fem 3001 (introduction to human development) fem 3001 is the basic course in your entire studies...

FEM 3001(INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT)

FEM 3001 is the basic course in your entire studies

INSTRUCTOR DR SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB

JPMPK, FEM

CONTACT NOPHONE: 03-89467088

E-MAIL: [email protected]

FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY 2

UNIT 1 - PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY, RELIGION & THEORY

UNIT 2 - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL CONTEXTS

UNIT 3 - LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT UNIT 4 - FITRAH AND POTENTIALS UNIT 5 - VALUES AND CULTURE

OUTLINE


What is Human Development? The Concept of Insan & Human Beings Human Development The Creation of Human Beings The Scientific Approach The Religious Perspective

UNIT 1:PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY,

RELIGION & THEORY

What is Human Development?

Definition:

• Scientific study of processes of change and stability of human beings (from conception till death)

• Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb.” (from book Sigelman & Rider, 2009)

• The systematic changes and continuities fall into three broad domains:

• Physical development: growth of body

• Cognitive development: changes in perception, language, memory.

• Psychosocial development: motives, personality traits, interpersonal skill and relationship.

Basis philosophy and concepts of human development human as God-created being INSAN

In this course, insan refers to universal understandings of human-beings

Insan in the context of their environments; where interactions & transactions take place; which will in turn influence & will be influencing quality of life & quality of the environment.

Focus on human beings across life cycle Ecological perspective – broad “tool” to understand

human beings as person- in-environment Base: Faith in God; Goals: Quality of life, quality of

environment Through scientific processes of describing,

explaining, predicting & modifying of behaviour

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The creation of human beings

Using developmental approach, studies on human development normally have been focussing on child development

During the 6th – 15th century , children were assumed as mini adults, preformationism; children are known as persons who need protection

16th century : The religious perspective (Protestan) demanded parents to be strict in nurturing their children in order for them to be able to tell right from wrong

17th century: John Locke pointed the importance of human dignity; respects; > behavioural

Children, known as tabula rasa (blank slate); originally “pure”; strated form nothing; need to be guided through experiences

Children were viewed as passive mechanistic, development occurred continuously; and parents mould their children’s behaviour through warmth nurturing


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Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) – a French philosopher; claimed that children are noble savages (have natural tendency/sense of differentiating right from wrong; can grow to become healthy adults

Children have internal senses; cognitive ability & unique emotions that are prone to be abused / corrupted by adults who trained them

Rousseau introduced the stages of development and maturity concepts

Aristotle: HumChildren are organismic (active designer of their own destiny); development does not occur continuously, but in stages; nature’s role in determining changes in life

Human beings are the thinking, social, political animal who run various functions in order to live


THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH…

The first scientific investigations of development were undertaken on late 19th century. Scholars observe the growth and development of their own children, and publish in the form of baby biographies. The most influential baby biographer was Charles Darwin.Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), British “naturalist” Darwin studied variations in plants and animal speciesNo 2 items/individuals/specimens that are 100% the sameThe founder of the evolution theoryDarwin’s evolutionary perspective and studies of the development of embryos strongly influenced early theories of human development, which emphasized universal, biological based maturational changes.

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2 basic principles of the evolution theory: natural selection & survival of the fittest

Natural selection: some species are naturally selected to survive in certain environment because they have the fit with characteristic able to adapt; Others … died / perished

Those who survived will continue to live for a long time reproduce & continue to generate quality characteristics for their next generations

Focus: Physical & behavioural adaptations Darwin claimed that at the early stage (prenatal) some species

are similar He concluded that all species including human beings have the

same ancestors This has created debates and finally proven to be false. 9

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Normative Era

• G. Stanley Hall (1846 – 1924), American psychologist, fore father of research on child development, first president of the American Psychological Association.

• He collects more objective data on large samples of individuals questionnaire

• Influential book: adolescence (1904)• Adolescence was a time of emotional ups and downs and rapid

changes. • Substantial changes in brain and in cognitive and social functioning

do take place during adolescence. • With Arnold Gesell (1880 – 1961) – they claimed human development

as “genetically determined, develop automatically.. Just like flowers”• The normative method refers to research on human behaviour based

on responses from MANY respondents; often linked with certain age group. 10

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Mental/Cognitive Testing Era

• Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911), French Psychologist, applied normative method to test human intelligence

• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test• It initiated heated debates over the issue of

nature versus nurture

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THE RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE

• Human beings are not machines (there are mind & spirit); not animals nor angels, and not GOD who creates himself

• In Islam, human beings are created by Allah in the best form of creation, to become khalifah

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• Surah Al-Hijr (26) yang bermaksud:

• “Dan sesungguhnya kami (Allah) telah menciptakan manusia (Adam) dari tanah liat kering, (yang berasal) dari tanah lumpur hitam yang diberi bentuk

• Surah At-Tin: (4) yang bermaksud:

• “Sesungguhnya telah kami (Allah) ciptakan manusia itu di dalam sebaik-baik cara, kami menjadikan sesuatu kelengkapan sesuai dengan keadaannya”

• Surah Al-Mu’minun (12 – 14) yang bermaksud:• “Dan sesungguhnya Kami telah menciptakan manusia dari

(saripati) tanah. Kemudian Kami jadikan (saritanah) itu airmani yang tersimpan dalam tempat yang kukuh (rahim). Lalu kami jadikan air mani itu segumpal darah, lalu gumpalan darah itu Kami jadikan segumpal daging, dan Kami jadikan gumpalan daging itu tulang belulang, lalu kami lapisi tulang belulang itu dengan daging. Kemudian Kami bentuk ia menjadi makhluk yang lain. Maha Suci Allah, sebaik-baik pencipta 13

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Men were created with certain purpose (amanah) – to function as khalifah who obeys his Creator. The coordination of both mind and spirit forms INSAN

Spiritual = related with 4 elements: spirit, the nafs, mind, and qalb

Roh = it’s God’s business;

Nafsu – bases for the reality of human beings: 3 levels of nafsu that urge or motivate behaviour: Ammarah, Lawwamah, Mutmainnah)

Akal – bases for kemuliaan; mengetahui segala sesuatu

Qalbu (hati)- merasa; asas keperibadian

Men have tendencies for good and bad deeds. Originally pure and clean, given mind to think, able to strive, given the urgency to need & want; and bestowed with energy

The QALB plays a big role in determining personality & behaviour where a person has to be responsible for


A PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Every age period of life is important

Focus: processes that took place

Perspectives that support this philosophy:


1. Development is multi dimensional & inter disciplinary2. Development continues through the life span 3. Both heredity & environment influence development 4. Development reflects both continuity & discontinuity 5. Development is cumulative 6. Development reflects both stability & change 7. Development is variable 8. Development is sometimes cyclical & repetitive 9. Development reflects individual differences 10. Development reflects cultural differences11. Development influences are reciprocal

VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT…

Development involves changing of allocation & resources.

Investment of resources (time, energy, talent, money & social support) are varied across life span

Resources are used for GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, RECOVERY, DEALING WITH LOSS

During childhood / young adulthood - resources go for growth; mid-life - balanced use; old age – regulations of losses.

New (additional) perspective:



UNIT 2:HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL

CONTEXT

Ecological Background We do not live in isolation – we interact Environment: everything outside the system that we (the

organism) live in Human beings = biological organism + social organism

that interact and have transactions with(in) the environment


The History Behind Ecological Approach

Many proponents of ecological concepts.Aristotle and PlatoThe word “ecology” was introduced by Ernest Haeckel (1969) –

German zoologistOriginated from Greek term – Oikus (home/family)

Human ecology – the study of individual in the context of family, household and environment.

Individual development - interaction between the environment and heredity.

A Chemist, Ellen Swallow Richards proposed a Scientific field of study to examine the influence of home environment on the family.

Ellen studied air and water quality, sanitation, food & nutrition.


General System Theory

Basic concepts from the General Systems theory are applied Holistic perspective = holism, looking at living nature as interacting

wholes (the whole is greater than the sum of the parts) Every system has 4 elements:

Objects = parts of the system; what the system is made of (in a family – each member = object); basic element of the system

Attributes = qualities/properties of the system & its members; indicate characteristics; uniqueness

Relationships = connection between / among the elements of the system (between object-environment)

Environment = anything that surrounds; can affect systems understanding person-in context


What is ECOSYSTEM? ..

A type of system .. Ecological system Made up of living organism (O) with their environments (E) originates from ecology: a science that investigate & describe

reciprocal relationships between O & E) Basis: a survival unit never consist of O or species in a static

environment; but rather, that it is an ecosystem with all O in reciprocal relationships with each other & with E

Human behavior is influenced by the environment and vice versa Even though the environment changes due to technology, human

beings need to impose control on life & environment to ascertain quality of life


Ecosytem seek a steady / stable / balanced state of existence HOMEOSTASIS

Organism adapts to reach homeostasis

ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT

OutputInput

Processing

Feedback


Bases: Human development is studied from the context of person-in-environment

The principle: all growth & development occur in the context of relationships

It’s an inter-disciplinary concept. To integrate & link various human & family issues holistic & in a

comprehensive manner to ensure a global plan of action. Human ecology = a field of study that considers individuals & families

within their environment & the relationships between them


Human Ecological System Perspective

System Theory

Objects + Attributes +

Relationships + Environment +

Human Ecology

Ecological Theory

Organism + Environment + Interaction +


6 assumptions for the human ecological framework

1. Human-beings are not passive receivers of information & inputs

2. Systems are dynamic always changing

3. Individuals & social systems have the capacity to change (they also wish to change)

4. Changing one element of a system will cause change(s) to other parts

5. Systems rely interdependently on one another to operate

6. All systems have boundaries


Pioneer:

Beatrice Paolucci (Michigan State University) employed the home-economics approach

Suggested that family is a social system that depend on:

The natural environment for physical maintenance

Social environment for human values; meaning and quality of life.

Margaret Buboltz & Susan Sontag (Michigan State University) continue Paolucci’s work

Proposed 3 environments that surround human beings:

Natural - biophysical

Socio-cultural

Technology-human constructed


ENVIRONMENT

Physical, biological, social, economic, political, esthetics & structure surroundings; contexts for human behavioral & growth/development

Can be classified according to resources within them.

Natural / bio-physical environment

Mother-nature resources Water, earth, snow, time, plants, animals, fossil, minerals Can be beneficial for human consumptions

Socio cultural environment Social institution - kinship, religion, politic, economy, legal, recreation

or symbolic group

Determines civilization & cultural system


Technology – Human Constructed Environment

Buildings, bridge, hydro-electric, houses, highway

Built using materials from the natural environment

Science and technology advancement helps to improve quality of life; abuse of it may destroy life


Family Ecosystem Model [Bubolz & Sontag; 1990]

Family

Technology-human

constructed

Socio-cultural

Natural-bio-physical

TIME – Past, Present, Future


Human Ecology:

Urie Bronfenbrenner (Cornell University) focused on contextual aspects of human development

He introduced 5 environmental systems: micro, meso, exo, macro & chrono.

Classification based on size of the environment MICRO small MACRO big

Bronfenbrenner (1979): the ecology of human development based upon the relationships between human beings & context where they interact or make transactions (exchange resources)

The 5 systems are embedded within each other; the nearest environment is the environment where the individual resides & develops


MICROSYSTEM

An immediate physical and social environment in which the individual interact with and influences by them.

The nearest environment to the individuals A pattern of activities, roles & interpersonal relations

experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular physical & material characteristics

Eg: Home environment & classroom are micro environments for primary school children


MESOSYSTEM

Comprises the interrelations among 2 or more settings in which the developing person actively participates

Example: Mesosystem for a child is the relationship between home,

neighbor, and school Marital conflict (one microsystem) influence child

performances in school (a second microsystem) Child: relations between home-school & neighborhood; Adults: family-work-social life

It is a system for the micro system


EXOSYSTEM

Refers to > 1 settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected by what happens in the setting containing the developing person

Eg: exosystem of a child might include the parent’s place of work, a school attended by his older siblings, activities of the neighborhood etc


MACROSYSTEM

Abstract in nature : refers to consistencies, in the form & content of lower order system (micro, meso, exo) that exist, or could exist, at the level of subculture or the culture as a whole along with any belief systems or ideology underlying such consistencies.

eg: socio-cultural / customs; legal systems, religion, education, defense system. space is perceived differently across cultures – what

determined the differences? Law? Religion? Custom?


CHRONOSYSTEM

Refers to patterns of events & transitions that take place in individual’s environment through-out his/her life

An idea that changes in people and their environment occur in time frame and unfold in particular patterns over a person’s lifetime.

The element of TIME is important in this system


INDIVIDU

MICROSYSTEM

MESOSYSTEM

EXOSYSTEM

MACROSISTEM

CHRONO-SYSTEMPattern of events & changes in structure according to time

Value system Pattern of behaviour

Belief system

SchoolFamily

Friends

Work place

Government agenciesCommunity


The importance of the ecological perspective in understanding human development:

It takes the holistic approach (considers multiple factors regarding person – in – context). Focuses on wholeness..

Any phenomenon is seen from multiple perspectives - aiming to get the obtain high quality of life / environment

Allows for an integrated plan of action – balanced & holistic; lend to improve Quality of life (individual, family, community…)


Environments do not DETERMINE human behavior; but they can influence them through : limiting / blocking/ allowing/ facilitating / opening for opportunities & possibilities

Families do not exist in isolation from the other environments, rather, they have a degree of control and freedom on their interactions / transactions with the environment & acquisition of resources


Decisions & actions that are taken by individual/ families will give an impact on the community, culture, other environments … the WORLD.

The world’s ecological well-being depends on the decisions & actions by the nation… down to the individual & families

Decisions made at macro level or even at the WOLRD’s platform, will directly or indirectly impacting the individual & families.


Basic principles in ecological model (Conrad & Novick, 1996)

Human development is studied through the person-in-environment perspective

Multiple & different environments experienced by individuals influenced the growth & development of individuals

Every environment has its risks & protective factors The interactions between individuals & environment are two-way /

reciprocal. It creates a complex feedback system Individual & family will always face changes & growth. Stress, coping &

adaptation are normal developmental experiences.

The general human/family ecological focused on the near environment (people, materials) which provide physical context & prime base for personal & familial activities

The community system (neighborhood, market, schools, mosques/church/temple are included

The macro (bigger) environments may also influence individual & family.


Human development occurs within the family context through family processes & activities

These processes & activities are needed and influenced by the reciprocal interactions with & within the natural-physical; human constructed & socio-cultural environments

The outcome QUALITY OF LIFE & ENVIRONMENT Human Q of life: To what extend human needs, values &

goals are met & how are they obtained Q of environment = safety, health, coping strategy,

adequacy, justice… in providing natural resources, economic, social needs & support.


SUMMARY

The ecological perspective encourages the followings criteria in order to understand human beings:

1. An integrated thinking

Creative thinking

A comprehensive focus of dynamic

Systemic understanding

Ethical reasoning

Variability

Practical action

Self understanding


OTHER THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Definition Issues in Human Development Freud and Erikson: Psychoanalytic Theory Learning Theory Piaget: Cognitive Theory


A set of interrelated statements that provides an explanation for a class of events. (from book Crandell, Crandell, & Zanden, 2009)

A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena. (from book Sigelman & Rider, 2009)

A good theory helps us to describe, predict, and explain human development.

Definition


Issues in Human Development

Nature-nurture Is development primarily the product of genes, biology, and maturation-or of experience, learning, and social influences?

Goodness-Badness of Human Nature

Are humans innately good, innately bad, neither, or both?

Activity-Passivity Do humans actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own development-or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control?

Continuity-Discontinuity

Do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways-or do they progress through qualitative different stages and change dramatically into different beings?

Universality-Context Specificity

Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture- or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social contexts?

From book Sigelman & Rider, 2009, pg33


Freud (1856-1939): Psychoanalytic Theory He proposed that people are driven by motives and emotional

conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in life.

Each people has certain amount of psychic energy that can be used to satisfy basic urges. They are divided into three components:

Id: an impulsive, irrational part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. People seek immediate gratification. Example: infants cry when they are hungry until their needs are met.

Ego: rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic way of gratifying the instincts. Ego emerged during infants. Example: toddler lead dad to kitchen and say “cookie” when he/she hungry.

Superego: internalized moral standards. From 3-6 years old. Example: not violating the rules and may feel shame if they do.


Freud’s Psychosexual TheoryOral stage (birth to 1 year)

Lobido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development.

Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands.

Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego.

Latent period (6 to 12 years)

Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.

Genital stage (12 years and older)

Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youth seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction.


Erikson (1902-1994): Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

Concern with inner dynamics of personality and it evolves through systematic stages.

He proposed that personality continues to develop over the entire life span.

Erikson concerned with psychosocial development, or development of the person within a social context.


Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesTrust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)

Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3 years)

Children must learn to be autonomous- to assert their wills and do things for themselves-or they will doubt their abilities

Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years)

Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but they must be learn not to impinge on the right of others.

Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years)

Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers, otherwise, they will feel inferior.

Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20 years)

Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities, otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.

Intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40 years)

Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.

Generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years)

Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers, otherwise, they will become stagnation and self-centered.

Integrity vs. despair (65 years and older)

Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death with out worries and regrets.


LEARNING: Watson (1913): classical conditioning He believed that human development and functioning

should be based on observations of overt behaviours rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional process.

Classical conditioning: simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicit the response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): An unlearned stimulus Unconditioned response (UR): a response come from UCS Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus come first

and following by UR. Then the neutral stimulus will become CS

Conditioned response (CR): a response come from CS


LEARNING: Skinner: Operant Conditioning He emphasized on the role of environment in

controlling behavior. Positive punishment: occurs when an unpleasant

event is added to the situation following a behavior. Negative punishment: occurs when something

pleasant is removed from the situation following the behavior.

Positive reinforcement: something has been added to the situation, reinforcement means strengthened.

Negative reinforcement: occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation.


Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Human are cognitive beings whose active

processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development.

This theory highlighting that observational learning as the most important mechanism through which human behavior changes, Bandura made his cognitive emphasis clear.

Observational learning: learning by observing the behavior of other people (or call models).

Example: a child may learn how to speak a language, tackle math problems, smoke, and others, by imitating others.


Piaget (1896-1980): Cognitive Development Theory

Emphasized on cognitive development.

Constructivism: Piaget viewed intelligence as a process that helps

an organism adapt to its environment. A children actively construct new understandings

of the world based on their experiences. Children use their current understandings of the

world to help them solve problems, they also revise their understandings to make them fit reality better.


Piaget’s four stages of cognitive developmentSensorimotor (birth to 2 years)

Infants use their sense and motor actions to explore and understand the world. At the start they have only innate reflexes, but they develop increasingly “intelligent” actions. By the end, they are capable of symbolic though using images or words and can therefore plan solutions to problems mentally.

Preoperational (2 to 7 years)

Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. Their thinking is not yet logical. They are egocentric and are easily fooled by perceptions because they cannot rely on logical operations.

Concrete operations (7 to 11 years)

School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.

Formal operations (11 to 12 years and older)

Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.


UNIT 3:LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Focus on development across life stages of life). It begins with conception and ends with death. Divided into various stages; based on growth & changes . In general, there are common/ universal characteristics for

each stage; however, there are also unique characteristics amongst individuals: (characters, time, duration).


Stages in life:1. Conception & pregnancy2. Birth3. Infant (1st two years following birth)4. Early childhood (toddler) (3 - 6 years of age)5. Middle childhood (7 – 12 years of age) 6. Early adolescence (13 - 15 years of age)7. Late adolescence (16 – 19 years of age)8. Early adulthood (20-30’s)9. Middle adulthood (40-50’s)10. Late adulthood (above 60)


CONCEPTIONS & PREGNANCY

Prenatal stage; the 1st stage of life Starts with the conception between ovum & sperm forming zygote Developmental stages during prenatal:

a) Germinal Period – starts from conception to implantation (takes about 14 days).

b) Embryonic period – from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception

c) Fatal period – from 8 weeks to the end of pregnancy

A normal pregnancy lasts for 9 months & 10 days; divided into 3 trimesters (basically for medical purposes):

1. 1st Trimester (early pregnancy – 3rd month) – very crucial stage

2. 2nd Trimester (4th – 6th month)

3. 3rd Trimester (last 3 months)

Fetus develops throughout pregnancy; Influenced by both genetic & environmental factors; Mothers-to-be experienced tremendous changes – physical, emotional; particularly due to the changes in hormonal level


Challenges: Environment may influence fetal development Teratogens = an agent in the environment that can

cause fetal defect/ abnormalities/ death (miscarriages)

The effect is varied, depending upon: Amount & period of exposure.

Time of exposure.

Genetic factors (of mother & fetus).

The present of other teratogens .

Critical period during prenata:

1. Germinal/(zygote) = before implantation; teratogens < effect; If exposed; the cells collapsed (miscarriage)

2. Embrionic: Most critical stage – major development occur rapidly during this period

3. Fetal: Not as severe, but main organs can be easily damaged: brain, eyes; genital


Types of teratogens (examples)

Medication (e.g.: thalidomide, diethylstilbestrol, aspirin) – may cause bodily defect; harm reproductive function; cancer, low birth weight, death

Drugs – various physical & mental damages Cigarettes – (primary & secondary): low birth weight;

premature birth, miscarriage; death; cancer


Types of teratogens (examples)

Alcohol – brain damage, abnormal feature (facial), eyes are widely apart, thinner upper lip, small head size

Radiation – cancer, miscarriage, abnormal physical growth, brain damages,, physical & mental retardation; harm formation of skull & eyes

Others: rubella, STD - HIV/AIDS, bacteria/parasite i.e. toxoplasmosis (raw meat, cat’s feces)


Figure 2.2


Other factors:

Food & nutrition

Stress/depression (emotional health)

Rh. factor (mismatch between fetus & mother) Rh. factor – is a blood protein

Mother’s age

Number of pregnancy / gaps in-between


Infant stage (0-2 years following birth)

Infants develop tremendously – physical (motor); senses; emotional; social & emotional

Primary social agents play significant role to establish various development of the infant

Infant learns to trust or distrust people; learns how to express love & affections; tries to master stages of development (esp. physical)

Infants temperaments can be detected at this stage


Early childhood (3 - 6 years)

Preschool age (++ toddler) Rapid growth – physical; social, cognitive &

language. Develops self concept, identity (early stage);

gender role; loves to play with others Effective parent-child relationship is critical


Middle Childhood (7- 12 years)

Ability in reading, writing, maths is developed

Tries to think logically, to understand the “world”

School is another importan micro system

Rapid growth in psycho-social & moral dev.

Good family relationship is critical


Early adolescence (13 – 15)

Transitional period between childhood & adulthood Rapid growth – earlier among girls (puberty) Sexual maturity; formal operations thinking Wanting freedom, autonomy; prefer peers ? Earlier & stablished relationships since small will ease the

adjustments for adolescents & parents


Late adolescence (16 - 19 years)

Formation of self identity is critical aspect of development at this stage

Plan for future career ; academic pursuits; working

Establish relationship with partners of opposite sex special relationship


Early adulthood (20’s & 30’s)

Biggest challenge: to establish intimate realtionship; determine career of choice & get the job

Various major life decisions: marriage, becoming parents, establishment of career

Some early adults dace divorce at this stage; remarriage Many major life decisions at this stage will influence later

stages


Middle adulthood (40’s – 50’s)

Running out of time Self reflect, causes mid-life crisis Obtain > freedom esp. if all children left home Obtain personal & social responsibilities, successful career Adaptations are done especially if there are changes (in any

other aspects) – i.e. promotions moving to another state


Late adulthood (> 60)

Need to adjust & adapt since major changes occur in almost all aspects of life

Focus on health care to maintain overall well-being Some late adults use their time wisely by giving back to the

family / society/ country using their knowledge & experiences.


Challenges across life-cycle:

Various capacity, types, durations, timing

Various factors may influence them or influence the impact of the challenges

Risc factors; protective factors

A resilient person can survive best


Robert Havighurst (1953) – theory of developmental tasks.

Emphasized the interrelationship of physical, social, emotional, and intellectual aspects of development.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….


Definition:

A developmental task is a task to be performed or achieved during a certain period in a person’s life.

It represents culture's definition of "normal" development at different points in the life span.


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Definition:

It consist of a set of skills and competences that are acquired as the person gains increased mastery over the environment.

Many developmental tasks are related to the society in which an individual lives .



Most people accomplish developmental tasks in a certain order.

Successfully accomplish one task before going on to a task at the next level.

Interrelationship of the factors.


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NO LIFE STAGE NO DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

1 INFANCY 1 Social attachment

2 Sensori-motor intelligence and primitive causality

3 Object permanence

4 Maturation of motor function

2 TODDLERHOOD 1 Self-control

2 Language development

3 Fantasy and play

4 Elaboration of locomotion.




3 EARLY SCHOOL AGE 1 Sex role identification

2 Early moral development

3 Concrete operations

4 Group play

4 MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE 1 Social cooperation

2 Self-evaluation

3 Skill learning

4 Team play




5 EARLY ADOLESCENCE 1 Physical maturation

2 Formal operations

3 Membership in the peer group

4 Heterosexual relationships

6 LATER ADOELSCENCE 1 Autonomy from parents

2 Sex role identity

3 Internalized morality

4 Career choice




7 EARLY ADULTHOOD 1 Marriage

2 Childbearing

3 Work

4 Lifestyle

8 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD 1 Management of the household

2 Child rearing

3 Management of a career

4




9 LATER ADULTHOOD 1 Redirection of energy into new roles

2 Acceptance of one life

3 Developing a point of view about death


PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS….

NO LIFE STAGE PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS

1 INFANCY Trust versus mistrust

2 TODDLERHOOD Autonomy versus shame and doubt

3 EARLY SCHOOL AGE Initiative versus guilt

4 MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE Industry versus inferiority

5 ADOLESCENCE Identity versus role diffusion

6 YOUNG ADULTHOOD Intimacy versus isolation

7 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Generativity versus stagnation

8 LATER ADULTHOOD Integrity versus despair


Human nature:

An innate natural predisposition which cannot change – exist at birth in all human beings.

natural/ innate characteristics; BORN with us

Examples: talent, physical ability; cognition & emotion

Bestowed by the CREATOR - for the benefit of mankind

Every human beings born into this world has natural characteristics that are “pure” & “perfect”

UNIT 4:Human Nature – “FITRAH” & POTENTIAL


Literal meaning – creation, cause a thing to exist for the first time, and the natural constitution with which a child is created in mother’s womb.

Fitrah – is not a dormant potential.

Fitrah (religious) – faculty (ability, power) created in mankind.

Human Nature – “FITRAH”


Negative influences by the nurturing processes & low quality environment may disturb the purity

2 types of human’s natural characteristics:

Physical

Spiritual


Human beings need 3 basic elements to survive:

Food Clothing Shelter

Without all these / insufficiency of any may limit chances for human beings to live comfortably

PHYSICAL


It is part of human nature to seek for the truth & belief in God

In accord with the nature: men are created by GodSpiritual nature = human’s instinct about believing in God, the CreatorThe instinct to find faiths / religion is born within every mankind;Men need to fulfil this need in order to live accordingly

SPIRITUAL


To ensure the growth of human’s natural characteristic; there are several basic needs that need to be fulfilled

Abraham Maslow identified 5 basic needs of human beings

The needs are arranged in a hierarchical order showing the existence of levels/stages

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS


Starts with first level, most basic = physiological needs; highest level is the self-actualization needs.

Each human beings must fulfil the most basic needs before proceeding to the next level.

The needs are not necessarily fulfilled in any particular order; some needs may be fulfilled simultaneously


• The ability or inability of individuals to fulfil all 5 level of needs will influence his / her perceptions about life & the environments


Human potentials = latent ability / capability

Also known as possibilities in oneself

Potentials need to be stimulated in order for it to be tapped / made known and grow

Like Fitrah, potentials are also bestowed by God, the Creator.

HUMAN POTENTIALS


• Potentials are part of Fitrah; at a lower stage than fitrah• Fitrah will continue to grow even without stimulation; but

potentials will be hindered / limited or never made known unless stimulated

• Quality development is an outcome of quality stimulation• e.g.: a normal child will know how to talk eventually even

without proper training, which is Fitrah’ • However, if the child is trained in other language than his /

her own, he or she may master that language eventually • Stimulation through proper training / exposure to

communication with others, reading materials, computers or other media


Fitrah = i.e men do not fly

Potential = men design means & ways to enable them to fly (aircraft)

Men have ability & capability to work on the means & ways to achieve their ambitions

It’s fitrah for human being that potentials can be molded / honed to grow


Potentials can also be viewed from the physical & spiritual perspectives

Physically, men have potentials to be involved in physical activities like sports, farming, recreation, exercise etc.

Spiritually, men have potentials to understand concepts, thinking creatively & critically; innovative; debate etc in accord with his or her fitrah


Drive & regulate efforts towards excellence

According to human’s fitrah, men are born to make good deeds; therefore no one is born to destroy or involved in bad things

Men are born “pure” in all aspects == physical, mental, social & emotional

The importance of understanding fitrah & potentials …..


Dysfunctional environment may disrupt the purity.

• Eg; Fitrah: to get married & generate; “pure” means ways to generate the future generations; failing to do so in accord with the religious perspective / socio-cultural guidelines may produce bad generations, uncivilized (as a product of incest / rape & adultery), or

• marrying someone of the same sex…


Potentials may differ from person to person; some may be highly potential in certain area and not in others

Proper planning, quality training may stimulate development of potentials to the maximum level; in accord with the God's rules

Other than quality stimulations; genetic, age, & other environmental actors may also influence human’s potentials


Men are born into this world - equipped with fitrah & potentials

Fitrah is the natural characteristics; potentials refer to latent ability in human beings = must be made known

Fitrah is related with the fulfilment of human needs; as suggested in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Various factors in the environment may influence the growth & development of both fitrah & potentials

Good planning of stimulations are needed to balance up t he growth of both fitrah & potentials

Conclusions

UNIT 5:VALUES & CULTURE


Values are what we prize in lifeWhat we consider most important to usHelp make up the self and affect our self-conceptAre usually based on ideas/ feelings about conditions.Ideas WE HAVE OF RIGHT OR WRONGInternalized concepts of the desirable (i.e. honesty, sharing, cleanliness, safety, love, cherish, being alone, having status, committed to, etc.)

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DEFINITIONS

Values are not just ideas…. must be part of action and way of life.

Guides in what we do, how we do it Gives directions and security in making and

following our decisions It influences: perceptions, goal settings and

means to achieve them It is a criterion in making choices and in

prioritizing the choices

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Value is a concept that act as a system of ideas and beliefs, gives guidance about the worth of something, influences our beliefs about what is right or best, and impacts our decision making process.


DEFINITIONS

VALUING is a process by which information, resources and

energy are selected, ordered by importance or assigned priority in terms of values.

It includes prizing an idea and acting according.


Characteristic of values:1. Influence behavior and decisions

Tell what is important; Influence the way we act, react &make decisions.2. Are general rather than specific

Certain value will be a factor in many aspects of one’s life.3. Are complex

Difficult to know which values cause us to act; Problems can arise when more than one value is influencing thoughts and behavior.

4. Are expressed in strong feelings Closely related to emotions; A discussion based on opposing beliefs may

become heated.5. Are important - Have a forceful qualities that directs actions.

6. Rank differently at different times

• Depending on the situation, certain values can be very important at one time but less important at other times.

7. Can change - Result from learning and from experiences and relationships with others.

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Some other definitions:

Linton, (1954):

“Anything capable of influencing the individual’s decisions in choice situations and anything capable of producing an emotional response”

Kluckhohn (1971):

“An explicit or implicit conception; distinctive of an individual or characteristics of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available means and ends of action”

Rokeach, (1973):

“An enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence”

Modes of conduct = instrumental values

End-state of existence= terminal values (ends or goals)



Terminal values Wealthy life Revital life Achievement (continuous contribution) Peaceful world (war free) World beauty (natural well-being, arts) Equity (brotherhood, equal opportunity) Family safety/security (care of members) Freedom (independent, right to make

choice)


Happiness (satisfaction)

Internal harmony (free from internal stress)

Matured love (sexual & spiritual)

Safe nation (protection against attact)

Pleasure in life (happy life/ luxury)

Safety

Self dignity (self concept)

Social dignity (recognition, respect)

True friendship

Wisdom (maturity)


Instrumental values Highly ambitious Open Capable (efficient, effective) Cheerful Clean & proper Resilient Forgiving Helpful Honest, truthful Imaginative, creative


Independent

Intelligent

Logic, rational

Loving, caring

Obedient

Polite

Responsible, trustworthy

Self-control, discipline


VALUE CLASSIFICATION

Paolucci (1977) classifed values into 3 categories:

1. personal values

2. moral values

3. social values


1. PERSONAL VALUES

Personal values = “character”• The manner in which individual copes with

everyday living by applying one’s beliefs and values• Expressed through behaviours.

• self-discipline, self-motivation, punctuality, orderliness, self-evaluation of one’s efforts, decisiveness & goal orientation

• Unique for each individual; - parts of personality


• Give a sense of right and wrong• Concerned with good & right behaviour• Related with the responsibility to live in ways

that protect the freedom & rights of others• Reflect one’s concepts of moral decency• Shown in honesty, dependability, tolerance,

peace of mind, integrity, a sense of fair play, concern for long range benefits & consistency between ideals & actions

2. MORAL VALUES


Shown in relationships with others

support, cooperation, recognition, independence, justice, benevolence, equity, respect for law, acceptance of majority rule, sense of interdependence, recognition of the worth & dignity of every human being

3. SOCIAL VALUES


Ways/style in which beliefs and values are assimilated from life experiences forming pattern(s).

• Kluckholm (1951) introduced 5 types of value orientations

1. Activity orientation2. Human nature orientation3. People nature orientation4. Time orientation5. Relational orientation

VALUE ORIENTATION


I. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION

It answers Q about the nature of human behaviour

The answers often related to cultural preferences, may be either:

Being, or

Being-in-becoming, or

Doing


Being = a spontaneous expression of personality, allowing expression for individuality as a human being for what people are, rather than for what they can accomplish.being-in-becoming – concern for the person as a human being & what that person is becoming as a person Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well can individual perform.Cultural factors may influence the types of activity orientation (focus more on accomplishment)


Focus on individual’s qualities of good or evils. Some belief systems viewed human beings as

evil, mixture of both, or good. Socialization plays a dominant role in shaping

the qualities. Ethics & religions as factors of concern

it is understood that human beings make mistake --- but ?…

2. HUMAN NATURE ORIENTATION


It deals with the relationships between individuals & nature/environment

Subjugation to nature (have no control over destiny)

Harmony with nature (interdependent) Mastery over nature (master & control)

3. PEOPLE NATURE ORIENTATION


Reflects preferences for past, present, or future time orientation

Influenced by culture & religion Chinese, > past orientation, ancestors are

respected, strong family traditions The American: future oriented?

ALL elements of time are important; Generally, educated people are future oriented & place

high value on change as long as it does not threaten existing order

4. TIME ORIENTATION


Manners of relating with others. 3 manners:

1. Linear preference

2. Collateral preference

3. Individualist preference

5. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION


1.Linear preferenceBased on behavioural similarities while permitting some differences within fixed customs.

Group goals & traditions are important …. continuity through traditions & family lines.

When problems arises: the oldest (male) member take charge


2. Collateral preference Emphasizes on problem solving

Individual is considered to be part of a social order

The goals of extended family including siblings, cousins are primary - “for the good of the group”

When problems arises: the family as a group and extended family are involved in achieving a common solution.

A leader – qualified by expertise, not age or tradition


3. Individualist preference Emphasizes problem solving ability of an individual, yet the individual still

has responsibility to the total society

The individual’s place & responsibilities are structured interdependently of collateral groups.

Use spacing in relationship to the other groups to develop individualistic orientation

US people… > individualistic?


FUNCTIONS OF VALUES

Provide an orientation & set a framework for people to guide actions & behaviour

3 main fucntions:1. Standards of conduct • Helps us to take positions on social, religious &

political issues• Provides standards for comparisons – as guides, to

praise, to judge, to behave, to choose, etc..• Implies a pattern of consistent behaviour


2. Decision making & conflict resolution

Decisions are made by processing inputs from environment using information received through perceptions in which are influenced by value orientations, conflicts too are resolved based on values

Can be difficult due to our perceptions of the situation, the meaning seen through our values & emotional factors

Holistic view helps in understanding situations from various perspective.. Helps to resolve conflict


3. Motivation • Values have a strong motivational components• Instrumental values are immediate values that

facilitate reaching goals• Terminals values are the greater goals beyond

the immediate goals• Values motivate through their influence which

leads to decision that help people gain self respect / esteem; guide in making adjustments & help in developing personal growth


PATTERNS OF VALUES

Values are embedded by the family system within a specific culture, in an historical time period.

• Social influences are present for all families• Values guide the extent to which outside preferences

from the society will influence family… Diversity, globalization

• Value patterns are related to specific time & situations … I.e > self awareness vs actions out of wish for other’s approval


PROCESS OF VALUING Values exist on a personal, family or cultural levels; we

develop values to guide our decision making at each level How do we acquire a value orientation? Children acquires values primarily within the family system

(trust; aproval, praise & rewards) Cultural values are transmitted primarily within the family Value transmission process operates through 3 mechanisms:

reinforcement, modelling & adoption


1. Reinforcement

A child is rewarded for behaviour that reflects desired values; punished if otherwise

2. Modelling

Children learn values through modelling from their significant others esp parents (what they do is modelled more that what they say)

3. Adoption

values are absorbed & adopted; people are not passive receivers.. Internalized values, become personal standards, they grow from experiences..


3 approaches of acquiring values:

Traditional - Authoritarian Approach

1. Based in absolute values that have meaning apart from & external to people

2. People are responsible to learn these values & live accordingly

3. They are part of social traditions; acceptance of the authority & leaders is critical

4. Everyone knows what is right & wrong; socialization is based on indoctrination, fear, punishment, rewards, praise, blames.

5. People are passive reactors; must accept & comply

6. Relates with fundamentalistic thinking


The Absolute Relativity Approach

1. Emphasizes that all values are relative, no absolute ethical principles or moral values.

2. People are considered as supreme or central; must assert themselves, & construct own reality

The Organismic-structural-developmental approach

3. Based on different view of people, the environment & the relationships between them

4. Human being as a functional whole (organized, integrated, systematic)

5. Rejects the idea that people are being controlled by external sources

6. > related with ecological thinking & decision making


CLARIFYING VALUES Value system exists through 3 processes: choosing,

appreciating & acting on it Choosing involves judging, evaluating freely over a

few alternatives & the consequences of the choice Appreciating involves feeling of satisfaction with

one’s choice and acknowledging Acting or doing involves using/employing the values

in all aspects of life - consistently


• One’s values may change depending upon changes that occur in one’s life

• Traditional values are challenged especially in the post industrial era

• I.e = “mind your own business” vs. “caring for one another”

??? What else?


PARADIGM SHIFT

Refers to restructuring basic values on the way how we perceive the world

Social paradigm comprises a group of values, beliefs & experiences that are shared by the majority of the people in the society

Social paradigm may change across time; progress in a “slow” manner (not abruptly)


OLD VALUES NEW VALUES

Lack of self appreciation ethic Achievement ethic

Higher life status Better quality of life

Traditional gender roles Vague gender roles

Success according to cultural definitions

Success according to own definitons

Traditional family life Alternative family life

Belief in industries, institution Belief in oneself

Live to work Work to live

Worshipping heroes Admiring ideas


Old Values New Values

Expansionism Pluralism

Patriotism Less nationalistic

Unparallel growth High awareness of boundary

Industrial Growth Development of information & Services

Technology acceptance Technology orientation


UNIVERSAL VALUES

There are universal values across race & culture LOVE & CARE

- Bases of moral behaviour are harmony, love & care, helping.

- “Ihsan” is a concept to explain the values

- With love & “ihsan”, human beings can help each other

TRUTHFULNESSJ

USTICE

FREEDOM