fatemeh etemadi, dr. masoud hashemi, dr. frank mangan & …...2 this guideline has been...
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FAVA BEANS
Growers Guide in New England
Fatemeh Etemadi, Dr. Masoud Hashemi,
Dr. Frank Mangan & Dr. Sarah Weis
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ThisguidelinehasbeendevelopedbytheUniversityofMassachusettsAmherstandisintendedtoprovidebasicinformationforgrowingfavabeansasanewdualpurposecropforNewEngland.
Youcanalsowatchthefollowingvideoformoreinformation:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6W4EoQD2Q4
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FAVA BEANS
Growers Guide in new England
FatemehEtemadi
Dr.MasoudHashemi
Dr.FrankMangan
Dr.SarahWeis
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Copyright2015byUniversityofMassachusettsAmherst
AcknowledgementsTheauthorswishtothankMassachusettsDepartmentofAgriculture,NortheastSustainableAgricultureandEducation,UniversityofMassachusettsCenterforAgriculture,FoodandtheEnvironment,andStockbridgeSchoolofAgriculturefortheircontributionandsupport.
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Table of Contents
Favabeans;GrowersguideinNewEngland......................................................................................7
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................7
GrowthandDevelopment...................................................................................................................7
GerminationandEmergence...............................................................................................................8
Pollination............................................................................................................................................8
CultivationPractices............................................................................................................................9
Soilstype..............................................................................................................................................9
Soiltemperature..................................................................................................................................9
DateofPlanting.................................................................................................................................10
MethodofPlanting............................................................................................................................10
DirectSeeding....................................................................................................................................10
Transplanting.....................................................................................................................................10
SeedSize............................................................................................................................................10
SeedingRate......................................................................................................................................12
SeedTreatment.................................................................................................................................12
SeedInoculation................................................................................................................................13
TheDustingMethod..........................................................................................................................13
TheSlurryMethod.............................................................................................................................13
TheTwo—StepMethod.....................................................................................................................13
Fertility...............................................................................................................................................14
Varietyselection................................................................................................................................15
YieldPotential....................................................................................................................................16
Diseaseandpests..............................................................................................................................16
Chocolatespot(Botrytisfabae)..........................................................................................................16
Leafblight(Xanthomonascampestris,syn.Xanthomonasaxonopodis).............................................17
Bacterialbrownspot(Pseudomonassyringae)..................................................................................17
Powderymildew(Erysiphecichoracearum)......................................................................................17
Fusariumrootrot(Fusarium solani)...............................................................................................18
Blackbeanaphid(Aphisfabae)..........................................................................................................18
Weedcontrol.....................................................................................................................................20
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Harvest...............................................................................................................................................20
SeedStorage......................................................................................................................................21
Nutritionalvalueoffavabean...........................................................................................................21
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Favabeans;GrowersguideinNewEngland
Commonnamesfababean,favabean,broadbean,Windsorbean,Scotchbean,horsebean
Botanicalname.Viciafaba
Origin.CentralAsia
IntroductionFavabeanisacool-seasoncropthatgrowsbestintemperaturesrangingfrom60°to65°Fbutitcangrowinconditionsaslowas40°Fandashighas75°F.ThusfavabeanscanbeplantedinMassachusettsinthespringassoonasthesoilisworkableforearlyharvest.Favabeanvarietiesrequire80to100daystoreachharvest.InregionswithmilderwintersthanNewEngland,favabeansareplantedinearlyfallforwinter/earlyspringharvest.
FavabeanisnativetotheMediterraneanregion,includingItaly.Itisoneoftheoldestcultivatedplantsknown,withitscultureextendingbacktoprehistorictimes.CanadaandMexicoareperhapslargeproducersoffavabeaninNorthAmericasincethiscropgrowsandyieldsbestinareaswithcoolsummers.Minnesotaandthelakestatesproducesmallacreages.InCalifornia,favabeanisgrownasseedcropsalongthecoastfromLompoctoSalinasandintheNorthernSacramentoValley,butinotherareasofthestateitisgrownmostlyascovercrop/greenmanure.
Beingalegume,favabeanisabletofixatmosphericnitrogenandthereforeneedslessnitrogenfromfertilizersandsoilorganic.Favabeanseedsarerichinproteinandinculturesaroundtheworldthatusefavabean;theymakeupamajorsourceofproteinintheirdiet.
Dryfavabeancontainsabout24%protein,2%fat,and50%carbohydrate,andhasanaverageof700caloriesperserving.Itisalsousedinlivestockandpoultryrations.Morerecently,attentionhasbeengiventotheuseoffavabeanasalegumecovercrop.
Inmanyregionsfavabeanisconsideredasa"break"cropforcerealcropproductionbecauseitreducestheoccurrenceofcerealcystnematode(CCN)(Heteroderaavenae)whichisconsideredtobeamajordiseaseinmanyregions.Favabeantolerateswaterloggingbetterthanmanyothergrainlegumesincludingchickpeas(Cicer arietinum),fieldpeas(P. sativum sub sp. arvense (L.)),lupines(Lupinus albus L.) andlentils.Italsotoleratesacidicsoilsbetterthanotherleguminousgrains.Whenfreshpodsareharvested,theremainingresiduewhichcontainshighamountofnitrogencanbeusedasavaluablesourceoffeed,forlivestockorcanbereturnedtothesoiltoenhancesoilnaturalfertility.
GrowthandDevelopmentFavabeanisbushy,hardyannualwhichcangrowupto4feettall.Ithassquarestemswithleavesdividedintoleaflets.Podsare6to8incheslongandoftencontain3to6flat,ovalseedsthatcanbewhite,yellow,green,orpurple(Figure2).Favabeanhaswhiteflowerswithsomeblackorbrownspots.Inlarge-seededvarieties,1or2podsgrowateachnodewhereasinsmall-seededtypesthenumberofpodspernodecanbeashighasfive.Onaveragethereareabout15podsperstalkonlargetypesand60podsonsmall-seededvarieties.Whenstoredunderfavorableconditions,mostfavabeanseedswillremainviableforhavealifeexpectancyof3years.
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GerminationandEmergence
Inoptimumgrowingconditions,germinationoffavabeanseedstakeabout10to14days(Figure1).Itwilltakelongerindryorverycoldconditions.
Favabeanplantsgrowatarateofaround1nodeperweek.Becausestemsarestrongandupright,theplantcangrowfrom3to4½feet,talldependingonthevariety.Atthe8to10nodegrowthstage,whentheplantisaround12incheshigh,favabeanplantsproducetheirfirstflowers,usuallyinJune.Bothflowersandpodsappearabout8inchesabovetheground.Roughly25%oftheflowerswillproducepodswhichusuallycontainthreetosixseedsineachindividualpod(Figure2).
PollinationFavabeanisself-pollinationplantanddoesnotnecessarilyneedtheassistanceofpollinatorssuchashoneybees;however,someresearchershavefoundthathoneybeesandothernaturalpollinatorscanincreasepollinations.Favabean
Figure1.Favabeansseedlings
Figure2.Reproductivegrowthstagesoffavabean;a)flowerformation,b)podsreadyforharvest,andc)immatureseeds
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haslimitedabilityforself-pollination;therefore,itsflowersbenefitgreatlyfrominsectpollinatorsformaximumfruit-set.Introducingbeehives,atleastonehiveforeach6acresoffavabeanisgenerallyrecommendedforsuccessfulpollination.Favabeanflowersopeninmid-afternoonandcloseinearlyevening.Likeotherlegumes,theflowersareadaptedto'trip'whenvisitedbyapollinatorwhichdustspollenonthevisitor.Thistraitsuggeststhatcross-pollinationisdesirableinthiscrop.HoneybeesarecapableofpollinatingV.faba,butlargerbeesareevenmoreeffective(Figure3).Becausehoneybeeshavedifficultyreachingnectarinthefavabean,beekeepersmaywishtosupplementtheirhiveswithsugarsyrupwhiletheycollectpollenonthiscrop.Honeybeesareknowntobeeffectivepollinatorsoffavabeansinwarmerclimates,butitisnotclearhoweffectivetheyareintemperatezones.Itisalsopossiblethattheuseoftoomanyhivesmaybeunnecessary,astheplantswillonlysetfruitfromaportionoftheirflowersnomatterhowmanyarepollinated,andaborttherest.Plantsinsmallfieldsandthoseneartheedgesoflargefieldsaremoreproductive,demonstratingthevalueofwildpollinatorstothiscrop.
CultivationPracticesSoilstype
TheidealsoilpHforgrowingfavabeanrangesfrom6.0to6.5.Favabeandoesbestonwell-drainedsilt-loamsoils.LimeshouldbeappliedifpHlevelisbelow5.6.Sandyloamsarealsosuitablebutrequiremorefrequentirrigation.Thecropmaysuffermoisturestressinsoilsthatdryquicklybecausefavabeanhasrelativelyshallowroots.Favabeanseemstobetoleranttoshortperiodofwater-logging.Soiltemperature
Favabeanisacoolseasonlegumethereforeitgerminatesandgrowswellundercoolsoilconditions.Fieldsmaybeplantedassoonastheycanbeworkedon.DelayingplantingtillJunemayincreasetheincidenceofvirusorchocolatespotinfection.Theoptimaltemperatureforplantgrowthis59-68°F,especiallyduringthestagesofflowerandpoddevelopment.Favabeanflowerswillabortiftemperaturesexceed80°Fandtheyareparticularlysensitivetohot,dryconditionsduringpoddevelopment.Thus,prolongedcoolweatherinthespringisidealfordevelopmentofpods.
Irrigation
Favabeanrequiresanaverageannualrainfallof16inchesduringitsgrowth.Otherwise,itneedssupplementforirrigation.Soiltypedoesnotaffecttheamountoftotalwaterneededbutdoesdictatefrequencyofwaterapplication.Lightersoilsneedmorefrequentirrigation,butlesswaterappliedperapplication.Thetwocriticalirrigationtimesarefloweringandpodsetstages,bothofwhichareverysensitivetodroughtstressconditions.Ifusingoverheadirrigation,asopposedtodripirrigation,itisadvisabletoirrigatewhenit’ssunnytoallow
Figure3.Honeybeeispollinatingfavabeanflower
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plantleavestodryoffquicklybeforethedungoesdown.Thiswilllessenthepotentialinfectionofdiseases.
DateofPlantingWeatherconditionduringthevegetativegrowthisofgreatimportanceforthecompensatorycapacityoffavabeanandwillaffectthenumberofstemsperplant.Whenthereisalongergrowingseason,andgivenoptimumgrowingconditions,plantsgrownatlowdensitycaneffectivelycompensateforlowerplantpopulationsbydevelopingalargernumberofsidebranches.AlthoughweatherconditioninMassachusettsisquitedifferentintermsoftemperatureandday-lengthcomparedwithMediterranean-typeenvironment,favabeancanbegrownsuccessfullyifplantedasearlyasmid-MarchordelayeduntilearlyJuly.Ingeneral,earlierplantingoffavabeaninspring,whichexperiencelesshumidityandtemperature,oftenresultsinhigherpodyieldandfruitquality.Italsoprovidestheopportunityofdualpurposeproduction,bothascashcropandascovercrop.Earlyplantingalsoenablesfarmerstogrowtwocropsinonegrowingseason–theycangrowacropsuchasspinachorlettuceinthesamefieldbeforeplantingfavabeaninJuly.
MethodofPlantingTraditionally fava bean is seeded directly intothesoil.Howevertoensureearlyplantingitcanalsogrownindoorandtransplantedtothemainfield.
DirectSeedingFavabeanisacoolseasoncropandcantolerate150F.Conventionallyfavabeanseedisplanteddirectlyintothefieldatearliesttimeinspringwhensoilisworkable.Earlyplantingishighly
recommendedtoavoidchocolatespotwhichisfavoredbyhightemperaturesthatoccurinJulyandAugust.
TransplantingInsomeyears,soilandweatherconditionsdonotallowearlyplanting.Therefore,transplantingcanbeconsideredasanalternativemethodtoavoiddelayedplantingoffavabean.Sowingfavabeanseedsindoor(greenhouse)inlateMarchandtransplantingtheseedlingsintothefieldensuresitsearlyplantingwhichiscrucialforhealthyplantsandoptimumyield.Ourresearchindicatedthattheoptimumtemperatureforgrowingfavabeaningreenhouseis600Fandthebestdurationforgrowingseedlingspriortotransplantingisabout12-15days.Seedsshouldbeinoculatedwithproperrhizobiaanddonotneedanyadditionalfertilizertobeadded.Theyplantedinpro-mixsoilina1.25”cellsizetray.Favabeanseedsshouldbeplantedabout1inchdeep.Thedistancebetweenplantsonplantingrowsis6”whenrowwidthis30”and9”whenrowspacingis15”.Thisplantingarrangementprovidesabout28,000–30,000plantsperacre.Ourresearchindicatedthat15”rowsyieldbetterthan30”rowsasmuchas15%onaverage.SeedSizeSeedsizevariesgreatlyamongvarietiesandcultivarsoffavabean(Table1).Italsovarieswithpodlocationonthesameplant.Seedsareclassifiedaslarge(>1.0gseed−1),medium(0.5-1.0gseed−1)andsmall(<0.5gseed−1).Desiredpopulationdensityistraditionallydeterminedbyseedingratewhichisprimarilyrelatedtothenumberofseedsperunitweight(lb).Thereforeseedingrateofcultivarswithsmallerseedsizeissignificantlylowerthanthosewithlargerseeds.Plantbreedershaverecognizedtheimportanceoflargerseedintheproductionoffoodcrops
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andhavebeenbreedingforthetrait.Thegeneralconceptionisthatlargerseedsmayhavemorefoodreservesandthusgerminatefaster,quickerestablishment,andhigheryieldthansmallerseedswithinthesamevariety/cultivar.However,theuseofsmallseedscansignificantlyreducetheproductioncostsbyloweringtheamountofseedsneededperunitarea.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenfavabeanisgrownascovercroporasdualpurpose.Forcovercroppurposes,itisrecommendedtoplantsmallseededvarietieswhichcanbeseededat80lbacre-1asopposeto110lbacre-1whenWindsorvarietyisusedasavegetable.
WeusedWindsorvarietyinatwo-yearstudyandwefoundthatthereissignificantyielddifferenceamongseedsizes.Largeseeds(lowerpods)producedhigherpodnumberandout-yieldedsmallandmediumseedsize.
CurrentlyWindsoristhedominantvarietyavailableinNewEngland.Thecostofseedisrelativelyhigh(275seeds/lbwithaveragecostof3.0-3.5$/lb).Thereforethecostof28,000seedswouldberoughly$300-350peracre.Smallerseedsizevarietiesthereforearepreferableespeciallyiffavabeansaregrownascovercrop.Wealsofoundsignificantdifferencesinseedsizeamongfavabeanvarieties(Table1).Thosewithlargerseedsproducedmoreyieldthansmallseededvarieties.Howeverevenwithinavariety,seedsizemayvarysignificantly(Figure5).Thisismainly
becausethelowerpodswhichappearfirstonthepodsproducelargerseedsthanthoselocatedinthemiddleorupperpartsoftheplant.
Table1.Seedsizeandpodfreshweightofsomefavabeanvarieties.
Cultivar SeedSize(g/100seeds)
PodFreshWeight(lb/ac)
Aquadulce 265 15107a*
BellBean 51 3327c
D’Aquadulce 392 5549c
DelleCascine
335 15201a
Earlyviolletto
280 12059ab
Earlywhite 253 10581b
SweetLorane
68 1831c
Windsor 311 5144c*Those with the same letter are notsignificantlydifference.
Figure4.Transplantinganddirectseedingcanbeusedforplantingfavabean.
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SeedingRatePlantdensityaffectscanopydevelopment,radiationinterception,drymatterproduction,evapo-transpiration,weedcompetition,developmentofdiseases,plantheight,seedyield,andtheeconomicsofcropproductioninafarmingsystem.
Awiderangeofdensitiesoffavabeaniscommonlyused,from25,000-40,000plantsperacre,dependingonthecultivar(seedsize)andtheregion.Thus,forcrop-managementpurposes,referenceismadeonlytocultivarseedsizeregardlessofbotanicaltype.Asstatedearlier,favabeanvarietiesareclassifiedaslarge-seeded(>1.0gseed−1),medium-seeded(0.5-1.0gseed−1)andsmallseeded(<0.5gseed−1).Regardlessofseedsize,favabeanyieldincreaseswithpopulationandreachesitsmaximumyieldatdifferentplantpopulationsdependingonthesizeoftheseed;thesmallertheseed,thehighertheplantpopulationwouldbeneededtoreachitsyieldpeakataround30,000plantsperacre.Itmustbenotedthatfavabeantendstoproducelateralbranches(Figure6)inlowerpopulationswhichoftenarenotasproductiveasthemainstem.Thereforeseedingratesshouldbeadjustedforloweringthenumberoflateralbranches.Thereisacorrelationbetweenhigherseedingrateandhigherhumiditywithinthecanopy.Giventhefactthatfavabeanismoresensitivetodiseases
inhighhumidity,highpopulationsshouldbeavoided.Alsoifpossibleplantingshouldbearrangedwest-eastforbetterventilation.
Figure6.Lateralbranchformationsinfavabeangrown
withlowplantpopulation
SeedTreatment
Favabeanisalegumecropthereforeisabletofixasignificantamountofnitrogenthroughasymbioticrelationshipwithrhizobiumbacteria.
Thebacteriaentertheroothairsofthehostplantandinducenoduleformationonitsroots(Figure7).Thehostplantprovidesorganiccarbonandsugarstothebacterialivinginsidethenodulesandinreturnthebacteriaconvertsatmosphericnitrogenintoplant-useableformsofnitrogen.Maximumbenefitfromthissymbioticrelationshipoccurswhenavailablesoilnitrogenislowandthesoilmoistureandtemperaturelevelsareadequatefornormalseedlingdevelopmentfromthetimeofseedinguntilseedlingsarewellestablished.
Highlevelofnitrogeninthesoilpreventspropernodulationsincefavabeanplantswillpreferentiallyusethesoilnitrogenratherthanfixednitrogen.Rhizobiacanliveinthesoilforanumberofyears;however,themostefficientnitrogen-fixingbacteriamaynotbeamongthosethatsurvive.Favabeanseedsshouldbeinoculatedwith“R.leguminosarum bv. viciae”.Althoughrhizobiumbacteriaremainaliveupto3yearsinsoils,itisrecommendedtoinoculate
Figure5.VariationinseedsizewithinWindsorfavabean
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theseedseveryyearforachievingmaximumnitrogenfixation.
Growersshouldasktheseedcompaniesforthebestavailableinoculantswhenpurchasingtheirseeds.Inoculantsshouldbekeptdryandfreshandstoredproperly(Figure8).Agrow-outtestcanbedonetocomparethequalityofvariousinoculants.
SeedInoculation Farmersshouldcoattheirseedwithinoculantsjustbeforeplantingsothatlargenumbersofrhizobiawillbereadytostarttheinfectionprocessassoonasprimarytherootsemerge.Theserhizobiacanthenquicklyinfecttherootsandstarttheprocessofnodulation.
TheDustingMethod Frequentlyfarmersdonotuseanystickingagentsuchassugarsolution.Theysimplymixdrypowderedinoculantssuchasthepeat-basedtypewithdryseedwithoutusinganykindofliquid.Drydustingisthepoorestmethodofinoculationsincedryinoculantsdoesnotadherewelltoseed,andmostofitwillblowawayduringplanting.
TheSlurryMethod Seedcanbeinoculatedbycoatingthemwithslurryofinoculantsandstickersolution.Justbeforeplanting,mixpremeasuredamountsofstickersolutionandinoculantsthoroughlytomakesmoothliquidslurry.Addthistoaweighedamountofseedandstirthemixturecontinuouslyuntiltheseedisevenlycoated.Themixingcontainershouldbetwiceaslargeasthevolumeoftheseeds.Acementmixerisrecommendedforlargeamounts. Therateofstickersolutionmixedwiththeinoculantsdependsonthetypeofseedused.Smallerseedsrequiremorestickersolutionperseedweightthanlargerseedsbecausetheyhavealargersurfaceareatobecoated.Theslurryshouldbeaddedtotheseedsinsmallamountsbecausetoomuchstickersolutionwillcausetheseedstoclumptogetherorswell.Forallvarietyoffavabeans,5gofinoculantsshouldbeappliedforeach2lbofseeds.
TheTwo—StepMethod
Inthetwo-stepmethod,thestickerandinoculantsareappliedtotheseedseparately.Inthefirststep,seedsareevenlycoatedwiththestickersolution.Inthesecondstep,thepowderedinoculantsareaddedtothestickyseeds.About10timesasmanyrhizobiacanbeboundtoseedsbythetwo-stepmethodasbytheslurrymethod.Withthismethod,itisparticularlyimportanttousetheproperamountofsticker.
Figure7.Favabeanrootnodules
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FertilitySoiltestingishighlyrecommendedpriortoplantingfavabeanforspecificnutrientrecommendations.
Nitrogen:Applicationofnitrogenfertilizeroftenisnotrecommended,sincemuchoffavabeannitrogenrequirementcanbemetthroughnitrogenfixation.TherehasbeensomecontroversyaboutthebenefitsfromapplicationoflowlevelofnitrogenfertilizerasstarterwhichmayovercomeN-limitationsduringearlygrowthstagesbutapositiveyieldresponseisseldomobservedifthesoilcontainsmorethan20–30lbNac-1intheplowlayer.
Phosphorus:Favabeanisarelatively
highuserofphosphorus(Table2).Phosphorusfertilizershouldbebandedatplantingforvigorousearlyseedlinggrowth.Bandsshouldbelocated2to3inchestothesideand2to3inchesbelowtheseed.ItisrecommendedbandingastarterfertilizerthatishighinP.IfthePisverylow,itwouldberecommendedbroadcastingsothatphosphorusisevenlydistributedinthefieldforfutureplantings.
Potassium(K):Potassiumshouldbeappliedbeforeplantingorbandedatplantingtime.Amountsabove50K2Operacreshouldbebroadcastedandincorporatedintothesoil.Table2showstherecommendedrateofpotassiumapplicationatdifferentexistingsoillevels.
Table2.Recommendationforphosphorusfertilizerforfavabean
NitrogenLb/A
PhosphorusP2O5Lb/A
PotassiumK20Lb/A
Soiltestresult
VeryLow Low Optimum Above
Opt.VeryLow Low Optimum Above
Opt.Raterecomended
50 100 75 0-50 0 100 75 0-50 0
*AssumesextractionproceduressimilartothoseusedbytheUMasssoiltestingLaboratory.Specificinformationonsoiltestproceduresisavailableatwww.nevegetable.orgas“newEnglandvegetableguide,2015-2016.”
Figure8.AsampleoffavabeanInoculant
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ZINC(Zn):Whensoiltestindicateslessthan1ppmZn,aresponsetoZnisexpectedonallsoil.WhereZnisrequired,15lbofZnperacremayimprovegrowthandyieldoffavabeans.Abroadcastapplicationof15lbacre-1ofzincsulphateisrecommended.
VarietyselectionAswithothercrops,varietyselectionrequiresachievingabalancebetweenadaptabilitytoaspecificenvironment,diseasetolerance,and
marketability.Asmentionedearlier,favabeanvarietiesvarysignificantlyinseedsizeandcolour.Small-seededtypes(Viciafabavar.minor)maybecalledfavabeanortickbeanandarecommonlyusedforhumanconsumptionandanimalfeed.Mediumandlargesizeseedtypes(V.fabavar.major)alsocalledbroadbeanusedmorecommonlyasdryorgreenbeans.SelectvarietiestestedatUMassareshowninFigure8andtheirspecificationsarepresentedinTable3.
Table3.AgronomicanddiseaseguideforsomeFavabeansvarietiestestedatUMass
R=ResistantRMR=ResistanttomoderatelyresistantMR=moderatelyresistantMRMS=moderatelyresistanttomoderatelysusceptibleMS=moderatelysusceptibleMSS=moderatelysusceptibletosusceptibleS=SusceptibleSVS=SusceptibletoverysusceptibleVS=Verysusceptible
Variety Seed size Seed colour
Flowering time Maturity Chocolate spot
Aquadulce large light green early early MS
D’Aquadulce large dark green mid early MS
Bell Bean small light brown mid mid MRMS
Sweet Lorane small light brown late late MRMS
DelleCascine large light green early early MS
Early White med-large green late early MS
Early Violletto med-large purple early early S
Windsor large light green early early MRMS
Figure9.Selectvarietiesoffavabean
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YieldPotential
Seedyieldinfavabeanismostlydependentonenvironmentalfactorsandagronomicpracticesincludingdateofplantingandfertility.However,plantgeneticsalsocanplayamajorrole.Somevarietiesproducehigheryieldthanothers,whichisimportantforvarietyselection.Ingeneral,shorterseasonfavabeanproduceslightlylessyieldpotentialthanlongerseasonvarieties,butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Freshpodyieldvariesgreatlyandcouldbeashighas5tonsperacrewhengrownsolelyforfreshpods.
Diseaseandpests
Chocolatespot(Botrytisfabae) Thisdiseaseiscausedbyfungus.Longperiodsofhighhumidityandhightemperaturepromotetheswitchfromanon-aggressivephasetoanaggressivephaseofthedisease.Theaggressivephaseofthediseaseisfavoredalsobylowlevelsofpotassiumandphosphorusinthesoilandhighplantdensitywhichleadstomorehumidconditionswithintheplantcanopy.
SymptomsSymptomsfornon-aggressivechocolatespotincludesmallred-brownlesionsonleavesoftheplantwhichmayalsobepresentonstemsandpods.Underhightemperatureandhumiditythediseasemovestotheaggressivestageandlesionscoalesceandbecomecoveredbyfluffymyceliumandlargepatchesoftissuecanbecomenecroticanddie.
ManagementPreventionisthemosteffectivemanagementstrategy.Earlyplantingisrecommendedtoavoidhighhumidityandhottemperaturesinlatespringandearlysummer.Inaddition,appropriateplantspacingtoencourageaircirculationaroundtheplantsisalsoaneffectivemanagementtool.Foliarfungicideapplicationthroughouttheseasoncanalsobeeffective.
Figure10.Chocolatespot(Botrytisfabae)symptomonfavabeanleaves.
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Leafblight(Xanthomonascampestris,syn.Xanthomonasaxonopodis)
Thisbacterialdiseasecanbeintroducedbycontaminatedseedandoverwinteringbacteriaincropresidues.Thisdiseaseisfavoredbywarmtemperaturesandwet,humidconditions.
SymptomsWater-soakedspotsonleaveswhichenlargeandbecomenecrotic.Spotsmaybesurroundedbyazoneofyellowdiscolorationandlesionscancoalesceandgivetheplantaburntappearance.Deadleavesremainattachedtotheplantandcircular,sunken,red-brownlesionsmaybepresentonpods.Thelesionsonpodmayleakingoutduringhumidconditions.
ManagementUseofcleanseeds,resistantvarieties,seedtreatmentwithanappropriateantibioticpriortoplantingandsprayingplantswithanappropriateprotective,copper-basedfungicidebeforeappearanceofsymptomsareamongeffectivetreatments.
Bacterialbrownspot(Pseudomonassyringae)Thebacteriaover-wintersincropresiduesandismoreseverewhenthefoliageiswetforrelativelylongperiod.
SymptomsSmall,darkbrownnecroticspotsonleaveswhichmaybesurroundedbyanareaofyellowtissue,watersoakedspotsonpodswhichturnbrownandnecroticandpodsmaytwistanddistortinareaofinfection.
ManagementUseofcleanseeds,useofpropercroprotationandtheremovalofcropresiduesfromthefieldafterharvest.
Powderymildew(Erysiphecichoracearum)Fungusoverwintersonplantresiduesoralternatehosts.Diseaseemergenceisfavoredbywarm,dryweatherwithcoolnightsthatresultindewformation.
Figure11.Necroticfavabeanleavescausedbyleafblight(Xanthomonascampestris,syn.Xanthomonasaxonopodis).
Figure12.Bacterialbrownspot(Pseudomonassyringae)onbeans
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Symptoms
Yellowspotsonuppersurfaceofleaves,powderygray-whiteareaswhichcoalescetocoverentireplantandiftheplantisheavilyinfecteditmayappearlightblueorgrayincolor.
ManagementUseofresistantvarietiesandwhenpossibleuseofoverheadirrigationwhichwashesfungusfromleavesandreducesitsviability.Also,recommendedearlyplantingtoavoidhighairtemperatureandhumidity.Applicationofsulfur-basedpesticidesmayberequiredtocontrolheavyinfestations.
Fusariumrootrot(Fusarium solani)Damagecausedbytheemergenceofthefungusdiseaseisworsenedbywarm,compactedsoils,limitedsoilmoistureandpoorsoilfertility.
SymptomsStuntedplantgrowthandyellowing,necroticbasalleaves.Brown,redorblackstreaksonrootsthatcoalesceastheymatureandtheselesionsmayspreadabovethesoilline.
ManagementTheuseofcleanseedandnotplantingfavabeaninthesameareaformorethanfiveyearsinthesamefield.
Blackbeanaphid(Aphisfabae)
Blackbeanaphidscancauseseveredamagetofavabean.Distinguishingfeaturesincludethepresenceofcornicles(tubularstructures)whichprojectbackwardsfromthebodyoftheaphid;willgenerallynotmoveveryquicklywhendisturbed;transmitviruses.
SymptomsSmallsoftbodiedinsectsonundersideofleavesand/orstemsofplant;usuallygreenoryellowincolor,butmaybepink,brown,redorblackdependingonspeciesandhostplant;ifaphidinfestationisheavyitmaycauseleavestoyellowand/ordistorted,necroticspotsonleavesand/orstuntedshoots;aphidssecreteasticky,sugarysubstancecalledhoneydewwhichencouragesthegrowthofsootymoldontheplant.
ManagementIfaphidpopulationislimitedtojustafewleavesorshoots,thentheinfectedportionsof
Figure13.Bacterialbrownspot(Erysiphecichoracearum)onbeans
Figure14.Blackbeanaphid(Aphisfabae)onfavabeanplant
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theplantscanbeprunedouttoprovidecontrol.Whenusingseedlings,checkforaphidsbeforetransplanting;useofthosewithoutanyaphids.Reflectivemulchessuchassilvercoloredplasticcandeteraphidsfromfeedingonplants;sturdyplantscanbesprayedwithastrongjetofwatertoknockaphidsfromleaves;insecticidesare
generallyonlyrequiredtotreataphidsiftheinfestationisveryhigh-plantsgenerallytoleratelowandmediumleafinfestation;insecticidalsoapsoroilssuchasneemorcanolaareusuallythebestmethodofcontrol;Labelsoftheproductsshouldbecheckedforspecificusageguidelinespriortouse.
Table4.Favabeansdiseaseguidesummary*
Disease Organism Symptoms Occurrence Hosts Control Ascochyta blight
Ascochytafabae Large, light tan to grey lesions on leaves. Small black fruiting bodies develop within lesions. Centres of lesions may fall out, leaving holes in leaves. Sunken lesions on stem similar in colour to leaf lesions. Brown-black discolouration of grain.
Common in all fava bean growing areas in southern Australia. Most severe in wet seasons. Spores spread by wind and rain. Infected seed.
Fava bean, vetch.
Foliar fungicides. Resistant varieties. Crop rotation. Control volunteer plants. Clean seed.
Chocolate spot
Botrytis fabae Botrytis cinerea
Passive phase: small chocolate covered spots scattered over leaves. Aggressive phase: tissue around spots turn dark grey and black. Leaves die and blacken.
Occurs in all areas where beans are grown. Disease usually becomes established in late winter and becomes more severe as day temperatures increase during spring. Spores spread by wind and rain. Can destroy unprotected crops in wet seasons.
Fava bean, vetch, lentil, chickpea.
Foliar fungicides. Resistant varieties. Crop rotation. Control volunteer plants.
Cercospora leaf spot
Cercosporazonata Irregular black lesions, with a distinct margin on the leaf. Easily confused with Ascochyta or Chocolate spot but distinguished by the concentric pattern within lesions.
Occurs in all areas where beans are grown.
Fava bean, vetch.
Foliar fungicides.
Rust Uromyces viciae-fabae
Numerous small, orange-brown rust pustules, surrounded by a light yellow halo on the leaves of infected plants.
Most prevalent in northern Australia. Crops usually affected late in the season.
Fava bean, vetch.
Foliar fungicides. Crop rotation. Control volunteer plants.
Sclerotinia stem rot
Sclerotinia trifoliorum var. fabae, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Infection usually begins close to ground level and slimy wet rot extends into stem and down into the roots. Plants easily pulled from soil and have blackened base covered with cottony, white fungus growth. Usually isolated plants that suddenly
Rapid development of disease in wet, cool conditions. Foliar form of disease spread by air-borne spores. Fungus survives in the soil for many years.
Wide host range.
Crop rotation. Lower seeding rates, wider row spacing and good weed control.
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wilt and collapse. Sclerotia on surface and within stem turn from white to black.
Stem nematode
Ditylenchusdipsaci Patches of malformed and stunted plants with curling leaves and water-soaked spots. Stem may die back, turning reddish-brown colour.
Most severe in wet seasons. Nematode can survive many years in seed, straw or soil.
Fava bean, pea, oat, wild oat. Infected seed straw or soil.
Seed test. Crop rotation.
VIRUS DISEASES SCSV Subterranean
clover stunt virus Stunting, tip yellowing, small and thick leaves.
Prevalent in all bean growing areas, symptoms appear early on fava bean.
Sub clover, fava bean, lupin, lentil, chickpea, lucerne, soybean.
Managing aphids and weeds.
BLRV Bean leaf roll virus Interveinal yellowing, leaf rolling, stunting, leathery leaves.
Occurs in all bean growing areas.
The host range is limited to Fabaceae.
Managing aphids.
PSbMV
Pea seedborne mosaic virus
Can be symptomless or systemic dark and light-green leaf mottle, leaf margins upright leaf blade reduced in size. Seeds have brown rings or line patterns on surface.
Occurs in all bean growing areas.
Host range is limited to Fabaceae
Virus free seed is recommended. Managing aphids.
*Source:DEPI'sVictorianWinterCropSummary
Weedcontrol
Generallyfavabeanisapoorcompetitortoweeds,particularlyintheseedlingstageorundermoisturestresscondition.Appropriatecontrolofperennialweedsduringtheyearsprecedingfavabean,anduseofcleanseedsareimportantforsuccessfulproduction.
Post-emergentharrowingshouldbeavoidedduringcropemergenceorduringwetconditionorconditionsofheavydewtopreventthespreadoffungaldiseases.Harrowingcanoccurwhenseedlingsare6”high.Anincreasedseedingrateshouldbeconsideredtocompensateforthelossofcropseedlingsduringharrowing.Tineharrowsarethemosteffectiveacrossthedirectionofseedings.Bestweedcontrolwillbeobtainedbyharrowingonadryandsunnyday.
Apre-emergentburnoffapplicationofglyphosatewillhelpcontrolwinterannualandearlyemergingweeds.Productscontainingphenoxyherbicidessuchasdicambaor2,4-D
shouldnotbeusedbeforeorjustafterplanting.Favabeanissensitivetothesoilresiduesofanumberofherbicidesandshouldnotbeplantedinfieldswithahistoryoftheseproducts.Useofpropercroprotationcansignificantlyreduceweedpopulationsinfavabeanfield.Also,aspre-plantherbicide,amixtureofDualMagnum(12fl-oz)andTreflan4e(10fl-oz)couldbehelpful.
HarvestFavabeanisgrownforfreshpodharvestordrybeans.Whenharvestedforfreshpods,immature,lessstarchyseedsareusedforspecificrecipeswhilematurestarchygreenseedsareusedforotheruses.Greenseedscanbeconsumedfreshorbeingfrozenforfutureuse.Favabeanpodsmayalsobeharvestedafterthepodsaredriedforvariousrecipes.Inmanyfavabeanproducingregionsearlypodsareharvestedasfreshandremainderarebeingharvestedasdrybeans.Favabeanisanindeterminateplant;inotherwordstheplantcontinuouslyproducesflowers
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andpods.Flowersandpodsfirstappearonlowernodesusuallyabout6-9”abovetheground.Growersoftenharvestfavabeans2-3timeswhencropisgrownasfreshproduce.Freshpodsareusuallyharvestedwhentheseedshavereachedfullsizebutarestillgreen,thickandhaveaglossyshiningappearance(Figure15).Whenharvestedgreen,podsmaybesoldintactorasshelledproducteitherfreshorfrozen.
SeedStorage
Favabeanfreshpodsshouldbestoredat40to450Fandrelativehumidityof95%.Podsorseedslosemoisturerapidlyifnotproperlyprotectedbypackagingorbyalowerrelativehumidity.Whentherelativehumidityapproachessaturation,asinconsumerpackages,temperaturesabove440Fmustbeavoidedordecayislikelytobeseriouswithinafewdays.Forhomeconsumers,unshelledfavabeanscanbekeptintherefrigeratorforupto1week.Broadbeanscanbefrozen,canned,or
dried.Driedshelledfavabeanscanbestoredin
acooldryplacefor10to12months.
Nutritionalvalueoffavabean
Favabeanstubble/cropresidueofferssignificantvalueasasourceoffeedforgrazinganimals.Amajorportionofthevalueofstubbleliesinthegrainremainingafterharvestandnotinthedeadplant(leafandstem)material.Althoughthedeadplanthassomenutritivevalue,livestockselectthegrainfirstandonlyeatplantresidueswhengrainisnotavailable.
Figure15.Maturefavabeanpods
Figure16.Packagingoffavabeanforstorageormarketing
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Table5.Nutritivevalueoffavabeanper100g.(Source:USDANationalNutrientdatabase)
Principle NutrientValue
PercentageofRDA
Energy 341Kcal 15%Carbohydrates 58.59g 45%Protein 26.12g 46.5%TotalFat 1.53g 7%Cholesterol 0mg 0%DietaryFiber 25g 66%
Vitamins Folates 423µg 106%Niacin 2.832mg 18%Pantothenicacid 0.976mg 19.5%
Pyridoxine 0.366mg 28%Riboflavin 0.333mg 25%Thiamin 0.555mg 46.25%VitaminA 53IU 2%VitaminC 1.4mg 2%VitaminK 9µg 7.5%Electrolytes
Sodium 13mg 1%Potassium 1062mg 23%
Minerals Calcium 103mg 10%Copper 0.824µg 91%Iron 6.70mg 84%Magnesium 192mg 18%Manganese 1.626mg 71%Phosphorus 421mg 60%Selenium 8.2µg 15%Zinc 3.14mg 9%
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AdditionalResources
Bond, D.A. & Kirby, E.J.M. 1999. Anthophoraplumipes (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae) as a pollinator of broad bean (Viciafaba major). Journal of Apicultural Research 38:199-203.
Bond, D.A. & Pope, M. 1974. Factors affecting the proportion of crossbred and self-bred seed obtained from field bean (Viciafaba L.) crops. Journal of the Agricultural Society of Cambridge 83:343-351.
Crofton, G.R.A. 1996. A review of pollination and pod setting in faba beans(ViciafabaL.).PlantVarietiesandSeeds9:29-35.
Free, J.B. & Williams, I.H. 1976. Pollination as a factor limiting the yield of field bean (Viciafaba L.) Journal of the Agricultural Society of Cambridge 87:395-399.
Hebblethwaite, P.D., Scott, R.K., & Kogbe, J.O.S. 1984. The effect of irrigation and bees on the yield and yield components of Viciafaba L. In Hebblethwaite, P.D. et al. (eds.) Viciafaba: Agronomy, Physiology, and Breeding. MartinusNijhoff, The Hague.
http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/grains-and-other-crops/crop-production/growing-faba-bean.
https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/F7F82898C7044D4E9F01A56F3BBAD9D7.pdf.
McVetty, P. B. E. & Nugent-Rigby, J. 1984. Natural cross pollination of faba beans (Viciafaba L.) grown in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 64:43-46.
Mussalam, I.W., Haddad, N.J., Tawaha, A.R.M., & Migdadi, O.S. 2004. The importance of bee-pollination in four genotypes of faba bean (Viciafaba L.). International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 6:9-12.
Scott-Dupree, C.D., Winston, M., Hergert, G., Jay, S.C., Nelson, D., Gates, J., Termeer, B., & Otis, G. 1995.A guide to managing bees for crop pollination.Canadian Association of Professional Apiculturists, Aylesford NS.
Somerville, D.C. 1999. Honeybees (Apismellifera L.) increase yields of faba beans (Viciafaba L.) in New South Wales while maintaining adequate protein requirements from faba bean pollen. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 39:1001-1005.
Stoddard, F.L. & Bond, D.A. 1987.The pollination requirementsof the faba bean. Bee World 68:144-152.
CABI Crop Protection Compendium.(2013). Vicia faba datasheet. Available at:http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheet/56364.
Duke, J. A. (1983). ViciafabaL. Purdue University Center for New Crops and Plant Products.Availableat:http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/de....[Accessed 07 November 14]. Schwartz, H. F., Steadman, J. R., Hall, R. & Forster, R. L. (2005) Compendium of Bean Diseases.Availableat:http://www.apsnet.org/apsstore/shopap.
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Sattell, R., Dick, R. & McGrath, D. (1998). Fava Bean (Vicia faba L.).Oregon State University.Availableat:http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xml.