feed management: on-farm feed manufacture and application in small-scale aquaculture
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8/14/2019 Feed Management: On-farm feed manufacture and application in small-scale aquaculture
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November | December 2009
Feature title: Feed Management -On-farm feed manufacture and application in small-scale aquaculture
The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry
International Aquafeed is published five times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom. All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies,the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published.©Copyright 2009 Perendale Publishers L td. All rights reserved. No par t of this publication may be reproduced in any formor by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058
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There is no clear definition
for what is farm-made
aquafeeds and non-farm
made aqua-feeds.
FAO suggests that farm-made feeds be
defined as feeds in pellet or other forms,
consisting of one or more artificial and/
or natural feedstuffs, produced for the
exclusive use of a particular farming activity
and not for commercial sale or profit.
De Silva (2007) regards mixtures of
ingredients subjected to some form of
processing (simple mixing, grinding andcooking) done on-farm or in small process-
ing plants are generally regarded as farm-
made aqua-feeds and are often the mainstay
in small-scale semi-intensive aquaculture
practices (De Silva and Hassan, 2007). This
is not true across Asia.
According to an analysis by Rola and
Hassan (2007) based on case studies carried
out in six leading aquaculture producing
countries in Asia, number of semi-intensive
farms depend on industrial (commercial)
feed and this is highest in India (74 percent)
followed by China (46 percent), indicat-
ing mainstay of semi-intensive farms is
industrial feeds as oppose to on-farm made
feeds. Semi-intensive farms in Viet Nam, the
Philippines and Bangladesh depend less on
industrial feeds at four percent, 28 percent
and zero percent, respectively.
Ingredientsare used foron-farm feeds
A very wide range
of ingredients is used
to prepare farm-made
aqua-feeds (Table 1).Feeds range from
single component feeds
available on-farm such
as grass or rice bran to
farm-made formulated
feeds and commercial
feeds. They include aquatic
and terrestrial plants
(duckweeds, azolla, water
hyacinth etc), aquatic animals (snails, clams
etc) and terrestrial-based live feeds ( silkworm
larvae, maggots etc.), plant processing prod-
ucts (de-oiled cakes and meals, beans, grains
and brans) and animal-processing by-products
(blood and feather meal, bone meal etc.).
Kitchen waste may also be considered as
one of the types of farm-made aqua-feeds
as per FAO definition as it contains one or
more natural feedstuffs in non-pellet form.
Usage unknownOn-farm feed manufacturing can be
of very simple form of single ingredient
directly uses as feed to simple mixtures
On-farm feed manufactureand application in small-scaleaquaculture Kishen J rana1,2 and Sunil N Siiwadena1
1Institute of Aquacultue, Univesity of Stiling
2Univesity of Stellenbosch
42 | IntnatInal AquAFeed | november-December 09
Feed Management
-
of powdered ingredients or ingredientscompounded into a dough or pellet form.
Plant origin ingredients are used singly
or in combination with other plant or
animal origin feeds as feeds with no or little
processing in small-scale aquaculture at the
lower end of semi-intensive practice while
animal origin material such as trash fish is
used singly or in combination with other
ingredients with no or little processing at
the upper end of semi-intensive practices
(De Silva and Hassan, 2007).
The full extent of the usage of farm-
made aqua-feeds is unknown and literature
is scarce. It is note worthy that use of
farm-made aqua-feeds is not restricted to
small-scale aquaculture practices.
According to the recent analysis based
on case studies carried out in six leadingaquaculture producing Asian countries 70
percent to 50 percent of farms dependent
on farm-made aqua-feeds with the excep-
tion of China depending only on 25 percent
(Rola and Hassan, 2007).
However, there are reasons to believe
that farm-made aqua-feeds would make
a significant contribution to small-scale
aquaculture production, particularly in
freshwater aquaculture.
Approximately 80 percent of global
aquaculture production in the past is
believed to be produced without using for-
mulated compounded commercial feeds butrelying on organic and inorganic fertilisers
manures to increase natural food (Akiyama,
1991; Chong, 1995).
This trend may continue, but with appli-
cation of farm-made aqua-feeds to
increase productivity, as freshwa-
ter omnivorous and herbivorous
fish, particularly common carp,
Chinese major carps and tilapia,
are the most frequently used spe-
cies in freshwater aquaculture.
These low value species main-
tained a contribution of around
90 percent to the global total
freshwater aquaculture produc-
tion (Table 2). In order to increase
productivity in small-scale aquac-
ulture of low-value species use of farm-made aqua-feeds is likely to
be on the increase.
Growth is expected – inAsia and Africa
According to a recent estimate, based
on seven leading aquaculture producing
countries in Asia, this trend is seen as
19.3 million tonnes of farm-made aqua-
feeds were used against 10.3 million tonnes
industrial feeds during 2003-2004 in Asia
alone (De Silva and Hassan, 2007).
On average, annual feeding usage rates
of farm-made aqua-feeds varies between507,000kg/ha/yr (Viet Nam) and 2313kg/
ha/yr (India) in semi-intensive farms while it
varies between 270,189kg/ha/yr (Viet Nam)
to 1500kg/ha/yr (China) in traditional farms
(Rola and Hassan, 2007). These feeding
rates are against feeding rates of industrial
feeds between 64,903kg/ha/yr (Thailand)
and 391kg/ha/yr (the Philippines) in semi-
intensive farms.
It is also predicted that the usage of
farm-made aqua-feeds may go up to 31 mil-
lion tonnes over the next five years against
industrially manufactured feeds, represent-
ing a growth of 60 percent increase from
current levels (De Silva and Hassan, 2007).
Table 1: Commonly used feed types in small-scale aquaculture
FCRRange Feeds of plant origin Feeds of animal origin
1-5
Soybean, barley flour, corn, cereals, groundnut cake, groundmaize, ground rice, sorgum, rice bran broken rice, deoiled cakesand meals of peanut, sesame, cashew, cocoa, coconut, oil palm
linseed, mustard, sunflower, cotton seed, rapeseed, cannabis,
Daphnid, mysis, Clams, locust (dried), silkworm pupae (fresh &dried), chironomids, prawn and shrimp, fish flour, meat flour,dried blood powder, fishmeal, bone/meat meal, feather meal,
food yeast
5-10Oil palm cake, barley bran, wheat flour, wheat bran, red bean,
pea cowpea, broad beanEarth worms (fresh), snail flesh (dried), housefly maggots, locust(fresh), liver spleen, fresh meat, freshwater fish, fresh sea fish
10-20 Manioc leaves, manioc flakes, rye grass, Sudan grass -
> 20
Irish potato, banana leaves, hybrid grass, Lucerne, clover,Manioc rind, manioc flour, Napier grass, elephant grass,
Chinese cabbage, water hyacinth, water lettuce, duckweed, giantduckweed, water egg, aquatic fern, Pond weed, water spinach,
alligator weed, salvinia, Reed-mace, tape grass, Hydrilla, Guineagrass, para grass, lalang grass, star grass, barnyard grass, sweetpotato, sorgam, ramie leaves, canna leaves, pumpkin vines, velvet
bean vines, cassava leaves and tuber, bean stalk leaves andseeds, vegetables, leaves and stems of leguminous plants
-
Source: Tacon (1988); Yang and Yakupitiyage (2000)
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Feed Management
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75 percent of production costs.
Most of the farm-made supplemental
feeds use agricultural by-products since
selection and utilisation of supplementaryfeeds is linked to other agricultural activities
(De Silva, 1995).
Capacity of farm-made aqua-feeds to
increase productivity of small-scale aquac-
ulture is not only dependent on the cost
of production but also the ability of feed to
provide a nutritionally balance regime, espe-
cially as production trends shifts towards
semi-intensive production.
Therefore, a cost effective balanced
nutritional regime is more appropriate than
one just based on one or two individual
ingredient based food items aimed at cost
reduction. Reducing costs of a feed whilst
ensuring a balanced nutritional regime in
such small-scale aquaculture systems is,
This may be attributed to the obser-
vation made by Tacon and Hassan (2007)
that with the possible exception of Brazil
(in the case of freshwater aquaculture)the bulk of aquaculture species produced
in Latin America, especially Chile, are
high value species destined for export,
which are dependent of complete for-
mulated feeds.
Therefore, significant proportion of the
predicted increase in farm-made aqua-feeds
is most likely to happen in Asia and Africa.
There is a question of effectiveness of
farm-made aqua-feeds to increase aqua-
culture productivity and this is yet to be
addressed.
The choice of supplemental feed largely
depends on the availability and cost. In most
small-scale farms, on farm feeds, like indus-
trial feeds, also accounts for 40 percent to
However, what proportion from this
increase would be utilised in small-scale
aquaculture is not known.
There is no accurate information onthe usage of farm-made aqua-feeds in Sub-
Saharan Africa except for Nigeria (Tacon
and Hassan, 2007), which is estimated at
approximately 70 percent of the 35,750
aqua-feeds used in Nigeria (Hecht, 2007).
In Sub-Saharan Africa 80 percent of farmers
fall into small-scale category even though
they contribute to 30 percent of the total
production (FAO, 2007).
This indicates the level of contribution
of farm-made aqua-feeds in Sub-Saharan
Africa in terms of number of small-scale
farmers involved in aquaculture produc-
tion using such feeds. Several countries
in Sub Saharan Africa produced around
98,500 tonnes of farm-made aqua-feeds
in small- and medium-scale
aquaculture farms.
Growth isexpected – inLatin America
In contrast, in Latin
America farm-made aqua-
feeds are seldom used in
aquaculture and confined
to the use of agricultural
by products in some small-
scale farms to replace or
complement formulated
complete diets (FAO, 2007).
Table 2: Contribution of low value species to world freshwater aquaculture production
Species contribution (million tonnes)
Year Carps & othercyprinids
Miscellaneousfreshwater/
diadromous fish
Tilapia &other cichlids
Totalproduction
% Contributionto total
freshwaterproduction
1995 10.40 1.857 0.643 13.533 95.32
2006 15.80 2.14 1.11 19.05 91.00
Adapted from FishStat Plus, 2008
44 | IntnatInal AquAFeed | november-December 09
Feed Management
-
(eds.), Study and analysis of feeds and fertilisers
for sustainable aquaculture development. FAO
Fisheries technical Paper No. 497, FAO, Rome
pp 510.
Yang, Yi. and Yakupitiyage, A. 2001. Feeds in
small-scale aquaculture. pp 263-268. In: IIRR,
IDRC, FAO, NACA and ICLARM eds, Utilising
Different Aquatic Resources for Livelihoods in
Asia: A Resource Book, International Institute of
Rural Reconstruction, International DevelopmentResearch Centre, Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations, Network
of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific and
International Centre for Living Aquatic resources
Management, 2001.
Rola, W.R. and Hassan, M.R. 2007. Economics of
aquaculture feeding practices: A synthesis of six
Asian countries. pp 1-32. In: M.R. Hassan and R.
Banks, Economics of aquaculture feeding practices
in selected Asian countries, FAO Fisheries
Technical Paper 505.
Tacon A.G.J. 1988. The nutrition and feeding of
farmed fish and shrimp. A training manual. 3.
Feeding Methods. FAO Field Document, Project
GCP/RLA/075/ITA, Field Document No. 7, pp
208, Brasilia, Brazil
Tacon A.G.J., Hassan M.R. 2007. Global
synthesis of feeds and nutrients for sustainable
aquaculture development. pp 3-18. In: M.R.
Hassan, T. Hect, S.S. De Silva and A.G.J, Tacon
therefore, important for the longer-term
sustainability.
Cost of fish production using on farm
feeds may not be lowered unless locally avail-
able non-fishmeal ingredients are carefully
selected and blended based on the nutri-
tional requirements of the target species.
References
Akiyama, D.M. 1991.Future considerations for the
aquaculture feed industry. In: D.M. Akiyama and
R.K.H. Tan (eds), Proceedings of the aquacuture
processing and nutrition workshop, Thailand and
Indonesia, September 19-25, 1991. American
Soybean Association, Singapore.
Chong, K.C. 1995. Economics of
on-farm aquafeed preparation and use.
pp 434. I n: M.B. New, A.G.J. Tacon and
I. Csavas (eds.), Farm-made aquafeeds,
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 343,
FAO, Rome.
De Silva, S.S. 1995. Supplementary
feeding in semi-intensive aquaculture
systems. In: M.B. New, A.G.J. Tacon and
I. Csavas (eds.), Farm-made aquafeeds,
FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 343,
FAO, Rome pp 434.
De Silva, S.S. 2007. Reducing feed cost
in aquaculture: Is the use of mixed
feeding schedules the answer for semi-
intensive practices? NACA, available
online http://www.enaca.org/modules/
news/article.php?storyid=905
De Silva, S.S. and Hassan, M.R. 2007.
Feeds and fer tilisers: The key to
long-term sustainability of Asian
aquaculture. pp 19-48. In: M.R. Hassan,
T. Hect, S.S. De Silva and A.G.J, Tacon
(eds.), Study and analysis of feeds and
fertilisers for sustainable aquaculture
development. FAO Fisheries technical
Paper No. 497, FAO, Rome pp 510.
(in press).
FAO 2007. Study and analysis of
feeds and fertilisers for sustainableaquaculture development. M.R. Hassan,
T. Hect, S.S. De Silva and A.G.J, Tacon
(eds.), FAO Fisheries technical Paper
No. 497, FAO, Rome pp 510.
FishStat Plus, 2008. FISHSTAT PLUS
(online). Universal software for fishery
statistical time series (Version 2005-
11-02). Available at: http://www.fao.
org/fi/statist/FISOFT/FISHPLUS.asp
Hecht, T and de Moor I. 20 07. Small-
scale aquaculture in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Available online: http://
cdserver2.ru.ac.za/cd/011120_1/Aqua/
SSA/main.htm
- november-December 09 | IntnatInal AquAFeed | 45
Feed Management
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