignershouldnotethatlocatingtheilluminatorinanareaawayfromthedisplaywillincreasetheamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.Inaddition,iftheilluminatorislocatedataconsiderabledistancefromthedisplay,lightlossandcolorshiftmayoccur(seechapter4).Ifatallpossible,theilluminatorshouldbemountedwithintheapplicationifreducedfibercostsandmaximumlightoutputbasedonfiberdistancesaretoberealized.Figure8-6demonstrateshowtheamountoffiberneededtoassemblethedisplayincreasesastheilluminatorlocationmovesawayfromtheapplication.
TheLargerApplicationSomeAdditionalFactorstoConsider
Theexamplesillustratedabovehavemadeuseofoneilluminatortocompletethedisplay.Therearemanyapplicationsthatwillrequirenumerousilluminatorsinordertomeetthelightingdesignobjectives.Theactualnumberofilluminatorsthatwillbeneededwilldependonmanyvariablesincludingthesizeofthedisplay,thefibersused,thefibermix,thenumberorportstheilluminatorpossessesandthesizeofthecommonend(s)thatwillattachtoeachilluminator.
TheSizeoftheDisplay
Calculatingthetotalpointsoflightrequiredforanyapplicationisbasedonmultiplyingtheareaofthedisplaybythe
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Figure8-6.Locatingtheilluminatorawayfromthedisplaysignificantlyincreasestheamountof
fiberneedtocompletetheapplication.
fiberdensity.Thisexamplewillmakeuseofanareathatis100'x100'withafiberdensityof3.Thetotalareais10,000squarefeet(100'x100').Multiplying10,000bythefiberdensityof3equals30,000.Thismeanstherewillbe30,000pointsoflightinthedisplay.
TheNumberofFibersUsed
Basedonthe10,000-square-footareacalculatedaboveandafiberdensityof3,thisapplicationwillrequire30,000individualfiberstocompletethedisplay.
TheFiberMix
Sincemoststar-likedisplaysarecomposedofvaryingfibersizes,thedesignermusttakeintoaccountthatasthediameterofthefiberincreases,thenumberoffibersthatwillattachtotheilluminatordecreases.
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TheSizeoftheCommonEndandtheSizeoftheFibersDeterminesHowManyFibersWillAttachtotheIlluminator
Asdiscussedinchaptertwo,thenumberoffibersthatwillattachtotheilluminatorisgenerallybasedontheoverallsize(diameter)ofthefiberandthediameterofthecommonend.Forthepurposeofthisexamplewewillutilizeacommonendthatcanaccommodate1,000fibersofastandardfibermix.Dividingthetotallightpoints(30,000)bythenumberoffibersthatwillattachtothecommonend(1,000)givesthetotalnumberofone-portilluminatorsneededtocompletethedisplay.Forthisexample30illuminatorsarerequired(30,000/1,000=30.)
TheNumberofPorts
Manymanufacturersofferilluminatorsthathavemorethatoneport.Thenumberofilluminatorsneededinadisplaycanbesignificantlyreducedbasedonhowmanyportseachilluminatorpossess.Forexample,usingtheexampleabove,if30oneportilluminatorsarerequiredtocompletethedisplay,only15twoportilluminatorswillbeneeded.
LayingOuttheApplication
Thedesignermustconsiderthelocationofeachilluminatorusedintheapplicationinordertoensureageneralconsistencyoflightoutputthroughoutthedisplay.Typically,manufacturerswillsuggestdividingtheapplicationintosectionsbasedonhowmanyilluminatorsarerequiredtocompletethedesign.Sinceitwasdeterminedthatthe10,000squarefootdisplaywillrequire30one-portilluminators,thelayoutapproachwillentaildividingthetotalareainto30individualsections.Figure8-7illustrateshowthetotalareaisdividedintosectionsbasedontherequirednumberofilluminators.
The30illuminatorsarenowlocatedintheindividualsectionsofthe
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display.Iftwoportilluminatorswereused,15sectionswouldbedefined.Figure8-8illustrateshowilluminatorsarelocatedintheindividualsections.
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Figure8-7.Thedisplayisdividedintosectionsbasedontherequirednumberofilluminators.
Figure8-8Locatingtheilluminatorsinindividualsections.
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CalculatingtheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheLargerApplication.
Theproceduresfordeterminingthetotalamountoffiberneededforthelargerdisplayarethesameasthosethatareusedwhenonlyoneilluminatorisrequired.Averagefiberlengthisobtainedbasedonthelocationoftheilluminatorforeachindividualsection.Theaveragefiberlengthisthenmultipliedbytherequirednumberoflightpointsinthesection.Thisfigureisthenmultipliedbythetotalnumberofsectionsintheapplicationandequalstheamountoffiberneededtocompletethedisplay.Manyapplicationswilldivideintosectionsthatarenotalwaysthesamesize.Whenthisoccursindividualsectiontotalscanbeaddedtogethertoobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededfortheapplication.Figure8-9Illustratestheshortestandlongestfibersinasection.Usingthisexample,oncethefiberneedsaredeterminedforonesection,itwillbemultipliedby30(thetotalnumberofsections)toobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededforthedisplay.
Figure8-9.Theshortestandlongestfibersinthesection.
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CreatingtheStar-LikeDisplay,theFormula:
Thefollowingformulareviewsthestepsandproceduresintroducedabove.Thesestepsshouldbeusedasaguidelineforplanningtheapplication.Actualfiberandilluminatorneedsshouldbedeterminedinconjunctionwiththesystemorfibermanufacturer.
HowManyFibersWilltheStar-LikeDisplayRequire?
A)Obtainthesquarefeetofthedisplayarea.
B)Determinefiberdensity.Howmanypointsoflightarerequiredpersquarefootofdisplay?
C)Multiplythesquarefeetoftheapplicationbythefiberdensity.
Thisnumberwillequalthetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplication.
HowManyIlluminatorsWillBeNeededtoCompletetheDisplay?
A)Obtainthetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplication(seeabove).
B)Atthespecifiedfibermix,determinethemaximumnumberoffibersthatcanbeaccommodatedinthecommonend.(Mayrequireinputfrommanufacturer.)
C)Dividethetotalnumberoffibersneededintheapplicationbythemaximumnumberoffibersthatcanbeaccommodatedinthecommonend.
Thisnumberwillequalhowmanyone-portilluminatorsareneededtocompletetheapplication.
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WhatIstheTotalAmountofFiberNeededfortheDisplay?
A)Determinethelocationoftheilluminator
B)Calculatetheshortestandlongestfiberusedintheapplicationbasedonlocationoftheilluminator.Remembertoaddbetween3and5feetofextrafibertoboththelongestandshortestfiber.
C)Obtaintheaveragefiberlengthbyaddingthelengthoftheshortestandlongestfibertogetherandthendividingbytwo.
D)Multiplytheaveragefiberlengthbythenumberoflightpoints(fibers)intheapplication.
Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.
ForLargerApplications:
A)Iftheapplicationrequiresmultipleilluminators,dividetheapplicationintosectionsbasedonhowmanyilluminatorsarerequired.
B)Determinethelocationoftheilluminatorforeachsectioninthedisplay
C)Calculatetheshortestandlongestfiberusedinthesectionbasedonthelocationoftheilluminator.Remembertoaddbetween3and5feetofextrafibertoboththelongestandshortestfiber.
D)Obtaintheaveragefiberlengthbyaddingthelengthoftheshortestandlongestfibertogetherandthendividingbytwo.
E)Multiplytheaveragefiberlengthbythenumberoflightpoint(fibers)inthesection.
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Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletethesection
F)Ifallofthesectionsintheapplicationareofequalsizesandlightpoints,multiplythesectiontotalbythenumberofsectionsintheapplication.Thisnumberwillequalthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.
G)Ifthesectionsareofvaryingsizes,addtheindividualsectiontotalstogethertoobtainthetotalamountoffiberneededtocompletetheapplication.
InstallingtheStar-LikeDisplay.
Thefollowingstepsareincludedinthischaptertoprovidethedesignerwithgeneralinformationrelatedtoinstallingthestar-likeapplication.Thisinformationwillallowthedesignertoincorporateinstallationrequirementsintothelayoutandspecificationprocess.Theexactinstallationrequirementsshouldbeobtainedfromthesystemmanufacturer.
TheIlluminator
Asdiscussedaboveandinpreviouschapters,theilluminatorshouldalwaysbemountedperallpertinentcodesandguidelinessuppliedbythemanufacturer.
Moststar-likeapplicationsmakeuseofilluminatorsthatcontainalowvoltagehalogenlampofaparticularwattage.Illuminatorspossessingmorethanoneportwillcontainmorethanonelamp.Whendevelopingtheapplicationlayout,thedesignershouldtakeintoaccountthephysicalandoperationalcharacteristicsoftheilluminator.Figure8-10illustratesaoneandtwo-portilluminator.Someilluminatorswillpossessmultipleports.
Ventilation
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Themajorityofilluminatorsusedinthestar-likeapplicationarecooledbyfan.Theilluminatormustbeinstalledso
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Figure8-10.Aone-andtwo-portilluminator.
thatproperaircirculationisalwaysmaintained.Manufacturerssupplyguidelinesastohowcloseilluminatorsshouldbelocatedtoparticularsurfacesandotherilluminatorsusedintheapplication.Alwaysfollowthemanufacturer'sguidelines.Keepinmindthatcoolingfanswillmakeacertainamountofnoise.
AccesstotheLampandComponents
Illuminatorsmustbemountedsothatmaintenancepersonnelhaveeasyaccesstothelampandothersystemcomponents.Thecomponentsareoftenaccessedbyremovingorliftingthetoppaneloftheilluminator.Whenconsideringilluminatorlocation,thedesignermustallowenoughclearanceroomforanymovingparts.Figure8-11illustrateshowlampsandothercomponentsareaccessedinmanyilluminators.
Figure8-11.
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Thedesignermusttakeintoaccountanymovingpartswhenlocatingthe
illuminator.
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IlluminatorMountingAccessories
AsdiscussedinChapter6,somesystemandcomponentmanufacturesofferilluminatormountingaccessories.Theseaccessoriesareusedtosecurelymounttheilluminatorinareaswherenoappropriatemountingsurfacesareavailable.Figure8-12illustratesanilluminatormountingbracketthatcanbeusedindropceilingsorbetweenarchitecturalsupportsbasedonthemanufacturer'smountingguidelines.
Figure8-12.Anilluminatormountingbracket
InstallingtheFibers
Formanystar-likeapplicationsthesystemcomponentsarriveatthejobsitewithallofthefibersalreadyattachedtotheappropriatecommonend(s).Thismeansthatthefactorywherethecomponentsweremanufacturedassembledthesystembasedonmanyoftheproceduresintroducedabove.Themanufacturerwilloftensupplyamapindicatingwhatcommonendgoeswithwhatilluminatorandwhatfiberwithinthecommonendgoestowhatareaofthedisplay.Thisisparticularlyhelpfulwhenmultipleilluminatorsareused.Iftheapplicationisnotpreparedbythemanufacturer,theinstaller(s)willassemblethecommonend(s)basedonmanyoftheproceduresoutlinedinChapter5.Ineithercase,thefollowingparagraphswilloutlinesomeoftheinstallationtechniquesrequiredtoinstallthe
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displayafterthecommonend(s)havebeenassembled.Asmentionedearlier,thestar-likedisplaycanbemountedinalmostanymedium.Thestepslistedbelowillus-
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trateinstallationinastandarddropceiling.However,theprocedurescanbeappliedtoalmostanymaterial.Figure8-13illustratesanilluminatorandcommonend.
Figure8-13.Thestar-likedisplayfiberopticcomponents.
BeginningtheInstallation
Oncetheilluminator(s)andcommonend(s)arematchedtothecorrectsectionsofthedisplay,theilluminator(s)canbemounted.Mounttheilluminatorbasedonallmanufacturer'sguidelinesandaccordingtoallelectricalcodes.Itisnotrecommendedthatthecommonend(s)beattachedtotheilluminator(s)atthistime.
TheCeilingPanels
Theceilingpanelscannowbepreparedforthefibers.Theinstaller(s)shouldbeveryfamiliarwiththeexactfiberplan.Althoughthemajorityofstar-likeapplicationsplacethefibersinrandomlocationsthroughouttheapplication,someapplicationswillfollowadefinitepattern.Mostmanufacturerssuggestthatatleasttwopeopleareinvolvedintheinstallationprocess.
Holesarecreatedintheceilingtilesasperthespecifiedfiberdensity.Thismeansifafiberdensityof4wasspecified,4holespersquarefootwillbeprepared.Generally,holesaredrilledusinga1/16''drill
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gins.Aftertheholesareprepared,theceilingpanelsaremountedintheceilingframe.Itisoftenrecommendedthatafewpanelsbepreparedatatimeandthepanelslocatedthegreatestdistancefromthesectionilluminatorbeinstalledfirst.Figure8-14illustratesthepreparedceilingpanelsbeinginstalled.
Figure8-14.Installingtheceilingpanels.
Afterthefirstfewceilingtilesareinstalled,thecommonendcontainingallofthefibersrequiredinthesectionisbroughttothedisplay.Althoughthecommonendcanbeattachedtotheilluminatoratanytime,itisofteneasiertoinstallthedisplaywithoutthecommonendattached.Thisallowsforacertainamountofflexibilitywhenmovingandinstallingindividualfibers.Theindividualfibersareinsertedintothepreparedholesfromabovesothatafewinchesofeachfiberextendstowardthefloor.Figure8-15demonstrateshowfibersareinsertedintothepanels.
Oncethefirstfewpanelsareinstalledandalloftheappropriatefibersinserted,thefibersaregluedintoplacefromabove.Onlygluethathasbeenapprovedbythefibermanufacturershouldbeused.Figure8-16demonstrateswherethefibershouldbeglued.
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Figure8-15.Insertingthefibersintotheceilingpanels.
Figure8-16.Gluingthefibersintoplace.
Additionalceilingpanelscanbepreparedwhilethegluedries.Continueinstallingtheceilingpanelsuntiltheentiresectioniscompleted.Iftheceilingistobepainted,somemanufacturer'srecommendthatitbedonewhilethefibersareintheextendedpositionasillustratedinFigure8-17.Paintingshouldnotbedoneuntilthegluehasthoroughlycured.
Figure8-17.Completingthesection.Paintingshouldtakeplace
afterthegluehasdriedwiththefibersintheextendedposition.
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Onceanynecessarypaintingiscompetedthefiberscanbecutsothattheyareflushwiththeceiling.Thefibersusedinthestar-likedisplaycanbecutwithavarietyoftoolssuchasanelectroniccutteroranyothersharpblade.Somemanufacturersincludeacutterwiththesystempackage.Figure8-18illustratesthecompletedstar-likedisplay.
Figure8-18.Thefibersarecutsotheyareflushwiththeceiling.
GlassFibers
Star-likedisplaysemployingglassfibersaretypicallypre-assembledatthefactorywherethesystemismanufactured.Whiledisplaysmakinguseofplasticfiberrequireonefibertoprovideapointoflight,numerousglassfibersarebundledtogethertoformindividualtails.Eachtailwillprovideapointoflight.
Thesesystemsaregenerallyspecifiedbasedonmanyofthestepsoutlinedinthischapter.Whenglassfibersareemployedinastar-likedisplay,theentiresystemgenerallyarrivesatthejobsitereadytobeinstalled.Manufacturerssupplydetailedinstallationguidelinesforeachapplicationandnocuttingisrequired.
Manymanufacturersofglassfibersystemsofferastandardstar-likedisplaypackage.Thesesystemstendtobeshippedquicklybecausetheyarepre-built.Designersgenerallyspecifythesesystemsforparticularareasbasedonthenumberoftailsincludedinthepackage.
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Chapter9PerspectivesOnthePresentandFutureofFiberOpticIllumination
WheretofromHere?
Itwasstatedintheintroductionthat"thefiberopticilluminationindustryhasalwaysbeeninastateofgrowth."Thedesignershouldrealizethatthisgrowthcannotbeoveremphasized.
MoreApplications
Lightingapplicationsmakinguseoffiberopticsareincreasingatanastoundingrate.Refrigeratedareas,Navyships,medicalenvironmentsandlocationsthatareeasilyvandalizedarebutafewofthenewestinstallationstakingplace.Theautomotiveindustryisexperimentingwithfiberopticsfortheinteriorandexteriorlightingofautomobiles.Similarexperimentsareoccurringinallaspectsofthetransportationindustry,withfiberopticsystemsalreadyinstalledinairplanes,shipsandtrains.Studiesrelatedtopotentialapplicationsareconstantlyoccurring.
IndustryGrowth
Intheearly'90s,tradeshowsdevotedtolightingfeaturedonlyasmallnumberofcompaniesrepresentingfiberopticssystems.Atthe1997LightFairInternational,therewerenumerouscompaniesshowinganextensivearrayoffiberopticlightingproducts.Newsystems,accessoriesandevencompa-
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niesmanufacturingfiberopticcomponentshaveincreaseddramaticallyinthelastfewyears.
Somecompanieshavealwaysmanufacturedentiresystems(illuminators,fibersandaccessories),whileothershavemanufacturedonlyfiberorparticularsystemaccessories.Manyofthenewercompaniesarequitespecializedandmanufactureonlyilluminatorsorfixturestobeusedwithcomponentsthatareproducedbyothers.Thegrowththathasbeenoccurringinthefieldcanbeattributedtothetechnologicaladvancementsrealizedbyalmosteverycompanyinvolvedintheproductionoffiberopticsystemsorcomponents.
AttenuationImprovements
Advancementsrelatedtoreducingattenuationareallowinglighttotravelfartherdistancesinfibers.Afewyearsago,dependingonthelightingdesignrequirements,thegenerallypublishedfigurerelatedtohowfarlightshouldtravelinanend-emittingfiberaveraged30feet.Althoughissuesrelatedtowavelengthabsorptionarealwaysanimportantfactorinfiberopticlightingdesign,todaymanymanufacturerswillstatethat60feetistheacceptabledistance.
OpticalControl
Considerableimprovementshavealsobeenmadeintheareaofopticalcontrol.Theabilitytofocusmorelightontotheinputendsofthefibershasincreasedefficiencyinmanysystems.Asanexample,Chapter7includesacasestudyofthefiberopticinstallationattheHardRockCafeatUniversalStudiosinFlorida.Theoriginalsystemwasdesignedutilizing11illuminators,eachcontaininga400Wmetalhalidelamp.Atthetimeofthiswriting,theentireinstallationisbeingrelampedtoreplacethe400Wlampswithametalhalidelampthatdraws150watts.Thereflectorsusedinthesystemhavebeennewlydesignedsothatmorelightfromthelampentersthefibers.The
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manufacturerclaimsthatthebrightnesslevelsachievedbyusingthenewreflectorsareequivalenttothelevelsthatwereobtainedwiththe400Wlamp.
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LightSourceDevelopment
Evenwithreducedattenuationandbetteropticalcontrol,itisintheareaoflightsourcedevelopmentwhereanincredibleamountofsuccessisbeingrealized.Lampdesignhasbecomeapriorityinmostcompaniesconcernedwithmanufacturingfiberopticilluminationsystemsorcomponents.Tremendoussuccesshasbeenobtainedutilizingsulfurlamptechnology.Althoughstillintheexperimentalstage,therearesomeilluminatorsbeingmanufacturedutilizingasulfurlampasthesourceoflight.Thislamphasallowedfortheentireilluminatortobere-designed.Onecompanyusingthislamptechnologyhasdevelopedaprototypeilluminatorthatcontains53individualports.Thisilluminatorisnotyetavailabletothedesigner,butresultsofpreliminarytestinghavebeenextremelyimpressive.Asadvancementsandcontinuedsuccessoccursintheareaoflightsourcedevelopment,designerswillhavetheoptiontoutilizefiberopticsinanextraordinaryamountofeverydaylightingapplications.
TheNeedforMoreEducation
Evenwiththeextraordinarygrowthoccurringinthefieldoffiberopticillumination,thereremainsveryfewwaystoeffectivelyandobjectivelylearnaboutthissubject.Currently,themainsourceofeducationpertainingtothistechnologyisavailablebymeansoftheliteratureproducedbythefiberopticlightingindustry.Itshouldbenotedthatagreatdealofthisguidewaswrittenusingarticlesandproductinformationsubmittedbythefiberopticmanufacturingcommunity.Informationcollectedincludedproductandsystemdescriptions,installationinformationandtechnicalreports.Inthefallof1995,aconferencewasheldinBostononthesubjectof"PlasticOpticalFibers"andincluded,forthefirsttime,seminarsonplasticfibersusedforilluminationpurposes.Papersandinformationpresentedandavailableatthisconferencewerealsousedinwriting
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thisguide.Additionalmaterialswerecollectedfromlightingdesignerswhohaveworkedwithand/orresearched
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fiberopticlightingsystemsaswellasfrominterviewswithindividualsworkinginthefieldoffiberoptics.Thereislittleotherinformationavailablethatspecificallyaddresseslightingdesignutilizingthistechnology.Therefore,themanybrochuresofferingvaryingamountsofinformationrelatedtoparticularsystemsandcomponentsbecomeakeysourceforeducation.
ItwasstatedintheIntroductionthatthespecificgoalofthisbookwastoallowthereadertogainabasicunderstandingoffiberopticillumination.Thisbasicunderstandingisvitalifthepromotionalliteraturesuppliedbythefiberopticindustryistobeusedasatrueeducationaltool.Itisextremelyimportanttonote,however,thatthemajorityoftheliteraturethatiscurrentlyavailableoriginatesfromcompaniesorindividualswhoaredirectlyassociatedwithpromotingparticularproductsorsystems.Therefore,thistypeofliteratureisoftenriddledwithinformationdesignedtopromoteratherthaneducate.Studyingoneortwocompanybrochures,orevenmorecompletepublicationsauthoredbyindividualswithinthefiberopticcommunity,willneverofferthereaderenoughinformationtomakeaneducatedchoiceastowhatsystemmaybethebestforaparticularapplication.Evenliteraturewhichappearstobetheresultofthoroughresearchandcomparesparticularproductsdoesnotofferthereaderenoughinformation.Marketingliteratureconsistingofcomparedsystemsmayillustrateoneambiguouspositiveaspectaboutacompetitorsproductwhilealsodescribingseveraloverlydetailednegativeaspects.
LookingattheBenefitsObjectively
Almostallpromotionalliteraturewillincludestatementsaboutthedirectbenefitsoffiberopticilluminationsystems.Thesestatementsusuallyincludetheabilitytoprovidelightthatisfilteredofcertainwavelengths,noheatattheilluminatedsurface,flexibilityindesign,
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andincreasedoptionsrelatedtocreatingspecialeffects.AsdiscussedintheIntroduc-
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tion,however,manystatementsincludedinpromotionalliteratureallowforacertainamountofconfusiontooccur.
"FiberOpticLightingCanSaveEnergy"
Therearemanyapplicationswherefiberopticshavebeeninstalledtoreplaceatraditionallightingsystem.Insomeoftheseapplications,energycostshavebeenreduced.Butpromotionalliteraturethatincludesstatementsclaimingsavingsinenergycostsmustbeviewedwithacertainamountofskepticism.Therearefactorsrelatedtoenergycoststhatneedtobeconsideredforeachspecificapplicationandwillincludeissuesrelatedtothelightingefficiencyoftheformersystemversestheefficiencyofthefiberopticsystem.AsdiscussedinChapter4,onlyacertainpercentageofthelightemittedfromthelampwillreachthedesignedenvironment.Insomedesigns,lightcomingfromthefibersanddirectedtoprecisepointsmayprovetobemuchmoreefficientthanthegenerallightingprovidedbyatraditionalsystem.Inmanydesigns,however,theamountoflightlost,combinedwiththeoverallenergyconsumed,makefiberopticsystemsarelativelypoorlightingchoice.
Otherfactorswillincludeissuesrelatedtotheenvironment'sHVACsystem.Becauseheatismanagedatalocationawayfromtheilluminatedsurfaces,lessairconditioningmayberequiredinthedesignedenvironmentthanwhenatraditionallightingsystemisutilized.Butthesepotentialenergysavingswillalsobebaseduponthespecificrequirementsoftheapplication,andwillincludefactorsrelatedtotheefficiencyoftheHVACsysteminuse.
"FiberOpticLightingCanReduceMaintenanceCosts"
AsdiscussedinChapter1,changingonelampinaneasilyaccessiblelocationwillrequirelesstimethanchangingmultiplelamps.However,thehoursworkedbymaintenancestaffmaynotalwaysbe
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reducedbecauseafiberopticsystemisinstalled.AsdiscussedinChapter4,dirtanddustaccumulatingwithinoronthecomponentsofafiberopticsystemwill
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reducetheirefficiencytremendously.Someapplicationswillrequireanextensivemaintenanceprograminordertoensurethatanadequateandevenlightoutputismaintained.Similartoanypotentialsavingsinenergy,reductionsinmaintenancecostswillberealizedonlyinparticularapplications
Chapter7introducedanapplicationwherebothenergyandmaintenancecostswerereducedafterafiberopticsystemwasinstalled.TheConEdisonClockTowerreplacedatraditionallightingsystemandsignificantreductionsinenergyconsumptionandmaintenancecostswererealized.Theinitialcostofafiberopticsystemiscurrentlyhigherthanthecostofatraditionallightingsystem.However,inapplicationswhereenergyandmaintenancecostsarereduced,theoriginalhigherpricecanoftenbeoffsetoveraperiodoftime.Anyreductioninenergyormaintenancecostswillbedeterminedbytheexactsystemandcomponentsutilized,buttherearemanyapplicationswherefiberopticshavepaidforthemselvesinarelativelyshortperiodoftimebyreducingthesecosts.
PhotometricData
Photometricdataisanareaofcompanyliteraturethatthedesignershouldpayparticularattentionto.Althoughnotallcompaniesprovidephotometricreportsintheirstandardliterature,companiesthatdoprovidethisinformationtendtodevelopstandardprocedureswhencompilingreportsrelatedtotheirownproducts.Differentcompaniesmayuseatotallydifferentsetofcriteriatoobtaintheirresults,however.Itbecomesdifficult,ifnotimpossible,forthedesignertocomparetheefficiencyofvarioussystemswhendifferentstandardsareusedtoobtainphotometricinformation.
Fiberspeak
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Anadditionalareathatmaycauseconfusionwhenreadingvariouspromotionalliteraturecanbefoundinindustryvocabularydifferences.Manufacturersandrepresentativesdonotalwaysusethesamewordstodescribethesamebasicpieceof
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equipment.Somecompanyinformationwilldescribeacomponentutilizingaparticulartermwhileotherswillcallthesamebasicpieceofequipmentsomethingentirelydifferent.
ThedifficultiesthedesignerexperiencespertainingtoavariedindustryvocabularyandinconsistentphotometricdatahasbeenrecognizedbytheLightingIndustryResourceCounciloftheInternationalAssociationofLightingDesigners(IALD).TheRemoteSourceLightingCommitteewasformedtodevelopaseriesofstandardizationmaterialstobeusedinthefiberopticlightingindustry.AccordingtoanarticlewrittenbyKenYarnell,IALD,IESandpublishedinthe1996January/FebruaryIssueofArchitecturalLighting,thefirstsuccessfuleffortsofthiscommitteewereinestablishingastandardlistofvocabularyforunderstandingandtalkingabout''remotesourcelighting."Thesetermsincludemanythathavebeenusedinthisbook(andobtainedfromYarnell'sarticle)suchas"illuminator"and"ferrule."Thiscommitteehasbeenreferredtoinotherpapersbut,asofthiswriting,anyadditionalinformationrelatedtotheworkofthecommitteeappearstobeunavailableorincomplete.Giventheamountofmarketingandpromotionalmaterialscurrentlycirculatingrelatedtofiberopticillumination,itseemsthatimplementingthefindingsofthecommitteewhateverthesefindingsmaybethroughouttheentireindustrymaytakeconsiderabletime.
TheRoleoftheSalesRep
Salesrepresentativescanalsobeusedasasourceforeducation.However,designersseekingadviceandinformationfromcertainrepresentativesmaynotgainabetterunderstandingthanthosewhostudyonlycompanypromotionalliterature.Althoughtherearerepresentativeswhopossessagreatdealofknowledgerelatedtothissubject,thereareotherswhodonottotallyunderstandallofthetechnologyinvolvedwithfiberopticillumination.And,similarlyto
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readingcertaincompanypromotionalmaterials,whenspeakingwithparticularrepresentatives,itcanbedifficulttosortoutwhatisabsolutefact
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verseswhatmaybeacustomizedsalesprogram.Inflatedclaimsofproductsuperioritycombinedwiththedowngradingofcompetingproductsissomewhatcommonintheindustry.
GettingtheBestResults
Itmustbestatedthattherearenumerousfiberopticinstallationsthathavefailedintheirabilitytoprovidethedesiredlightingresults.Therearemanyreasonswhyafiberopticsystemmaynotperformasanticipatedbythedesignerorend-user.Inmostcases,thisfailurecanbeattributedtoeitherthewrongsystembeingselectedfortheparticularprojectorthedesigner'sgenerallackofunderstandingrelatedtothelimitationsofthetechnologyinvolved.
Thereareoptionsavailabletoassistthedesignerinlearningmoreaboutproductandsystemlimitations.Certaincompanieswillsupplythedesignerwithtechnicalpackagesthatofferspecificguidelinesrelatedtocomponentlimitations.However,evenwhenworkingwiththebestprintedtechnicalinformation,itisalmostimpossibleforthedesignertocompletelydevelopanentiredesignwithoutsubstantialinputfromsystemmanufacturers.Almostallmanufacturershaveengineersandtechnicalpeopleavailabletoassistinansweringquestionsrelatedtopotentialdesignsandproductlimitations.Speakingwithcompanytechnicalpeopleshoulddetermineifaparticularcomponentorsystemisrightforaparticularapplication.Itisnotuncommonformanufacturestoreferdesignerstoanothercompanywhoseproductsmaybebettersuitedtotheparticularapplicationbeingdiscussed.Inaddition,sometechniciansmayadvisethatamock-uptakeplacetodetermineifthesystemwillperformtothespecificrequirementsofthedesign.
Mock-Ups
Manydesignersperformmock-upsofanentireprojectbeforethe
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actualsystemisspecified.Itisoftendifficulttovi-
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sualizewhatcharacteristicsafiberopticsystemwillofferwithoutfirstworkingwiththesysteminanenvironmentwhereitcanbemanipulatedandtestedtomeettheneedsofaparticulardesign.Workingandexperimentingwithvarioussystemsisanexcellentwaytomakecomparisonsonwhatsystemscanofferthebestresultsforparticularapplications.
GettingInformationfromtheInternet
TheInternethasrecentlybecomeasourceofinformationrelatedtofiberopticillumination.Mostcompanies,aswellasmanyindependentdesignersworkingwithfiberoptics,haveWebpagesdevotedtotheirproductsandservices.Althoughmainlyservingasmarketingtools,somecompaniesdoofferacertaindegreeofeducationalinformation.Manycompaniesincludephotographsofilluminators,fibersandfixtures.Applicationphotographsareoftenincluded.TheseWebsitesareaccessiblebysearchingtheWebutilizingthecompany'snameorbysearchingunder"fiberopticlighting"andmovingaroundfromthere.
HowDidItWork?
Obtainingreferencesfromend-usersoffiberopticilluminationsystemsisanexcellentwaytolearnmoreaboutparticularsystemsandmanufacturers.Themajorityofcompanypromotionalliteratureprovidesalistingofcompaniesthathaveutilizedtheirproducts.Contactingindividualsandaskingquestionsrelatedtooverallsystemperformancecouldprovidevaluableinformationwhenconsideringaparticularsystem.
Companiesarenottheonlyplacetoobtainreferences.Everydesignerorarchitectwhohasworkedwithfiberopticshasastorytotell.Theseindividualsaremorethanwillingtosharetheirstoriesrelatedtoparticularinstallations.Theabilitytohearfirsthandofactual
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successesandproblemsrelatedtoprojectdesign,communicationwithmanufacturersandrepresentatives,aswellasoverallexpectationsversusactualresultsallowsforalearningexperiencethatcouldneverbereal-
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izedbystudyingprintedmaterialsalone.Obtainingreferenceswithdesignerswhoareworkingwithorhaveworkedwithvariousproductsisanextremelyinterestingwayoflearningmoreaboutthistechnology.
MoreInformationIsNeeded
Clearly,thereisaneedformuchmoreinformationonthesubjectoffiberopticillumination.Readingpromotionalliteratureandengaginginconversationswithrepresentatives,technicalpeopleandfellowdesignersdoesnotprovidenearlyenoughinformationinorderforthedesignertomasterthissubject.Designersshouldnothavetorelyoncompanypromotionalliteratureasthemainsourceofeducationpertainingtothistechnology.Thedesigncommunityisinneedofadditionaleducationalmaterials.
Thefirststepfollowingthedevelopmentofstandardsrelatedtothissubjectistocallupontheprofessionalsintheindustrytoeducatethedesignerswhowillbeworkingwiththistechnology.Personseducatedinthissubjectneedtocommunicatemorewiththelightingdesigncommunitythroughqualitynon-biasedwritings,seminarsandconferences.Educatorswhoteachcoursesinlightingdesignmustthoroughlyfamiliarizethemselveswiththistechnology.OrganizationssuchastheIALDandtheDesignersLightingForumneedtoexpandtheireffortsindevelopingunderstandableprogramstoeducateandpromotethistechnologytotheirmembers.Studentsandprofessionalsinvolvedinlightingdesignneedtobeinformedbymeansofliteraturethatisdevelopedspecificallyforeducationalpurposes.Onlywhendesignersandusersoffiberopticilluminationsystemsbecomefamiliarwiththistechnologybasedonqualityeducationwillthemysterysurroundingfiberopticilluminationcompletelydisappear.
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Bowers,Larry,V.,MuseumSpecialist,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior."DevelopmentsinFiberOpticLighting."Photocopied.
Crawford,Laurie,"LowProfileLightingGetsaHighProfile,"ExhibitBuilder,November/December1995.
Drew,Thomas,E.,DramaLighting,"America'sSmithsonian(As-BuiltDrawings),"NewYork,NY,1996.(Confidential,ProprietaryInformation).TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
EdisonHaloLighting.FibreOpticLighting.Tongwell,MiltonKeynes,UnitedKingdom,1992.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Eurotec,SchottEurotecFibremOptics,FibreOpticTransportLightingforLightingSystemsontheMove.Doncaster,England,CompanyInformationSheet.
FiberopticSystems,Inc.LightforCustomApplications.SimiValley,CA,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
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Fiberstars.TheIlluminator.Fremont,CA1995.CompanyInformationSheet.
Fiberstars.FiberOpticLightingArchitecturalAccentsLandscapesInteriors.Brochure#FOL2.Fremont,CA1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
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FibreOpticsInternational,Inc.,Seattle,Washington.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Fischer,John,"FiberOptics,ANewLightingAlternative?NotReally,"VisualMerchandisingandStoreDesign,November1995.
GELightEngine.ApplicationGuide.Cleveland,Ohio:GeneralElectricLighting,1992.
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"How'sThisForaBrightIdea,Mr.Edison?",DupontMagazine,March/April1996.
Huber,John,C.,Ph.D.,"UnderstandingFiberOptics:TheBasics,"PlantEngineering,December1993.
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Hughes,Robert,ProductManager,LightingandTrafficSystems,NorthAmerica,SchottFiberOpticsInc.Interviewbytheauthor,29July,1996,Southbridge,MA.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
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Hughes,Robert,ProductManager,SchottCMLFiberOpticsLLC.Interviewbytheauthor,manuscriptdraftcritique.June1997,Marlborough,MA.
IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.IlluminationTechnologies.EastSyracuse,NY,October1992.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Jankowski,Wanda,"ConEdisonClocks'Energy-SavingFacelift,"ArchitecturalLightingMagazine,April/May1994.
Jaquet,Patrick.LetterfromPatrickJaquet,PresidentofOptectron,Inc.totoZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY,1992.
Kay,Gersil,N.WhatisGlassFibre-OpticsArchitecturalLighting?ConservationLightingInternational,Philadelphia,PA,1995.
Kay,Gersil,N.LetterfromGersilKay,president,ConservationLightingInternational,Ltd.toZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY,1995.
Libson,Hyla,"TutorialFiberOpticDisplays,"paperpresentedattheBostonPOFConference,October1995.GrantsPass,Oregon:FibreopticLighting,Inc.
LightingServicesInc.FiberOpticLighting.StonyPoint,NY,April,1994.CompanyInformationCatalog.
LightlyExpressed,Ltd.FiberOpticLightingSpecialists.Salem,VA,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
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LumenyteInternationalCorporation.IlluminationFiberOpticsSince1980.CostaMesa,CA,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
MoritexU.S.A.Incorporated.FiberOpticIlluminationSystems.SanDiego,CA.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Mangum,Scott,R.GELightingApplicationBulletin:"OpticalFiberIlluminationSystems."Cleveland,Ohio,1995.
Mangum,Scott,R.,"PlasticOpticalFiberandIllumination,"paperpresentedattheBoston,MA:POF95IlluminationConference,October1995.
Mangum,Scott,R.,DirectorofApplicationEngineering&Development,RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.,SanJuanCapistrano,CA.Manuscriptdraftcritique,July1997.
Miller,RuthEllen.LetterfromRuthEllenMiller,ofNoUVIRResearch,Seaford,DE,totheauthor,July4,1996.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
MitsubishiRayonCo.Ltd.TechnicalBulletinEskaCables(1).Tokyo,Japan:MitsubishiRayonCo.Ltd.,FiberOpticsDept.,1982.
Muehlemann,Michael.ThePhotonicsDesignandApplicationsHandbook."OpticalFibersforIllumination,"1991.
Muehlemann,Michael,M.,President,IlluminationTechnologies,Inc.,E.Syracuse,NY.Manuscriptdraftcritique,July1997.
Newman,Craig,"ALookatWhyFiberOpticsWork,"StarfireNews,JerseyCity,NJ:Volume1,No3.Companynewsletter.
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NoUVIR.NoUVIRResearchCatalog.Seaford,DE,1996.CompanyInformationCatalog.
Nuckolls,James,L.InteriorLightingforEnvironmentalDesigners,2nded.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1983.
OCLIOpticalCoatingsLtd.OCLIFilters:Dicro,ControllingLight&Color.RidgeWay,Scotland,UK,1993.CompanyInformationSheets.
OptectronInc.,PMMA-PlasticOpticalFibersandCables,GeneralPresentation,Raynham,MA,1991.CompanyInformationSheets.
PinpointFibreopticsDisplayIllumination.FiberOpticLightingSystems.BeverlyHills,CA.CompanyInformationCatalog.
POFNewsletter,Business,Volume4,Number4.Gatekeepers,Inc.,July/August,1995.
RemoteSourceLightingInternationalIncorporated.SanJuanCapistrano,CA,1997.CompanyInformationSheets.
RohmandHaasCompany.IlluminatingTheFuture.Philadelphia,PA,1995.CompanyInformationSheets.
RohmandHaasCompany.OptiFlexLightPipeFabricationandInstallationTechniques.Philadelphia,PA,1995.
SchottFiberOptics,"FusedFibreOpticFaceplates,"ImageInverters;StepPlates;RadiusPlates;StripPlates;HydrogenfiredPlates.Southbridge,MA,May,1994.CompanyInformationSheets.
SchottFiberOptics,SchottInternalPaper,"ComparisonGlassvs.POF-StatusNovember'95,"ConfidentialInformation.
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1995.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
SchottFiberOptics,Schottlite,FiberOpticLightingfromSchott,SchottGlaswerke,FiberOpticsDivision,Wiesbaden,Germany.
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TorayIndustriesInc.HighPurity&HighQualityPF/PGSe-
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riesRaytelaPolymerOpticalFiber.NewYork,NY.CompanyInformationCatalog.
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VandeVelde,PamelaLetterfromPamelaVandeVelde,ofPinpointFibreoptics,BeverlyHills,CA,totheauthorandMr.ZackZanolli,March14,1996.TranscriptinthehandofMr.ZackZanolli,LightingDesigner,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork,NY.
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Yarnell,Kenneth,E.,''RemoteSourceLightingUpClose,"ArchitecturalLightingMagazine,January/February1996.
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AppendixIIASelectionofManufacturersandRepresentativesCableLiteCorporation15510WrightBrothersDriveDallas,TX75244-2137Tel:972-239-5483Fax:972-239-5489
ConservationLightingInternationalLtd.1901WalnutStreet,Suite9BPhiladelphia,PA19103Tel:215-568-0923Fax:215-568-4572
DramaLighting,Inc.49AyerRoadAmherst,NY14221Tel:716-626-9300Fax:716-626-1055
EdmundScientific101EastGloucesterPikeBarrington,NJ08007Tel:609-573-6250Fax:609-573-6295
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FiberopticSpecialties,Inc.P.O.Box215Ellenton,Florida34222Tel:800-523-5520Fax:813-723-1441
Fiberstars,Inc.2883BayviewDriveFremont,CA94538Tel:800-327-7877510-490-0719Fax:510-490-3247
FiberOpticsInternational,Inc.309SouthCloverdaleStreetSuiteD-2Seattle,Washington98018Tel:206-762-2922Fax:206-762-3503
GELightEngineGELightingNelaPark#5438Cleveland,Ohio44112Tel:216-266-6876Fax:216-266-2987
LightingServicesInc.2KaysFriesDriveStonyPoint,NY10980-1996Tel:914-942-2800Fax:914-942-2177
LightlyExpressedLtd.
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803EighthStreetSalem,Virginia24153Tel:540-387-2104Fax:540-387-2105
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LumenyteInternationalCorporation350LearAvenueCostaMesa,CA92626Tel:714-556-6655Fax:714-556-9329
MitsubishiInternationalCorporationFiberOpticsDepartment520MadisonAvenueNewYork,NY10022Tel:212-605-2392Fax:212-605-1746
NoUVIRResearchUSHighway13&Loop532RR4Box748Seaford,DE19973Tel:302-628-9933Fax:302-628-9932
OpraKeyInternational,Inc.150East52ndStreetNewYork,NY10020Tel:212-308-6100Fax:212-308-8686
PinpointFibreoptics,Ltd.P.O.Box7085BeverlyHills,CA90212Tel:310-276-3437Fax:310-276-3475
RemoteSourceLightingInternational,Inc.
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32961CallePerfectoSanJuanCapistrano,CA92675Tel:714-248-0141Fax:714-248-0142
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RohmandHaasCompany100IndependenceMallWestPhiladelphia,PA19106Tel:215-592-3437Fax:215-592-3300
SchottCMLFibreopticsLLC45BartlettStreetMarlborough,MA01752Tel:508-229-8312Fax:508-229-8323
StarFireLighting317SaintPaul'sAvenueJerseyCity,NJ07306Tel:800-443-8823Fax:201-656-0666
SumitaOpticalGlass,Inc4-7-25,HarigayaUrawa,Saitama,338JapanTel:48-832-3165Fax:48-824-0734
SuperVisionInternational,Inc.8120PresidentsDriveOrlando,Florida32809Tel:407-857-9900Fax:407-857-0050
TorayIndustries600ThirdAvenueNewYork,NY10016Tel:212-697-8150
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Fax:212-672-4279
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AppendixIIIHowtheResearchWasDoneTheidealeadinguptothisprojectwasoriginallyconceivedinthesummerof1995.TheauthorhadagreedtoperformresearchonfiberopticilluminationsystemsforthedepartmentofLightingDesignatTheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYorkCity.CompletionofthisprojectwouldserveashisthesisfortheLightingDesigngraduateprogramhewasenrolledinatParsonsSchoolofDesign.Preliminaryideasinvolvedcompilingacollectionoflightingapplicationswherefiberopticswereutilizedandwritingabouteachproject.Thegoalwastoprovideapicturerepresentationoffiberopticilluminationsystemsinusewhilealsoexplainingwhytheywereselectedtoaccomplishtheparticularlightingdesignobjective.Itbecameapparentthatthisprojectwouldonlyhavevaluetothepotentialreaderiftheconceptsrelatedtohowfiberopticilluminationsystemsworkwerealsoincluded.Therefore,theauthorbeganresearchthatinvolvedassemblingtechnicalinformationaswellasphotographsanddescriptionsofcompletedapplicationswherefiberopticshadbeenutilized.Hisgoalwastokeepthesubjectasnon-technicalaspossiblewhileexplaininghowthetechnologyisusedinillumination.
InNovemberandDecemberof1995,afiberopticdatabasewiththenamesofcompaniesandindividualsworkingwithfiberopticswasdeveloped.Themajorityofthedatabaseconsistedofcompanieswhomanufactureorrepresentvariousfiberopticsystemsorcomponents.Someofthedatabaseincludeddesigners.Thesenameswereobtainedfromseveralpublications.AdditionalnamesweresuppliedbyLindsayAudin,EnergyManageratColumbiaUniversity.Mr.Audinhadrecently
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developedaprogramonfiberopticlightingfortheDesignersLightingForumofNewYorkandhegraciouslysharedhisdatabaseforthatprogramtothisproject.Atotalof85namesandorganizationswerecompiledintheoriginaldatabase.
InconjunctionwiththedevelopmentoftheoriginaldatabaseandalsoinDecemberof1995,aletterwasdevelopedthatwouldserveasthefirstformofcommunicationintroducingthisprojecttotheindividualsandorganizationsincludedintheoriginaldatabase.ThisletterwasmailedtoeverypersonandorganizationinthedatabaseduringthemonthsofFebruaryandMarch1996.Astheprojectprogressedandmorenameswereaddedtothedatabase,asecondletter,modifiedslightlyfromthefirst,wassentbyfaxto30moreindividuals.Thisbroughtthetotalnumberofnamesinthedatabaseto105.
Phonecallsweremadetopersonsincludedinthedatabaseapproximately10daysaftertheletterwassent.Thepurposeofthisinitialphonecallwastoaskindividualsoftheirinterestintheprojectandforcontributionsofinformationoractuallightingapplications.Thetelephoneprocesswashelpfulinnarrowingthedatabasedowntospecificindividualsandorganizationsthatcouldbethemosthelpfultothisguide.Theauthorspokewithmanypeoplewhowereextremelyinterestedintheproject,butwhowereeithertoonewinthefiberopticindustrytohaveprojectstosubmit,orwhosecompanygoalwasnotrelatedtofiberopticsforilluminationpurposes.Manyindividualswereuntiringintheireffortstohelpwithsubmittinginformation,answeringquestionsandinofferingadditionalnamesofpeopletocontact.ThemonthsofFebruary,March,AprilandMayof1996weredevotedtothisprocess.
Itwasintheearlyspringof1996thatprojectswerebeginningtobereceived.Astandardsetofquestionsthatcouldberelatedtoallprojectssubmittedwasdevelopedatthistime.Thegoalofhaving
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thesequestionsansweredwastoprovidetheendreaderofthisguidewithabasicconsistencywhenviewingcompletedinstallationssothateachprojectcouldbeeasilyunderstoodandrelatedtooneanother.Thelistofquestions
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wasmodifiedovertime.Someindividualsandorganizationsobjectedtoparticularquestions,especiallythosethatwererelatedtocostsandend-userfeedback.Andbecausethequestionnairerequiredadditionaltelephonecommunication,responsessuffered.Overall,atotalof61projectswerereceived,butonlyasmallfractioncontainedanswerstothequestionsfromtheoriginalquestionnaire.Themajorityofprojectsincludedonlyaphotographwithnoexplanationspertainingtohowthesystemwasdesigned.Onequestionnairewasansweredcompletely.Theinformationpresentedintheapplicationpresentationsectionofthisguideisbaseduponquestionsthatweredevelopedafterallprojectshadbeenreceived.
Throughoutthisperiodandintothebeginningofthesummerof1996,theauthorresearchedarticlesandinformationrelatedtofiberopticlighting.Individualcomputerfileswereset-uprelatingtoparticulartopicsonthesubject.Severalofthesedocumentscontainednumerouspagesfilledwithnotesobtainedfromseveraldifferentsources.Themajorityofthesesourcescontainedonlysmallpiecesofinformationoneachofthetopicdiscussed.Itwasbyassemblingalargecollectionofinformationfromnumeroussourcesthatallowedforworktoprogress.Thesedocumentswereconstantlyaddedtoandedited.ItwasduringthemonthsofJune,JulyandAugust1996thatthesecomputerfilesbecametheindividualchaptersincludedinthisbook.
Theauthor'sphonecallworkthroughoutthisperiodprovidedhimtheopportunitytomeetandinterviewseveraldesignersandcompanyrepresentativesworkingwithfiberoptics.Informationobtainedduringtheseinterviewsprovedinvaluabletohisowneducationinthesubjectand,whereappropriate,isincludedinAppendixI,Bibliography.TheauthorwasalsofortunatethroughoutthisperiodtoworkwithZackZanolli,lightingdesigneratTheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,onfiberopticmock-upprojectstakingplacewithintheMuseum.TheexperienceattheMuseumwasextremelyhelpfulinrelating
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informationreceivedinprinttoactualfiberopticsystems.
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TheInternetwasanothersourceforresearch.ManylightingcompaniescurrentlyhaveinformationavailableontheInternet,butthemajorityofthisinformationseemstobeorientedtowardmarketingandpromotionalstrategies.Theamountofinformationonfiberopticsislimitedwithsomesitesmarked"underconstruction."However,communicatingtocertaincompaniesviae-mailbecamecommonpracticethroughouttheresearchprocess.
Thefollowingthreepagesincludetheoriginalletterthatwassenttonamesincludedinthefirstdatabase,theoriginallistofquestionsthatweretobeaskedofallprojectssubmitted,andthemodifiedletterthatwasfaxedtoindividualswhowereaddedtothedatabaseasresearchprogressed.
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