fashioning brazil: globalisation and the …...1 fashioning brazil: globalisation and the...
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Title Fas hioning Brazil: Glob aliza tion a n d t h e Re p r e s e n t a tion of Brazilian Dre ss in N a tion al Geog r a p hic
Type The sis
URL h t t p s://ual r e s e a r c ho nline. a r t s . ac.uk/id/e p rin t/121 1 1/
Dat e 2 0 1 6
Cit a tion Kut esko, Elizab e t h (201 6) Fas hioning Br azil: Glob aliza tion a n d t h e Rep r e s e n t a tion of Brazilia n Dre ss in N a tion al Geog r a p hic. P hD t h e sis, Cou r t a uld Ins ti t u t e of Art.
C r e a to r s Kut e sko, Elizab e t h
U s a g e Gui d e l i n e s
Ple a s e r ef e r to u s a g e g uid elines a t h t t p://u al r e s e a r c ho nline. a r t s . ac.uk/policies.h t ml o r al t e r n a tively con t a c t u al r e s e a r c honline@ a r t s. ac.uk .
Lice ns e: Cr e a tive Co m m o ns Att rib u tion N o n-co m m e rcial No De riva tives
U nless o t h e r wise s t a t e d, copyrig h t ow n e d by t h e a u t ho r
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FashioningBrazil:GlobalisationandtheRepresentationofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographic
(TwoVolumes)
ElizabethKutesko
DoctorofPhilosophyintheHistoryofArt
TheCourtauldInstituteofArt,UniversityofLondon
2
Abstract
Asapopular‘scientific’andeducationaljournal,NationalGeographic,sinceitsfoundingin1888,haspositioneditselfasavoiceofauthoritywithinmainstreamAmericanprintmedia,offeringwhatpurportstobeanunprejudiced‘windowontotheworld’.Previousscholarshiphasbeenquicktocallattentiontothemagazine’sparticipationinanimperialistrepresentationalregime.CatherineA.LutzandJaneL.Collins,TamarRothenbergandLindaSteethaveallarguedthatNationalGeographic’sdistinctive,quasi-anthropologicaloutlookhasestablishedhierarchiesofdifferenceandrenderedsubjectsintodehumanisedobjects,aspectacleoftheunknownandexoticother.AmorenuancedunderstandingcanbereachedbydrawinguponMaryLouisePratt’sconceptofthe‘contactzone’.Prattdefinedthecontactzoneas‘spaceswhereculturesmeet,clashandgrapplewitheachother,oftenincontextsofhighlyasymmetricalrelationsofpower’.PhotographssinceNationalGeographic’scentenaryeditioninSeptember1988havetracedthebeginningsofadifferentviewofencounterswithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone,drivenbytheforcesofglobalisation,whichhaveresistedtheprocessesofobjectification,appropriationandstereotypingfrequentlyassociatedwiththerectangularyellowborder.Thisisbecausetheyhaveprovidedevidenceofafluidandvariouspopulation,whichhasselectedandexperimentedwithpreferredelementsofAmericanandEuropeandress,andusedittofashiontheirown,distinctlyBrazilianidentities.
ThisthesiswillexamineboththevisualandtextualstrategiesthatNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil(thePortuguese-languageversionofthemagazine,establishedinSaoPauloinMay2000)haveusedtofashionBrazil,butalsotheextenttowhichBraziliansubjectscanbeseentohaveself-fashioned,throughthestrategicappropriationofclothingandideasderivedfromanexistinganddominantglobalculture.Itwillapproachdressnotsimplyasclothbutasasystemofcommunication,whosemanymeaningsarenotfixedbutcontinuallyinformedandtoanextent,evenperformed,byitsvisual,material,andtextualrepresentation.ThisthesisemploysamultidisciplinarymodeofanalysisthatdrawsonfiveBrazilianscholars,eachofwhomhaveuseddressandfashionmetaphorsintheirwritings,whichhaveencompassedpoetry,filmstudies,poststructuralisttheory,literarycriticismandanthropology.
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TableofContents
VOLUMEI
TitlePage p.1
Abstract p.2
TableofContents pp.3-5
ListofFigures pp.6-22
Acknowledgements p.23
Introduction.NationalGeographicasaContactZone. pp.25-61
‘L’OrigamiduMonde’:MakingContactwithNationalGeographic pp.30-35NationalGeographicasaContactZone pp.35-37Re-addressingPreviousAcademicContactwithNationalGeographic pp.37-40APhenomenologyofContactThroughDressandthePhotographicObject pp.41-44TheGlobalContactZonesince1988 pp.44-47SnapshotsoftheContactZone pp.47-49BrazilianAuto-EthnographyandStructureofChapters pp.50-54EnteringtheContactZone:ACommentonMethodologyandMyAuto-Ethnography pp.54-60ResearchQuestions pp.60-61PartOne.
Chapter1.Anthropophagy:theFirstHundredYearsofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographic. pp.
• Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’,April1926.• Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear,October1942.• Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaintand
BeadedNecklaces,September1971.
TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicOverOneHundred Years pp.62-64AnEthnographicGazeontheMakuinanAgeofPan-Americanism pp.64-67Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’ pp.68-77ADocumentaryGazeonSaoPauloduringWorldWarTwo pp.77-83Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear pp.83-88AnEthnographicGazeontheCintaLargasduringtheMilitaryRegime pp.88-91Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaintand BeadedNecklaces pp.92-102
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Chapter2.AestheticsofGarbage:GlobalisationandtheRepresentationofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographicsince1988. pp.103-143
• Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts,December1988.• Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianWoman’sLycraTopandDenim
Jeans,August2002.
TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicsince1988 pp.109-110BeyondtheYellowBorder:AHeightenedPhenomenologyofContact pp.110-117AnEthnographicGazeontheUrueu-Wau-Wauin1988 pp.117-123Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts pp.123-130ADocumentaryGazeonAfro-BrazilianSubjectsin2002 pp.130-136Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianWoman’sLycraTopandDenimJeanspp.136-143
Chapter3.SpaceIn-Between:BrazilianFashioninNationalGeographicsince2001. pp.144-186
• Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing,September2001.
• Snapshot7:BiancaMarque’sBikinisandVictorDenzk’sDresses,September2011.
NationalGeographicFashion:In-BetweenExoticSpectacleandCriticalRecognition pp.144-163Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing pp.163-163AFashionableGazeonBrazilianWomenin2011 pp.166-172Snapshot7a:BiancaMarque’sBikinisintheMagazine pp.172-177Snapshot7b:VictorDenzk’sDressesontheWebsite pp.178-186PartTwo:HoldingupamirrortoNationalGeographic. pp.187-189
Chapter4.MisplacedIdeas:BraziliandressasreflectedinthefirsttenyearsofNationalGeographicBrasil. pp.190-226
• Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth,July2000.
• Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion,February2001.
• Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta,June2008.
TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasilOverADecade pp.198-200
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ABrazilianGazeonNationalGeographicin2000 pp.200-203Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoinclothpp.203-206ADocumentaryGazeonAngolan-Braziliansin2003 pp.206-209Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallionpp.210-216APortraitureGazeonJapanese-Braziliansin2007 pp.216-218Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta pp.219-226 Chapter5.Mundialization:BraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil,August2013. pp.227-258
• Snapshot11:TheGuarani-Kaiowa’sWestern-styledressandFeatheredHeaddresses,August2013.
AnEthnographicGazeontheGuarani-Kaiowain2013 pp.233-236Snapshot11a:Magazine pp.236-245Snapshot11b:iPad pp.246-250Snapshot11c:Film pp.250-258Conclusion pp.259-280
VOLUMEII
Figures pp.281-349
ArchivesandMuseumCollections pp.350-370
Bibliography pp.371-393
ListofAppendices p.394
Appendices pp.395-588
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ListofFigures
Introduction
Fig.1.0AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,frontcover.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.1AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.158-159.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.2AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.160-161.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.3AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.160-163.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.4AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.160-165.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.5AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.160-166.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.6AuthorassemblingCyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,inthearticle‘HappyBirthday,NationalGeographic’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013/14,pp.160-167.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.7CyprienGaillard,Pop-UpArtwork,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,2013/4.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.1.8BrentStirton,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.34-35.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
Fig.1.9SteveMcCurry,EdKashi,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.36-37.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
Fig.1.10StephanieSinclair,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.76-77.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
Fig.1.11SteveMcCurry,WilliamAlbertAllard,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.78-79.
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(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
Fig.1.12LynseyAddario,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.94-95.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
Fig.1.13DavidGuttenfelder,NationalGeographic,October2013,pp.98-99.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
PartOne:
Chapter1.
Fig.2.0MapoftheroutefollowedontheAlexanderHamiltonRiceExpedition,1924-5publishedinCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.354.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.1CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.370.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.2CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.397.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.3CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.396.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.4AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.396-397.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.5AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.396-397.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.6A.H.Bruno,‘AirplanesaidexplorersinBrazil’,PopularMechanics,November1925,p.788.
(Image:PopularMechanicsDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.7AlexanderHamiltonRice,‘TheRioNegro,theCasiquiareCanalandtheupperOrinoco’,Sept1919-April1920,typescriptreadattheMeetingoftheRoyalGeographicSociety,21February1921,fromPapers,HamiltonRiceExpedition1919-1920.
8
(Image:photographtakenbyauthorattheRoyalGeographicalSociety,London,September2013)
Fig.2.8Advertisement,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.3.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.9Anonymous,RiodeJaneiro,1926,FOLDER016–DiversosAutores,InstitutoMoreiraSalles.
(Image:fromthecollectionoftheInstitutoMoreiraSalles,RiodeJaneiro)
Fig.2.10HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,p.523.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.11HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,Letter,18June1942,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.2.12HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,p.505.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.13AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyHenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,pp.504-505.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.14Advertisement,NationalGeographic,May1941,p.16.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.15HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,p.519.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.16HorstP.Horst.,PortraitofSenhoraAlziraVargasdoAmaralPeixote,inanon,‘SouthAmericanVisitors:FiveBeautifulNeighborsfromBrazil,PeruandtheArgentine…recentvisitorstotheU.S.,Vogue,July1941,p.22.
(Image:VogueDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.17Advertisement,Vogue,February1941,p.3.
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(Image:VogueDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.18Anon.,‘AVisitadoSr.PresidenteGetulioVargasaSaoPaulo’,EstadodeSaoPaulo,28April1940,p.7.
(Image:BritishLibraryNewspaperCollections)
Fig.2.19Detail,Anon.,‘AVisitadoSr.PresidenteGetulioVargasaSaoPaulo’,EstadodeSaoPaulo,28April1940,p.7.
(Image:BritishLibraryNewspaperCollections)
Fig.2.20AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyHenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,pp.518-519.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.21AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyHenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,pp.518-519.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.22HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,p.518.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.23MapofCintaLargaTerritorypublishedinW.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.426.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.24W.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.442-443.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.25AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyW.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.442-443.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.26JoseMedeiros,‘IndioXavante’,1949.
(Image:http://www.ims.com.br/ims/artista/colecao/jose-medeiros/obra/2140)
Fig.2.27HenriBallot,‘IndiosTxucarramães’,c.1953.
(Image:http://www.ims.com.br/ims/artista/colecao/henri-ballot/obra/9873)
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Fig.2.28W.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.440-441.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.2.29AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyW.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.440-441.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.2.30JohnDominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,Lifemagazine,12November1971,p.30.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratLibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.2.31AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyJohnDominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,Lifemagazine,12November1971,p.30.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.2.32JoanG.WallistoTheSecretaryNGS,Letter,29August1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.2.33JohnScofieldtoJoanB.Wallis[sic],Letter,20September1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.2.34JohnT.GosstoMelvilleB.Grosvenor,Letter,5October1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.2.35JonSchneebergertoJohnT.Goss,2November1971,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Chapter2.
Fig.3.0AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyWilburGarrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder’,NationalGeographic,174:6,(December,1988),pp.270-286
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
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Fig.3.1AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyWilburGarrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder’,NationalGeographic,174:6,(December,1988),pp.270-286
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.2AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyWilburGarrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder’,NationalGeographic,174:6,(December,1988),pp.270-286
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.3AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyWilburGarrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder’,NationalGeographic,174:6,(December,1988),pp.270-286
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.4AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyWilburGarrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder’,NationalGeographic,174:6,(December,1988),pp.270-286
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.5JosephR.JudgetoJohnMcPhee,Memorandum,12August1988,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.3.6JonSchneebergertoJeffreyLawson,Memorandum,22June1989,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517.
(Image:scannedmicrofichefileobtainedbyauthoratNationalGeographicSocietyArchive,WashingtonD.C.,June2013)
Fig.3.7W.JescovonPuttkamer,'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,p.804.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.3.8AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyLorenMcIntyre(withphotographsbyW.JescovonPuttkamer),'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,p.804.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.9W.JescovonPuttkamer,'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.812-813.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.3.10AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyLorenMcIntyre(withphotographsbyW.JescovonPuttkamer),'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.812-813.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.11AuthorviewingthebackcoverofNationalGeographic,December1988.
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(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.3.12Jean-PierreDutilleux,‘PrimalSting’,Vogue,June1988,p.244.
(Image:VogueDigitalArchive)
Fig.3.13BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.14Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.15Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.16Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.17Detail,BaianadressforsaleatMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro.(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratMercadãodeMadureira,RiodeJaneiro,May2014)Fig.3.18Anon,‘GuiasebaianasrecepcionamturistasquedesembarcamnoportodeSalvadorparaoCarnava’l[‘GuidesandbaianasreceivetouristswhodisembarkattheportofSalvadorforCarnaval’],TurismobahiaonInstagram,February2014.
(Image:http://instagram.com/p/lH8dWEBD5g/,accessedApril2014)
Fig.3.19DavidAlanHarvey,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,p.79.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.3.20AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyCharlesE.Cobb,(withphotographsbyDavidAlanHarvey),‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,pp.78-79.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.3.21MariStockler,imagefromMeninasdoBrasil[GirlsofBrasil],(SaoPaulo:Cosac&Naify,2001),takeninSalvadordeBahia,1996.
(Image:MariStockler)
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Fig.3.22ArthurElgort,imagefrom‘WhiteHeat’,Vogue,March2006,p.521.
(Image:VogueDigitalArchive)
Chapter3.
Fig.4.0AuthorviewingfrontcoverofNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001).
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.1AuthorviewingNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),pp.2-3.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.2AuthorviewingNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),pp.58-59.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.3AuthorviewingNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),pp.118-119.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.4AuthorviewingNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),pp.178-179.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.5AuthorviewingNationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),pp.12-13.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.6AuthorviewingbackcoverofNationalGeographicFashion,Newman,Cathyed.,(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001)
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.7Anon.,‘Global:Fashion’sSecondCircuit’,Women’sWearDaily,24July2001,pp.16-17.
(Image:Women’sWearDailyDigitalArchive)
Fig.4.8LorenMcIntyre,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.178.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.9LorenMcIntyre,‘Amazon–TheRiverSea’,NationalGeographic,October1972,pp.494-495.
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(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.4.10RobertW.Madden,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.12.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.11RobertW.Madden,‘Yanomamo,theTruePeople’,NationalGeographic,August1976,p.211.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.4.12MichaelNichols,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.13.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.13MichaelNichols,PhotographofYanomamiFatherandSon,1990.
(Image:http://www.natgeocreative.com/ngs/photography/search/comp-view/index.jsf)
Fig.4.14Advertisement,NationalGeographic,September2011,backcover.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthor,London,March2014)
Fig.4.15JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.98-99.
(Image:photographscannedbyauthor,London,March2015)
Fig.4.16JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.114-5.
(Image:photographscannedbyauthor,London,March2015)
Fig.4.17JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),pp.118-9
(Image:photographscannedbyauthor,London,March2015)
Fig.4.18AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyCynthiaGorney(withphotographsbyJohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.118-119.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.4.19AngeloPennetta,imagefrom‘TheFullBrazilian’,NewYorkTimesTStyleHolidayMagazine,December2011,p.169.
(Image:BritishLibraryNewspaperCollections)
15
Fig.4.20JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),n.p.
(Image:screengrabfromhttp://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/stanmeyer-photography#/08-fashion-boutique-670.jpgtakenbyauthor,London,July2014)
Fig.4.21AuthorviewingtheonlinearticlebywrittenbyCynthiaGorney(withphotographsbyJohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
PartTwo:
Chapter4.
Fig.5.0DeborahReis,‘FelizNatal’[‘HappyChristmas’],DeborahReisonFacebook,12December2014.
(Image:https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10205506497210490&set=pb.1493261988.-2207520000.1432288715.&type=3&theater,accessedDecember2014)
Fig.5.1Advertisement,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.2-3.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.2Advertisement,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,p.169.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.3Advertisement,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,p.13.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.4CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.398.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.5MarinaMoraes,(fotosdeCapitãoAlbertW.Stevens),‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde.Formigasgigantes,onçasàespreita,piranhas,corredeiras,mosquitos,malaria.AsdescobertaseossustosdeumaexoediçãodehidroaviãoàAmazônicaem1924’[‘BigReports:thelandisgreen.Giantants,jaguarslurking,piranhas,rapids,mosquitoes,malaria.ThefindingsandthescaresofanexpeditionbyhydroplanetotheAmazonin1924’],NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.156-157.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
16
Fig.5.6AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.398-399.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.5.7AuthorviewingarticlewrittenbyCaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.398-399.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,March2014)
Fig.5.8CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.397.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.9RicardoBeliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio.FugitivosdaGuerraemseupais,imigrantesdeAngolavivemhojeemcounidadenocentrovelhodoRiodeJaneiro–onde,háumsécolo,influênciasafricanasgerminaramosambacarioca’[‘LittleAfrica:LivinginacommunityinRiodeJaneiro,peoplefromAngolarecreatetheenvironmentwheresambaandcarnivalwereborn.],NationalGeographicBrasil,February2003,pp.116-117.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.10MarcioScavone,‘OrientePróximo:NoBairrodaLiberdadeemSãoPaulo,resideoespiritodes100anosdaimigraçãojaponesanoBrasil[‘NearEast:InLiberdadeinSãoPaulo,thespiritof100yearsofJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazilresides’],NationalGeographicBrasil,June2008,pp.42-43.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.11MarcioScavone,‘OrientePróximo:NoBairrodaLiberdadeemSãoPaulo,resideoespiritodes100anosdaimigraçãojaponesanoBrasil[‘NearEast:InLiberdadeinSãoPaulo,thespiritof100yearsofJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazilresides’],NationalGeographicBrasil,June2008,pp.48-49.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.12MarcioScavone,‘OrientePróximo:NoBairrodaLiberdadeemSãoPaulo,resideoespiritodes100anosdaimigraçãojaponesanoBrasil[‘NearEast:InLiberdadeinSãoPaulo,thespiritof100yearsofJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazilresides’],NationalGeographicBrasil,June2008,pp.54-55.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.5.13YukataforsaleinshoponRuaGalvãoBueno,inLiberdade,SaoPaulo.(Image:photographtakenbyauthorinLiberdade,SaoPaulo,May2014)
Fig.5.14GetaforsaleoutsideshoponRuaGalvãoBueno,inLiberdade,SaoPaulo.(Image:photographtakenbyauthorinLiberdade,SaoPaulo,May2014)
17
Fig.5.15MarcioScavone,‘MissTanabata’,Print,2007.
(Image:takenbyauthoratSandraHigginsFineArtGallery,London,December2014)
Fig.5.16MarcioScavone,‘OCalendario’,Print,2007.
(Image:takenbyauthoratSandraHigginsFineArtGallery,London,December2014)
Chapter5.
Fig.6.0PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.126-127.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilArchive,SaoPaulo)
Fig.6.1PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.126-127.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilArchive,SaoPaulo)
Fig.6.2PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.120-121.
(Image:photographtakenbyauthoratNationalGeographicBrasilArchive,SaoPaulo)
Fig.6.3PauloSiqueira,Untitled,Photograph,2013.
(Image:PauloSiqueira)
Fig.6.4PauloSiqueira,Untitled,Photograph,2013.
(Image:PauloSiqueira)
Fig.6.5PauloSiqueira,Untitled,Photograph,2013.
(Image:PauloSiqueira)
Fig.6.6PauloSiqueira,Untitled,Photograph,2013.
(Image:PauloSiqueira)
Fig.6.7PaulPatrickBorhaug,‘ONGassociaaltataxadesuícidioentreíndiosjovensaproblemasfundiários’,EstadãodeSaoPaulo,9October2013.(Image:http://politica.estadao.com.br/blogs/roldao-arruda/ong-associa-alta-taxa-de-suicidio-entre-indios-jovens-a-problemas-fundiarios/,accessed17February2015)
18
Fig.6.8AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyNadiaShiraCohen,(withphotographsbyPauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)
Fig.6.9AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyNadiaShiraCohen,(withphotographsbyPauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)
Fig.6.10AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyNadiaShiraCohen,(withphotographsbyPauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)
Fig.6.11PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.12AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyNadiaShiraCohen,(withphotographsbyPauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)
Fig.6.13AuthorviewingthearticlewrittenbyNadiaShiraCohen,(withphotographsbyPauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)
Fig.6.14PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
19
Fig.6.15PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.16PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.17AuthorviewingthefilmproducedbyNadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,entitled‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,includedin‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,May2015)
Fig.6.18FilmStill,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,0.03.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.19FilmStill,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,0.09.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.20FilmStill,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,0.18.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.21FilmStill,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,0.22.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.22FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),01.26.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
20
Fig.6.23FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),01.32.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.24FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),01.34.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.25FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),01.40.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.26FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),02.04.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.27FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),03.11.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.28FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),03.36.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.29FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),104.45.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.6.30FilmStill,MarchoBechis,Birdwatchers(ItalyandBrazil:ArtificialEye,2008),105.48.
(Image:takenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Conclusion.
Fig.7.0CaptainAlbertW.Stevens,'ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.397.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.1HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,p.519.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
21
Fig.7.2W.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,p.440-441.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.3W.JescovonPuttkamer,'LastDaysofEden:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.812-813.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.4DavidAlanHarvey,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,p.79.
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.5MichaelNichols,NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonD.C.:NationalGeographicSociety,2001),p.13.
(Image:photographtakenbyJonathanVickers,London,February2014)
Fig.7.6JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),pp.118-9
(Image:photographscannedbyauthor,London,March2015)
Fig.7.7JohnStanmeyer,‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,NationalGeographic,220:3,(September,2011),n.p.
(Image:screengrabfromhttp://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/stanmeyer-photography#/08-fashion-boutique-670.jpgtakenbyauthor,London,July2014)
Fig.7.8MarinaMoraes,(fotosdeCapitãoAlbertW.Stevens),‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde.Formigasgigantes,onçasàespreita,piranhas,corredeiras,mosquitos,malaria.AsdescobertaseossustosdeumaexoediçãodehidroaviãoàAmazônicaem1924’[‘BigReports:thelandisgreen.Giantants,jaguarslurking,piranhas,rapids,mosquitoes,malaria.ThefindingsandthescaresofanexpeditionbyhydroplanetotheAmazonin1924’],NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.156-157.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.9RicardoBeliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio.FugitivosdaGuerraemseupais,imigrantesdeAngolavivemhojeemcounidadenocentrovelhodoRiodeJaneiro–onde,háumsécolo,influênciasafricanasgerminaramosambacarioca’[‘LittleAfrica:LivinginacommunityinRiodeJaneiro,peoplefromAngolarecreatetheenvironmentwheresambaandcarnivalwereborn.],NationalGeographicBrasil,February2003,pp.116-117.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.10RobertW.Madden,‘Yanomamo,theTruePeople’,NationalGeographic,August1976,p.211.
22
(Image:NationalGeographicDigitalArchive)
Fig.7.11PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.126-127.
(Image:NationalGeographicBrasilArchive,SaoPaulo)
Fig.7.12PauloSiqueira,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindígena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,digitaledition,August2013,n.p.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
Fig.7.13FilmStill,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueirainassociationwithPlanetaSusteneval,‘Hopeless:thegovernmentneitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’,0.09.
(Image:screengrabtakenbyauthor,London,May2015)
23
Acknowledgements
Ihavecomeintocontactwithnumerouspeopleduringthethreeyearperiodspentresearchingandwritingthisthesis,whichwasgenerouslyfundedbytheAHRC.Firstandforemost,IwouldliketothankDrRebeccaArnold.Ihavebenefitedgreatlyfromhercriticaladvice,support,enthusiasmandfriendshipthroughout.
InWashingtonD.C.,IwouldliketorecordmythankstothefollowingatNationalGeographic:ReneeBraden,SusanWelchman,CathyNewman,CynthiaGorney,JohnStanmeyer,AnnieGriffithsBelt,andAmyKolczak(inadditiontopart-timecontributors,ValerieMendesandProfessorJoanneEicher),butparticularlytoHeidiSchultz,whowassointerestedintheproject,andputmeintouchwithcolleaguesinSaoPaulo.
InSaoPaulo,IwouldliketothankthefollowingatNationalGeographicBrasil:RonaldoRibeiro,RobertoMatsui,MatthewShirts,RicardoBeliel,MarcioScavone,NadiaShiraCohenandPauloSiqueira,whoweresorelaxed,helpfulandunremittinglyenthusiastic.ThankyoutoPedroFelipeattheMuseudoFutebol,whoshowedmesomefantasticphotosfromtheinaugurationofPacaembuStadium.
InRiodeJaneiro,IhadusefulandinterestingconversationswithMariStockler,DeborahReisandVincentRosenblatt.JoannaattheInstitutoMoreiraSalleswasalsoveryhelpful,aswellasstaffattheBibliotecaNacional.ThankyoutoAmandaCalazans,whohelpedmewithmytranslations,andsavedmewhenmyaccommodationinPavãoPavãozinhoencountereddifficulties.
InGoiana,IwouldliketothankDrRitaAndradeforinvitingmetogiveapapertoherstudentsatPUCandforsharingideas,inadditiontoProfessorPauloCesar,attheJescovonPuttkamercollection.
IamalsoverygratefultoVirginiaRounding,forherthoughtfulandcriticalcomments,andcontinuedsupportandadvice.ThankyoutoJonathanVickersforencouragingmetolook,andtothink,inamorenuancedlight,andforofferingadviceonpreviousdrafts.Iwanttothankmyparents,forallowingmetoseekrefugeoutofLondon,andtheCourtauldSlideLibrary,forprovidingacalmhaveninLondon.
Finally,IwouldliketoexpressmythankstoJohnHemmingwhopointedmeinanumberofhelpfuldirections,butalsocastdoubtonthemeritofthisstudy.Hespurredmeontoprovetheopposite!
24
ForDziadek
(8thJuly1925–26thOctober2014)
25
Introduction.NationalGeographicasaContactZone.
Asapopular‘scientific’andeducationaljournal,NationalGeographichasself-
consciouslypositioneditselfasavoiceofauthoritywithinmainstreamU.S.print
media,offeringwhatpurportstobeanunprejudiced‘windowontotheworld’.In
recentyears,academicscholarshiphascritiquedthemagazine’squasi-anthropological
outlook,fororganisinghierarchiesofrace,gender,sexualityandidentityand,under
theguiseofobjectivescience,pursuingaformofU.S.-drivenculturalimperialism.1
NationalGeographicunquestionablyconstitutesafascinatingresource,yettobe
seriouslyexaminedbyscholarship,ontheglobaluseofdressandfashiontoconstruct
andperformindividual,social,cultural,nationalandinternationalidentities.Despitea
growingnumberofinterdisciplinaryandcross-culturalexaminationsof‘non-Western’
dressandfashionsincetheearly1990s,thatdressandfashionhistoriansareyetto
conductanin-depthanalysisofNationalGeographiccanbeunderstoodaspartofa
1ThefourkeycriticalmonographsonNationalGeographictodatethatwillbeaddressedintheintroductiontothisthesisare:CatherineA.LutzandJaneL.Collins,ReadingNationalGeographic(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1993);LindaSteet,VeilsandDaggers:ACenturyofNationalGeographic'sRepresentationoftheArabWorld(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2000);TamarY.Rothenberg,PresentingAmerica'sWorld:StrategiesofInnocenceinNationalGeographicMagazine,1888-1945(Aldershot:AshgatePublishing,2007);StephanieL.Hawkins,AmericanIconographic:NationalGeographic,GlobalCulture,andtheVisualImagination(Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginiaPress,2010).OthercriticalstudiesofNationalGeographichaveincluded:PhilipJ.Pauly,'TheWorldandAllThatisInIt:TheNationalGeographicSociety,1888-1918',AmericanQuarterly,31.4(1979),517-32(p.523);HowardS.Abramson,NationalGeographic:BehindAmerica’sLensontheWorld(NewYork:CrownPublishers,1987);JoanGeroandDoloresRoot,'PublicPresentationsandPrivateConcerns:ArchaeologyinthePagesofNationalGeographic',inThePoliticsofthePast,ed.byPeterGathercoleandDavidLowenthal(London:UnwinHyman,1990),pp.19-37;LisaBloom,‘ConstructingWhiteness:PopularScienceandNationalGeographicintheAgeofMulticulturalism’,Configurations,2.1(1994),15-32;AlisonDevineNordstrom,‘WoodNymphsandPatriots:DepictionsofSamoansinTheNationalGeographicMagazine’,VisualSociology,7.2(1992),49-59;JulieA.Tuason,‘TheIdeologyofEmpireinNationalGeographicMagazine’sCoverageofthePhilippines,1898-1908’,GeographicalReview,89.1(1999),34-53;SusanSchulten,TheGeographicalImaginationinAmerica,1880-1950(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2001);RadhikaParameswaran,‘LocalCultureinGlobalMedia:ExcavatingColonialandMaterialDiscoursesinNationalGeographic’,CommunicationTheory,12.3(2002),287-315;DavidR.Jansen,‘AmericanNationalIdentityandtheProgressoftheNewSouthin“NationalGeographicMagazine”’,GeographicalReview,93.3(2003),350-69;RobertM.Poole,Explorer’sHouse.‘NationalGeographic’andtheWorlditMade(NewYork:Penguin,2004).
26
largerscholarlytendencytoprivilegeenquiriesinto‘Western’highfashion.2A
revisionistexaminationofNationalGeographicneedstobridgethisperceivedgap
betweentheWestandthenon-West.3Itneedstoconsider,firstly,whatthemagazine
cantellusaboutthedressandfashionchoicesoftheindividualsubjectsrepresented
andtheirinteractionswithglobalculture.Secondly,andofequalimportance,itneeds
toscrutinisethemagazine’sownrepresentationalagenda,andconsiderhowthe
magazinemayhaveuseddresstofashionanideaofthedifferentpeoplesandplaces
represented.
ThisthesiscontributestowideningacademicresearchonNationalGeographic,
conductedsofarbysociologists,anthropologists,feministsandpostcolonialtheorists.
ThesescholarshaveequatedthegazeofNationalGeographicwithmasculine,
imperialistpower,butfailedtoacknowledgethefundamentalsocial,cultural,
economicandpoliticalrolethatdresshasplayedwithinphotographsandtext
publishedwithinthemagazine,whetherasaformofsubmission,orcrucially,of
resistance.Thisthesisusesaninterdisciplinaryframework,developedfrommy
perspectiveasadresshistoriantrainedinarthistory,tointerrogatepreviousacademic
scholarshiponNationalGeographic.Brazilhasbeenchosenasacasestudytofocus2Threenotableexamplesofinterdisciplinaryandcross-culturalexaminationson‘non-Western’dressandfashionthathavebeeninfluentialtothisthesisare:JenniferCraik,TheFaceofFashion:CulturalStudiesinFashion(London:Routledge,1993);MargaretMaynard,DressandGlobalisation(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2004);SusanB.Kaiser,FashionandCulturalStudies(London:Berg,2012).3Iamawareofthepitfallsofemployingthegeneralisedandambiguousterms,Westernandnon-Western,whicharecentreduponadichotomythatimpliestheWestisthestandardbywhicheverythingelseismeasured.TheseconceptsareparticularlyunhelpfulandreductivewithinthecontextofLatinAmericawhich,geographically,iscertainlyaWesternlandmass,butalsogiventhemultipleandinterconnecteddressandfashionsystemsthatco-exist,interactandcompetethroughouttheworld.Nevertheless,intheabsenceofmoreappropriateterminology,forthepurposesofthisthesisIusetheterm‘Western’toreferbroadlytoculturalandsartorialsystemsthathaveemergedfromtheUnitedStatesandWesternEurope.Ihopethatreaderswillunderstandwhatismeantbythisusage,ratherthanenterintoanideologicalandsemanticdebatethatisbeyondtheconfinesofthisthesis.SarahCheangengageswithsimilarissuesinherexaminationofexoticlocationfashionshootsproducedbyPatrickDemarchelier,MarioTestinoandTimWalker,andpublishedinBritishVoguesincethemid-2000s.SarahCheang,‘‘ToTheEndsoftheEarth’:FashionandEthnicityintheVogueFashionShoot’inFashionMedia:PastandPresent,ed.byDjurdjaBartlett,ShaunColeandAgnesRocamora(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2013),pp.35-45.
27
andsharpenacross-culturalanddress-historicalanalysisofNationalGeographicand
Braziliansubjectsrepresentedwithinit.BrazilisoftenportrayedinmainstreamU.S.
fashionmediathroughrecurringstereotypesthatfocusonCarnival,samba,andthong
bikiniswornonCopacabanabeach,buttheseexoticimagesofculturaldifferencefail
toappreciatetheinternalsubtletiesofthecountry’sracial,religious,social,cultural,
geographicalandsartorialdiversity.4ThedevelopmentofBraziliandressandfashion
reflectsalonghistoryofcross-culturalcontact,slaveryandimmigration,inacomplex
andfluidprocessbywhichBrazil,nowthefifthlargestandfifthmostpopulouscountry
intheworld,hassinceitscolonisationbythePortuguesein1500absorbedbutalsore-
interpretedmultipleinfluencesthatstemfromitsindigenouspopulations,aswellas
fromEurope,Africa,AsiaandtheUnitedStates.
ThehistoryofBrazilembodiestheslipperinessofthetensionsbetweenthe
Westernandthenon-Western,andraisesinterestingquestionsabouthowNational
Geographichasarticulatedarecognisableimageofthecountrywithinitspages.5In
geographicalterms,BraziliscertainlyaWesternnation.Moreover,itisaffiliatedwith
theWestintermsofitsdevelopingfree-marketeconomy,itslargeexportsuppliesof
rawmaterialsandmanufacturedgoods,itstransitiontoademocraticconstitution
followingtheendoftheauthoritarianmilitaryregimein1985,itshighcultural
institutions,anditsadoptionofChristianityandthePortugueselanguage.Brazilalso
enjoysaregionalhegemonicinfluenceinLatinAmericathatraisesdoubtabout
4RitaAndradeandReginaRoot,‘Dress,BodyandCultureinBrazil’,<http://www.bergfashionlibrary.com/viewencyclopedia/bewdf/BEWDF-v2/EDch2064.xml>[accessed21May2015]5AlthoughBrazilhasmanyaffinitieswiththeUnitedStates,intermsofitsvastterritoryintheWesternhemisphere,anditsracial,ethnicandculturalmultiplicityasaresultofEuropeancolonialconquest,slaveryandimmigration,makingasustainedcomparisonbetweenthetwoisnottheconcernofthisthesis.
28
simplisticassertionsofU.S.culturalimperialism.6However,Brazilmightstillbe
consideredanon-Westernnationwithregardtoitsincompleteinfrastructure,
socioeconomicdisparities,unequaldistributionofwealthandland,poorstandardsof
publichealth,anditspopularandmaterialculturewhichconstitutes,asDavidHess
andRobertoDaMattahavesuccinctlyarticulated,auniquesiteinwhich‘Western
culturehasmixedandmingledwithnon-Westernculturesforcenturies’.7Brazilcan
thusbeunderstoodasamicrocosmoftheworldasawholeandassuch,justas
NationalGeographichasattemptedtoencapsulatewithinitspages,‘TheWorldandAll
ThatIsInIt’,providesarevealingcasestudythroughwhichtoexaminehowglobal
identitieshavebeenasserted,negotiatedandre-negotiatedinthemagazinethrough
therepresentationofBraziliandressandfashion.8Thesefluidintersectionsand
entanglementshaveparticularrelevanceinthetransitionalpost-1988timeframe
underexamination,andofferthepotentialforthediversitythatisevidentwithin
Brazilianborders,tocastalightuponNationalGeographic’ssearchfordifference
acrossnationalboundaries.9
6In1991JosephD.StraubhaarexaminedtheeffectsofU.S.mediaexpansionandusedtheterm‘asymmetricalinterdependence’todescribethemultiplerelationshipsthatexistbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStates,whichhavemovedbeyondmediaimperialism,andtowardsdifferentiateddegreesofsharedcultural,economicandpoliticalpower.Hisargumentwascentreduponanunderstandingofmediaaudiencesascriticalandactiveparticipants,ratherthanpassiveanddominated.Theirinterpretationswerenonethelessconditionedbytheirgender,class,age,politicalviewsandinterests.JosephD.Straubhaar,‘BeyondMediaImperialism:AsymmetricalInterdependenceandCulturalProximity’,CriticalStudiesinMassCommunication,8(1991),39-59.7DavidJ.HessandRobertA.DaMatta,‘Introduction’inBrazilianPuzzle:CultureontheBorderlandsoftheWesternWorld,ed.byHessandDaMatta(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1995),p.2.8AlexanderGrahamBellquotedinPauly,'TheWorldandAllThatisInIt’,p.523.9Thistimeframe,andmyuseofBrazilasacasestudy,arebothvastlyunderrepresentedinNationalGeographicscholarship.Theonlycommentmadetodateonthemagazine’srepresentationofBrazilwasprovidedbyCatherineLutzandJaneL.Collinsin1990,whoarguedthat,asinmuchpopularmedia,Brazilisrepresentedas‘akindofsisterstatetotheUnitedStates,completewiththesamevastarea,wealthofresources,frontierwithIndians,andmuchimmigration[…]Brazil’sexperienceisidentifiedwiththatoftheUnitedStatesbutthendistinguishedfromit.Aswithmanyothercountriesinthepopularimagination,theirpresentisourpast.’ThecomparisonsbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazilinNationalGeographichavenotbeensosystematicasLutzandCollinsimplybut,rather,havebeenusedatkeymomentstohighlightthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwocountries,inattitudes,interests,dressand
29
Thisintroductionwilloutlinethetheoreticalframeworkandresearch
methodologiesthatwillbeusedtoknitthefabricofthisthesistogether.Itbeginswith
anexaminationofFrenchartistCyprienGaillard’spop-upartwork,‘L’Origamidu
Monde’,whichwaspublishedin032cinOctober2013tocoincidewithNational
Geographic’s125thanniversary.10Gaillard’sartworkwillbeusedtocasta
contemporarylightonNationalGeographicandprovideabriefhistoryofthe
developmentofthemagazinesinceitwasestablishedin1888.NationalGeographic
willbeconceptualisedasa‘contactzone’,atermcoinedbyMaryLouisePratt,an
AmericanscholarofSpanishandPortugueseLanguagesandLiterature,todescribea
spaceinwhichdifferentculturescomeintocontactwithoneanotherandestablishon-
goinginteractions.11Acriticalassessmentwillbemadeoftheimportantprevious
scholarshipconductedonNationalGeographicwhichthisthesisexpandsupon.My
modusoperandi,however,istooutlinetheoriginalavenuesofcritiqueanddiscussion
providedbyaphenomenologicalapproachtowardsdressanditsvisual,textualand
materialrepresentation.Iwillunpickwhythetransitionalpost-1988timeframe,which
coincideswithNationalGeographic’scentennial,hasbeenselectedasthefocusforan
examinationofthemagazine.Iexplainthe‘snapshot’approachthatwillbeused
throughouttozoominandfocusonmycentralcasestudies,whichre-enacteleven
particularlychargedandcomplexcross-culturalencountersinthefabricofNational
GeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil’srepresentationofBraziliandress.Iwill
deportment,aspartofaspecificrepresentationalagendathathasdrawnparallelswithcontemporarygovernmentpolicy.LutzandCollins,ReadingNationalGeographic,p.125.Theonlycommentmadetodateonthemagazine’srepresentationofglobalculturehasbeenbyRadhikaParameswaran,whomadeacasestudyoftheAugust1999millenniumissue.Sheusedasemiotic,feministframeworktomakeacritiqueof‘theGeographic’sdiscursivestrategies,whichfocusesattentionontheintricate,hierarchicalstructuresofgender,race,andclassthatbecameentangledwiththemagazine’sneocolonialrenderingofglobalculture’.Parameswaran,‘LocalCultureinGlobalMedia’,p.288.10CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c,Autumn/Winter2013,pp.160-67.11MaryLouisePratt,ImperialEyes:TravelWritingandTransculturation,2ndedn(NewYork:Routledge,2008),p.8.
30
define‘auto-ethnographicexpression’,abroadtermusedtodescribehow
ethnographicsubjectsuseculturalexpressionstoconstructadialogueinresponseto
theirethnographicrepresentationbyadominantculture.12Themultifariousand
contradictorynatureofdressdemandsaninterdisciplinarymethodologicalapproach
thatcanreviseacceptedandone-dimensionalhistoriesofNationalGeographic,
providedbyboththemagazineandpreviousscholarship.Inthisvein,Ioutlinethe
theoriesofthefivemultidisciplinaryscholarswhoseconcernwithauto-ethnography
andtheconstructionofBrazilianidentityinformsthefivechaptersofthisthesis.I
moveontoacknowledgemyownauto-ethnographyastheauthorofthisthesis,and
commentupontheself-reflexivemethodologythatisusedthroughout.Iconcludeby
summarisingthekeyresearchquestionsthisthesissetsouttoanswer.
‘L’OrigamiduMonde’:MakingContactwithNationalGeographic
Tocommemoratethe125thanniversaryofNationalGeographic,apop-up
artworkbyCyprienGaillard(1980-),entitled‘L’OrigamiduMonde’(Figs.1.0–1.7),was
publishedintheAutumn/Winter201325theditionof032c.13Itaddressedthemixed
readershipoftheBerlin-basedbi-annualcontemporaryart,fashionandculture
magazine,whichisrecognisableforitsdistinctiveredglossycoverandthickbinding,its
innovativefashionimageryandthought-provokingcontent.Spreadoversevenfull-
bleedpagesinO32c,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’reproducedfivephotographsselectedfrom
Gaillard’sextensivecollectionofNationalGeographicmagazines,whichspanthe
12NationalGeographicisunderstoodthroughoutthisthesistobeaformofpopularethnographyinthesensethatithassystematicallystudieddifferentpeoplesandculturessince1888.13CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c.
31
period1888to1995.14Therichlycolouredsequencecomprisedmaskedfigures,
abstractlandscapes,undulatingseacreatures,andexpressivehandsclutchingU.S.
dollarnotes.Therewasnoacknowledgementofwherethesephotographshadbeen
taken,norwhentheyhadoriginallybeenpublishedinNationalGeographic.However,
ina2012interviewwithSvenSchumannforPurplemagazine,GaillardpraisedNational
Geographic’soutstandingphotojournalism,particularlyduringthe1960sand1970s:
‘Thequalityofthereportagethattheyweredoingatthetimewassoamazing.It’sthe
kindofmagazineyourfatherhad.Itwasthisprismthatyoulookedattheworld
through.There’ssomethingverycolonialaboutit.’15HeequatedNationalGeographic
withapatriarchal,masculinegaze:onethatwasconcernednotjustwithseeingthe
surroundingworld,butthatconstitutedaparticularwayoflookingatitthat,by
extension,soughttoacquirecontroloverit.
Printedonbrightyellowpages,acontextualaccompanimenttoGaillard’s
artwork,writtenbyDieterRoelstraete,SeniorCuratorattheMuseumof
ContemporaryArt,acknowledgedtheevolutionofthe‘paperempire’overone
hundredandtwenty-fiveyears.16TheNationalGeographicMagazinewasfirst
publishedin1888asaslimterracotta-colouredtechnicaljournalproducedbythe
NationalGeographicSociety,whichwasbasedinWashingtonD.C.andcomprisedtwo
hundredmembers,‘toincreaseanddiffusegeographicknowledge’.17Underitsfirst
full-timeeditor,GilbertH.Grosvenor(1903–1954),itincreaseditsoutreachand
developedintothepopularglossy‘scientific’andeducationalmagazine,withits
14InaninterviewwithSvenSchumann,Gaillardexplainedhehas‘theentireNationalGeographicstockuntilaround1995,basicallywhenitstartedtobecomeabitugly’.Hedidnotelaborateonthelatterpoint.SvenSchumann,‘CyprienGaillard:ArchitecturalHangover’,Purple,Autumn/Winter2012,pp.224-30.15Schumann,‘CyprienGaillard:ArchitecturalHangover’.16DieterRoelstraete,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013,p.162.17Anon.,'Announcement',NationalGeographic,October1988,p.1.
32
distinctiveyellowborderandcolourphotography,whichisfamiliartoday.18Withinthe
contemporaryglobalmediascape,NationalGeographicstillcastsaquasi-ethnographic
gazeontothepurportedlyexoticfloraandfaunaintheworldeachmonthtoits
4,125,152U.S.and6,855,235internationalreaders.19AlthoughNationalGeographic’s
mainstreamculturalproductionisaddressedatapredominantlyheterosexualmale,
middle-classandmiddle-agedaudience,demonstratedbytheadvertisements
publishedwithinit,theexactbreakdownofreadershipstatisticsisdifficultto
ascertain,sinceamixed,maleandfemalereadership,constitutingabroadrangeof
agesandsocialclasses,hasunquestionablycomeintocontactwiththemagazine.
ReneeBraden,SeniorArchivistattheNationalGeographicSociety,hasexplained:
Itishardtogiveexactfiguresbecauseonepersonmaysubscribe,buttherestofthefamilyreads.It’sevenhardertotrackviewerstoday.There’snoneedtosubscribeeven–youcannowlookonlineorbuyitatanewsstand.Bothmenandwomenreadit.Oramansubscribes,buthisgirlfriend,wifeorkidsborrowthemagazineandreadit.Youcantellfromtheadvertsthough(forthingslikeBMWs),thetypeofaudiencethatwebelievetoreadthemagazine–mainlymiddle-classmen,butalsowomen.Webelievethatthisaudienceisintheover50scategory.Ourhousestyleis‘readableandinteresting’andsoyoucanseethatwearestilltryingtoappealtoamassaudience.20
ThisinabilitytopinpointNationalGeographic’sreadershipislargelyduetoitsubiquity,
memorablydramatisedinElizabethBishop’s1971poem,‘TheWaitingRoom’,inwhich
sherecalledacrudememoryofhersix-year-oldself,readingtheFebruary1918edition
ofthemagazinewhilstwaitingforherauntinadentist’ssurgeryinWorcester,
Massachusetts.21Todate,NationalGeographicproducesfortyeditionsinlocal
18C.D.Bryan,'TheLanguageofthePhotograph',inTheNationalGeographicSociety:100YearsofAdventureandDiscovery(NewYork:Abrams,1987),pp.118-35.19ReneeBraden,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor,(NationalGeographicHeadquarters,WashingtonDC,17July2013).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.20Braden,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.21ElizabethBishop,‘TheWaitingRoom’,inTheCompletePoems:1927-1979(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1983),n.p.
33
languages,inadditiontoitsEnglish-languageversion,andisaglobalbrandthat
encompassestelevision,radio,films,music,books,DVDs,maps,exhibitionsand
merchandise.
DespitesuchdevelopmentsatNationalGeographictoexpandproductlines
anddistributionoutlets,Roelstraetecapturedthemagazinefromanobservational
perspectivethatrendereditacast-offculturalartifactfromabygone,pre-Internet
age:
Throughtheiconicyellowframeofacoverdesignthathasn’tchangedforoveracentury,wecatchaglimpseofasteadilyrecedingpast–whoneedsNationalGeographicintheageofhigh-speed,hand-heldimagesearching,memes,tumblrs,andvariousothertypesof‘viral’visuals?ThecomingoftheInternetarguablyusheredintheendofthisparticularchapterinthehistoryofpublishingculture,andthisispreciselythemoment–sometimeinthenineties,whenGaillardwasstillateenager–whenNationalGeographicasabrand‘lostit’.22
HestressedthatNationalGeographic’sauthoritarianvoiceinmainstreamAmerican
printmediahadbeensurrenderedtodigitalreconfigurationsofmassmedia,butalso
to‘theriseofpoliticalcorrectness…emergenceofpostcolonialtheoryandassorted
critiquesofempire’.23WhereasGaillardassociatedNationalGeographicwitha
patriarchal,colonialgaze,Roelstraeteadvancedonestepfurtherandremovedany
humanisingaspectfromthisparticularmanneroflookingattheworld.Instead,
NationalGeographic’s‘allseeingeye’,heasserted,hasanalysed,monitoredand
collectedsubjects,whohavebeenexposedtoanunmediatedapplicationof
autonomouspowerthatis‘notsoverydifferent,andgeographicallynotsofar
removed,fromthatoftheFBIorCIA–or,whynot,theNSA’.24
22Roelstraete,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,p.164.23Ibid.24Ibid.,p.166.
34
In‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,Gaillardinvertedthatauthoritariangazebyplacingit
onthemagazine,whichheobjectifiedandtransformed,withtheassistanceofthe
O32cviewer,intoasculpturalformthatconstitutedacriticalpointofentryinto
NationalGeographic’scomplexhistory.Theinstructionsthataccompaniedhisartwork
inO32cread:
Assembledfromimagesthatspanmorethan40yearsofNationalGeographicmagazine,CyprienGaillard’sarteditionforO32ccanbeassembledbymakingthreesimplefoldsfromlefttorightintotheinsidehingeofthemagazine.Noglueisrequired.Thisanachronisticmonumentisheldtogetherbytension.25
Themeaningof‘L’OrigamiduMonde’wasthereforedependentuponthe032cviewer,
whohadtoassembleitwithherhands,andtherebyacquiredanactiveasopposedto
passiveparticipatoryroleinitsconstructionasimageandobject.Themagazinehadto
beplacedonaflatsurfaceanditstactile,mattepages,distinctfromthehigh-gloss
sheenofNationalGeographic,manipulatedasthreefoldsweregentlycurledin
towardsitsspine,andcarefullybalanced.Theresultwasasubjectiveandsculptedre-
constructionofNationalGeographic,whichemphasisedalevelofartificeand
mutabilityinthemagazine’spurportedlyobjectiveandlinearhistoricalaccountofthe
world.Timeandspacecollapsedandmergedintoasingular,imaginativeand
contingent(inthesensethattheartworkhadtobedisassembledinorderforthe
viewertoreadtheremainderofthemagazine)structurethroughaconstructive
processthatwasinstigatedbyGaillard,andfulfilledbytheO32cviewer,whowas
directlyimplicatedintheartisticpractice.Thiscollaborativeactbetweenperforming
individualsinresponsetoagoverningpower,NationalGeographic,correspondedwith
ArielaAzoulay’suseoftherhetoricaldeviceshehastermed‘thecivilcontractof
25MatthewEvans,‘HAPPYBIRTHDAYNATIONALGEOGRAPHIC’,032c,Autumn/Winter2013,p.159.
35
photography’.26Azoulaycomplicatedtheone-directionalityofpowerthatSusan
Sontagattributedtomass-mediaimagesandassertedthat,ratherthanfatiguedand
image-saturated,viewersareglobalcitizens:active,awareand,byextension,
politicallyinformedandcapableofalternativeinterpretation.27Gaillard’ssculpture
wasnotamereaestheticisationofNationalGeographic,butacriticalre-presentation
ofthemagazineduringthebuild-upto,andcelebrationsof,its125thanniversary.He
used032cassiteandvehicleforacriticalandtactilere-engagementwiththe
ethnographicgazenowwidelyequatedinacademicscholarshipwiththeyellow-
borderedframeofNationalGeographic,andencouraged032cviewerstodothesame.
Ratherthananalysethemagazineatarm’slength,asmanyofitsharshercriticshave,
Gaillardintervenedatclosequarters,andindoingsoblurredtheboundarybetween
two-dimensional,detachedviewingandthree-dimensionalmultisensoryexperience,
highlightinghowNationalGeographic’smodeofdocumentingtheworldmightbe
reclaimedthroughimaginativestorytellingandnarrativeconstruction.
NationalGeographicasaContactZone
‘L’OrigamiduMonde’sculptedacriticalperspectiveonNationalGeographicby
creativelyinterveninginthewaysthatthemagazinehassynthesisedandcompressed
diversepeoplesandplaces,previouslyseparatedbygeographical,temporal,cultural
andethnicdisjuncture,intoasinglecompactentity.Indoingso,theartwork
encapsulatedwhatMaryLouisePrattconceptualisedasthe‘contactzone’.28Pratt
coinedthetermtodescriberealorimagined‘spaceswheredisparateculturesmeet,26AriellaAzoulay,TheCivilContractofPhotography(Cambridge,MA:TheMITPress,2008).27SusanSontag,OnPhotography(London:Penguin,1979);SusanSontag,RegardingthePainofOthers(London:Penguin,2004).28Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.7.
36
clash,andgrapplewitheachother,ofteninhighlyasymmetricalrelationsof
dominationandsubordination’.29Inherentwithinthisspaceofencounterarenotions
offrictionandconflictplayedoutinamilitantarea,oramorphouszone,inwhichthe
spatialandtemporalpresenceofdisparategroupscanbeseentointersectand
establishongoinginteractions.WhereasGaillardusedtheremovedspaceof032cto
putforwardhiscritique,toslideopentheglossycoverofNationalGeographicistobe
confrontedwithanintrinsiccritiquethatismobilisedthroughthemagazine’sown
visualandtextualeclecticism,whichpresentsarecurrentrepertoireofdiverse
expressions,gestures,poses,clothingandcolours.Apertinentexamplecanbeseenin
the125thanniversaryeditionofNationalGeographic,publishedinOctober2013,
whichdocumentedencounterswiththeDemocraticRepublicofCongo,Kuwait,
Nigeria,Afghanistan,India,Peru,Iraq,ChinaandNorthKorea(Figs.1.8–1.13).30
Viewedinitsentirety,itpresentedacomplexportraitoftheworldthatoscillated
precariouslybetweenhomogenousidentificationof,andheterogeneousidentification
with,therepresentedsubjects.Theinterpretativeemphasisshiftedbetweentwo
opposingpoles:ontheonehand,adistancedpleasurederivedfromthestereotypical
exoticismmanifestwhenprivilegedviewersobservegeographicallydistantandoften
impoverishedsubjects,butsimultaneously,acriticalawarenessofthosediverse
subjectsasasiteforpotential,asknowingagentscapableofconstructingtheirown
subjectivitiesthroughdress,poseanddeportment.
Thetextcatalysedthispalpabletensionandcontrasted,tociteoneexample,
‘witness’,anounsuggestiveofthedistancedspectator,with‘relate’,anempathetic
verbindicativeofidentification.Inasimilarlogic,conflictingstatementsposited
29Ibid.30NationalGeographic,October2013.
37
‘Photographyisaweaponagainstwhat’swrongoutthere.It’sbearingwitnesstothe
truth’against‘IfallinlovewithalmosteverypersonIphotograph.Iwanttoheareach
story.Iwanttogetclose.Thisispersonalforme.’31Thiscomplexdisjunctionbetween
thestandardisationanddifferentiationofpeoplesandplacesthatmaterialisedfrom
withinthepagesofNationalGeographicpresentedcross-culturalcontactasan
intricateand,crucially,continuallyshiftingprocessofculturalexchange,asopposedto
astatic,deterministicstate.Representationemergedasacomplexculturalprocess,
comprisedofnumerousspatialandtemporalcontinuitiesanddiscontinuities,inwhich
meaningwasnotinherentonlyintheclothingchoicesmadebysubjects,buthasalso
beenfashionedbyNationalGeographicinresponsetomodulationsinthebalanceof
globalpower.TorecogniseNationalGeographicasacontactzoneenablesthemultiple
subjectsrepresentedwithinittobeunderstoodasbothinteractingagentswhoself-
fashioned,andsubordinatesubjectswhowerefashionedbyNationalGeographic’s
quasi-anthropologicalgaze.Thismethodologicalframeworkthusenablesthe
ambivalentandasymmetricalrelationsofpowerpresentedinNationalGeographicto
serveasapointofdeparture,butnotthestraightforwardconclusion,ofthe
magazine’srepresentationalagenda.
Re-addressingPreviousAcademicContactwithNationalGeographic
Thisthesiswillreviseacceptedandstandardisedviews,concerningNational
Geographic’sunchangingparticipationinanimperialistrepresentationalregime,which
haveemergedinasustainedcriticalcommentarysincetheearly1990s.CatherineLutz31BrentStirton,NationalGeographic,October2013,p.37;StephanieSinclair,NationalGeographic,October2013,p.79.
38
andJaneL.Collins,LindaSteet,TamarRothenbergandStephanieHawkinshaveall
condemnedtheprimitivisingandexoticisinggazethatthemagazinehasroutinely
placedonnon-Westernsubjects.32Itisimportanttoacknowledgethepotential
reductivenessofsuchcritiques,whichassertthatNationalGeographichasfixed
subjectsasdehumanisedandessentialisedobjectswithinanimposedethnographic
present,aspectacleoftheunknownandexoticOther.33Thistantalisingcommentary
hasdisregardedthepossibilitythatdress,withallofitsalliedambiguities,might
operateinunexpectedorstrategicways,sometimesevenagainstthevery
representationalcontextsthathaveframedit.
WhilstnoneofthesefemaleNorthAmericanscholarshasexplicitlyfocusedon
dress,itssymbolicandsemioticfunctionhasbeenthreadedthroughoutalmostallof
theirarguments.AnthropologistLutzandsociologistCollinsconductedan
ethnographicstudyofNationalGeographicfrom1950to1986andoutlinedits
encyclopaedicandoppressivearrangementsofrace,gender,sexualityandidentity.
TheycomparedthemagazinetoEdwardSteichen’sFamilyofManexhibitionatMOMA
(1955),whichfeaturedfivehundredandthreephotographsfromsixty-eightcountries
andwasextensivelycriticisedforitspromotionofanundifferentiatedformof
universalhumanismembeddedinU.S.ColdWarpropaganda.LutzandCollins
acknowledgedthatNationalGeographichasmadeadistinctionbetweensubjects
wearingbrightlycoloured‘indigenousdress,tribalfashion,and/orritualcostume’,
indicativeof‘anentirealienlife-style,localeormind-set’,andthosewearing‘Western
dress’,whichimpliedadesirefor‘socialchange,materialprogress,and…aforward-
32LutzandCollins,ReadingNationalGeographic;Steet,VeilsandDaggers;Rothenberg,PresentingAmerica’sWorld;Hawkins,AmericanIconographic.33IdrawhereonEdwardSaid’swidelyacknowledgeddiscussionoftheWesternEuropeanideologicalcreationofaninferiorOther.EdwardSaid,Orientalism(London:Penguin,2003).
39
lookingWesternorientation’.34SimilarconclusionsabouttheOrientalistroleofdress
weredrawnbyArab-AmericanfeministscholarSteetinherexaminationofthe
magazine’ssystematiccoverageofArabpeoplesandculturesfrom1888to1988.She
arguedthatNationalGeographichasexplicitlyusednon-Westerndresstosymbolise
Arabwomen’salleged‘dominationandbackwardness’,asopposedtoWestern-style
dress,whichhassignifiedtheir‘emancipationandmodernity’.35Rothenberg,
meanwhile,useddressmoreimplicitlyinherexaminationofthemagazinefrom1888
to1945.Shecriticisedthe‘strategiesofinnocence’usedbyNationalGeographicto
presentautopianandaltruisticvisionofNorthAmericanmoralandtechnological
supremacyabroad,andbrieflyoutlinedtheexploitationofnon-Westernclothingto
highlightdistanceanddifference.36NationalGeographicphotographer,Maynard
OwenWilliams,forexample,posedindividualsin‘full-costume’forthe‘benefitofhis
camera’.37Rothenberg’sown,limiteduseoftheterm‘full-costume’constructeda
binaryoppositionbetweenfashionable,moderndressandfixed,traditionalcostume,
anddemonstratedthatherunderstandingofdresswithinthecontextofa
transnationalworldwasratherlimited.Mostrecently,literaryscholarStephanieL.
Hawkins’revisionistaccountofNationalGeographicfrom1896to1954hasprovided
animportantcritiqueofpreviousscholarship,namelyforitsassumptionsthat‘readers
arenotreadingthemagazinesomuchastreatingitasapicturebook,mindlessly
flippingthroughthephotographswithoutpauseforcriticalreflection’.38National
Geographicviewers,sheasserted,werenotpassivereceptaclesofcultural
stereotypes,butactiveandcriticalparticipantswho,ratherthanendorsethe
34LutzandCollins,ReadingNationalGeographic,pp.91-93.35Steet,VeilsandDaggers,p.109.36Rothenberg,PresentingAmerica’sWorld,p.6.37Ibid.,p.112.38Hawkins,AmericanIconographic,p.10.
40
magazine’simperialistagenda,negotiatedtheirownunderstandingofthemultifarious
identitiesintheworldthroughthelensofthisAmerican‘icon’.39However,Hawkins
failedtoextendheranalysistounderstandactiveandcriticalNationalGeographic
viewersasalsoembodiedandclothed,whoformedsensoryandemotional
connectionswithsubjectsrepresentedinthemagazinethroughtheinterconnected
activitiesoflooking,seeing,being,feelingand,crucially,wearing.
Althoughtheimportantworkcontributedbythesescholarscannotbe
discounted,theyhaveneglectedtoconsiderthedressedbodyinthebroadercultural
senseasatangible,three-dimensionalsitewherecomplexforcesmeet.Ratherthan
considerthesubversivepossibilitiesthatareinherentindress,andwhichdemanda
correspondinglymultisensoryresponsefromviewers,LutzandCollins,Steetand
Rothenbergconcentratedonthewaysthemagazinehasuseddressasatoolto
oppressnon-Westernsubjectsandconstructstereotypicalnarrativesofexotic
difference.Theyinterpreteddressasameresurfacedecoration,asecondary
constructiontothebody,whereasthisthesisisconcernedwiththedressedbodyasa
unifiedwhole:howitfeelstobedressed,theexperienceofdress,howBrazilian
subjectshavebeendressedbyNationalGeographic,butalsotheirown,embodied
practicesofdress.40
39Ibid.,p.13.40MistyL.Bastianmakesthisdistinctionbetweenunderstandingclothingassecondarytothebody,andacknowledgingthewaythatidentity‘exist[s]intheveryseamsandfoldsofclothing:howclothingshapesbodiesandeven,insomecases,givesformtoamorphousbodies’.MistyL.Bastian,‘Female“Alhajis”andEntrepreneurialFashions:FlexibleIdentitiesinSoutheasternNigerianClothingPractice’inClothingandDifference:EmbodiedIdentitiesinColonialandPost-ColonialAfrica,ed.byHildiHendrickson(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1996),pp.97-132(p.102).
41
APhenomenologyofContactthroughDressandthePhotographicObject
Thisthesisextendspreviousscholarshipbyapproachingdressnotsimplyas
cloth,butasasystemofcommunication,whosemanymeaningsarenotfixedbut
continuallyinformedandtoanextent,evenperformed,byitsvisual,textual,and
materialrepresentation.IdrawhereuponanthropologistsJoanneB.EicherandMary
EllenRoach-Higgins’understandingofdressas‘anassemblageofbodymodifications
and/orsupplements’,whichtakesintoaccountbothitsmaterialpropertiesand
expressivecapabilities.41Thisencompassingdefinitionextendsbeyondclothingalone,
butinvolvesthenumerousactsandproductsusedtofashionthebody,suchas
makeup,hairstyle,piercing,scarification,bodypaintandtattoos,whichactasanon-
verbalsystemofcross-culturalcommunication.Itisusefultoclarifyherethe
distinctionthatImakebetween‘dress’and‘fashion’.Ialsodefinefashionwithinan
expansiveframework,asaconceptthatindicateschangeandpermeatesnotsolely
dress,butmanyareasoflife,includinginteriordesign,architecture,food,andeven
trendsinacademicthought.Iexaminefashionthroughoutthisthesisasanambiguous
andadditionalvaluethatisattachedtodress,aswellasitsvisualrepresentation,
whichcanbefastandthrowawaystreetstyle,orrarefiedandelitehautecouture,but
frequentlycapitalisesuponitscontradictorynaturetonegotiatethelocalandthe
global.42
41JoanneB.EicherandMaryEllenRoach-Higgins,'DressandIdentity',inDressandIdentity,ed.byMaryEllenRoach-Higgins,JoanneB.EicherandKimK.P.Johnson(NewYork:FairchildPublications,1995),p.7.42RebeccaArnoldandYuniyaKawamurahavebothexpressedsimilaropinionsandmyunderstandingthatfashionanddress,althoughcloselyrelated,cannotbeusedinterchangeably,isinformedbytheirthinking.RebeccaArnold,Fashion:AVeryShortIntroduction(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009);YuniyaKawamura,DoingResearchinFashionandDress:AnIntroductiontoQualitativeMethods(Oxford:Berg,2011).
42
Ifdressisthetactilelayerthatclothesthebody,anexteriorsurfaceturned
outwardtowardsthegazeoftheviewer,thenitissimultaneouslyproximatetothe
wearer,whohasaninnateawarenessofhowclothingfeelsonherbody,howit
touchesherbody.Thiscontradictorydynamiccanbeextendedfurthertotheviewerof
adressedbody,sincetheviewerisalsoawearer,whoencounterstheworldthrough
herownexperienceofdress,thatdoublelayerthatbothhasamaterialsurfacebut
alsoisanexteriorsurface.MauriceMerleau-Pontyclearlyindicatedthisentwiningof
bodyandclothingwhenheusedadressmetaphortoforegroundhis
phenomenologicalunderstandingofsensoryperception:‘Mybodyisthefabricinto
whichallobjectsarewoven,anditis,atleastinrelationtotheperceivedworld,the
generalinstrumentofmy‘comprehension’[myitalics].43Heassertedthatan
individual’sexperienceofherbody,andthisisnotjustabody,butourown,dressed
bodies,isthemediatorforeverythingthatsheexperiencesintheoutsideworld.
Furthermore,everylivedexperienceisaunityofourbodiesandtheworld,thetwoof
whichareintertwinedandcannotexistseparately:‘Ourownbodyisintheworldas
theheartisintheorganism:itkeepsthevisiblespectacleconstantlyalive,itbreathes
lifeintoitandsustainsitinwardly,andwithitformsasystem.’44Merleau-Ponty
rejectedadetachedscientificandobjectivemodeofviewingtheworld,andinstead
foregroundedtheroleofthedressedbodyintheactofmakingsenseofour
surroundings,accountingforthethoughts,emotionsandmemoriesevokedbytouch.
Tomakeaphenomenologicalregisterofperceptionistounderstandthatcontact
betweendressedNationalGeographicviewersanddressedBraziliansubjectswasnot
disembodiedanddistanced,butatactileandintimateencounter,whether
43MauriceMerleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,trans.byColinSmith(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2002),p.273.44Ibid.,p.235.
43
acknowledgedorunacknowledgedbytheviewer,whichwaswovenintothesensory
fabricofthemagazine.45
NotonlyhasclothingprovidedatactilesurfacethroughwhichtheNational
GeographicviewerhasperceiveddressedBraziliansubjects,butthemagazineitselfis
alsoacorporealobjectthathasclothedoriginalphotographsofdressedBrazilian
subjectswithinasecond,glossyskin.46TocomeintocontactwithNationalGeographic,
whetherithasbeenpickedup,exchanged,sold,glancedthrough,readfromcoverto
cover,collected,eventhrownaway,istoexperienceitasasensoryobject,tofeelits
weightasitisheldinthehands,toexplorethetextureofitspages.Contactis
necessarilybodily,asMerleau-Pontymadepalpablyclearwhenheacknowledgedthat
totouchisalsotobetouched.47Itisthroughhandlingofitselfthatthemagazinehas
communicatedtoviewers,notsolelybymeansoflinguisticsignificationofthetwo-
dimensionalimage,butalsoviathesensations,memories,emotions,oraffectevoked
bythethree-dimensionalobject.LauraU.Markshasinsistedthatthehapticandoptic
arenotadichotomy,butrather‘slideintooneanother’;sheuseshapticcriticismasa
meansto‘“warmup”ourculturaltendencytotakeadistance’.48Thisthesisargues
thatthedirectphysicalcontactNationalGeographicviewershavehadwiththe
magazinehasdemanded,howeverunwittingly,aninstinctivelyvisceralresponse,
whichhascounteractedanoverdeterministicawarenessofgeographicaldistance,in45Iusetheterm‘dressed’here,asopposedto‘clothed’,inanattempttoacknowledgethat,whereasaNationalGeographicviewerislikelytohaveexperiencedtheworldthroughWestern-styleclothesandaccessories,theBraziliansubjectrepresentedinthemagazinecanbeseentohavedressedinavarietyofchoicesthatrangefromWestern-styledresstobodilyadornment.46Strictlyspeaking,NationalGeographichasnotalwaysconstituteda‘second,glossyskin’.Untilthehigh-glosscentennialeditioninDecember1988,whichhadahologramcover,themagazinetendedtousethickermattepaper,whichhadaslightlyroughtexture.Occasionallythiswasinterspersedwithglossierpages;oneexampleistheSeptember1971editionofNationalGeographic.The125thcentennialeditioninOctober2013wasremarkablyglossiereventhantheDecember1988edition,andthecovereasilyslidopensothatthepagesinsidecouldbeeffortlesslyflickedthrough.47Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,pp.368-69.48LauraU.Marks,Touch:SensuousTheoryandMultisensoryMedia,(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2002),pp.xii-xiii.
44
favourofaffectiveidentificationwithmultivalentBraziliansubjects.Thisapproach
marksarevisionistshiftthatdepartsfromareliancesolelyondistancedsemiotic
analysesofimagesofclothinginNationalGeographicassignifiedandtextualised,and
movestowardsamoredynamicengagementwithdressandfashionasimage,object,
textandideaintertwined.49
TheGlobalContactZonesince1988
ThehypothesisofthisthesisisthatNationalGeographic’scentennial,in
September1988,markedaparadigmshiftatthemagazine,fromanunderstandingof
itselfasanexemplarofobjectivescience,towardsamoreself-reflexiveand
performativesubjectivitythathasbeendrivenby,andpresumablyhasalsodriven,the
forcesofcontemporaryglobalisation.Crucialtothisshiftisthatthemagazine
consciouslyencourageditsreaderstoexperiencediverselydressedBraziliansubjects
inaheightened,multisensoryway,centredonthefactthattheactofwearingdress,
andthefeelofitonourskin,isintimatelylinkedtoourtactilesensesofinterpretative
looking.ThisthesishypothesisesthatphotographssinceNationalGeographic’s
centenaryeditioninSeptember1988havetracedthebeginningsofadifferentviewof
encounterswithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone,whichhaveresistedthe
processesofobjectification,appropriationandstereotypingfrequentlyassociatedwith
therectangularyellowborder.Thisisbecausetheyhaveprovidedevidenceofafluid
andvariouspopulation,whichhasselectedandexperimentedwithpreferredelements
ofAmericanandEuropeandress,andusedittofashiontheirown,distinctlyBrazilian
identities.Theperiodunderexaminationhasbeenselectedbecauseitcoincidedwith49MartinLister,‘Introduction’,inThePhotographicImageinDigitalCulture,ed.byLister,2ndedn,(NewYork:Routledge,2013),pp.1-21.
45
theendoftheColdWar,andtheunravellingofthefabricofabipolarworld,which
gaverisetoafragmentedbutincreasinglyinterconnectedandfluidone.Globalisation
isacomplexandmultidimensionalprocess,whichinvitesconfusionunlessitisgivena
recognisableandreal-lifeform,andtherebyinvestedwithshape,colour,patternand
texture.Itisinthisrespectthatdress,asamultifacetedformofculturalexpression,is
wellequippedasabasistoanalysethewidespreadeconomicandculturalexchanges
thathavetransformedcontemporarysociallife,andresultedintheinterwoven
processesoffragmentationandcross-fertilisation.Theadoptionofmass-produced
Western-styleclothingthroughouttheworldmightsuggestthatwearewitnesstoa
pervasiveandhomogenisedglobalculture.Thiswouldequateglobalisation,which
unequivocallytakesplaceonunevenandasymmetricalterms,withaone-directional
forceofculturalimperialismthathasstandardised,homogenised,Westernisedand
Americanisedmorevulnerablecultures.50Yetthisoversimplifiedperspectivedoesnot
accountforthenumerousculturalandstylisticparticularitiesthathavebeenmobilised
whenWestern-styledressisworninambiguousways,oftenreconfiguredforlocal
tastes,oradoptedfordifferentreasons,possiblyevenasaformofresistancetothe
West.51ArjunAppaduraihaspointedoutthatobjectsincross-culturalnetworkshave
nointrinsicmeaningbutacquirenewvaluesthroughtheirexchange;indressterms,
thedifferentcontextsinwhichWestern-styleclothinghasbeenwornreveal
50Thesecritiqueshavebeenputforwardbyscholarssuchas:BenjaminBarber,JihadVersusMcWorld(NewYork:BallantineBooks,1996);SamuelHuntington,TheClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingofWorldOrder(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1996);ThomasFriedman,TheLexusandtheOliveTree(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,1998).51Anexamplethatspringstomindistheappropriationandre-presentationofWesterndesignerlabelsbytheCongoleseSapeursinKinshasa(DemocraticRepublicofCongo)andBrazzaville(RepublicofCongo).SeeElizabethKutesko,‘ProblemsandTensionsintheRepresentationoftheSapeurs,asDemonstratedintheWorkofTwoTwenty-firstCenturyItalianPhotographers’,Immediations:TheCourtauldInstituteofArtJournalofPostgraduateResearch,3:2(2013),61-78.
46
articulationsandre-articulationsthatarevariableanddialectical,basedupontheir
newusesandrequirements.52
Appaduraihastheorisedthecomplexinteractionsandexchangesof
informationandideassincethelate1980sasaseriesofconceptualframeworks,
comprisedofconstantlyshiftingandoverlappingflowsandinterconnectionsbetween
economic,politicalandculturalconstructs.Hecoinedthetermsideoscapes,
technoscapes,mediascapes,ethnoscapesandfinanscapestodescribethesemultiple
realities,whichshiftinaccordancewithoneanotherandestablishtensionsbetween
thewarpofculturalhomogeneityandtheweftofculturalheterogeneity.53Itiswithin
thishybridspace,wheretheweftisdrawnthroughthewarp,thatnewsartorial
expressionsaregeneratedastwohithertorelativelydistinctforms,types,patternsor
stylesofdressmixandmatch.Certainly,allcultureshavebeenhybridforalongtime,
asaresultoftrade,slavery,warfare,travelandmigration,butthedevelopmentof
mediaandinformationtechnologiesthroughoutthe1990sandbeyondhave
substantiallyexpandedthecontactthatdifferentcultureshavehadwithoneanother,
andacceleratedthespeedatwhichtheseglobalinteractionshaveoccurred.54Jan
NederveenPietersehaseloquentlydescribedhybridisation,andtheheightened
connectivityofcontemporaryglobalculture,asaprocessbywhichmultifarious
identitiesare‘braidedandinterlaced,layeruponlayer’.55Hisuseofadressmetaphor
isacrucialreminderthatglobalisation,initseconomic,political,culturaland
technologicaldimensions,isintricatelywovenintoeverydaylife;itshapes,encloses,52TheSocialLifeofThings:CommoditiesinCulturalPerspective,ed.byArjunAppadurai(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986).53ArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1996),p.33.54MarwinM.Kraidy,Hybridity,ortheCulturalLogicofGlobalization(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2005),p.21.55JanNederveenPieterse,GlobalizationandCulture:GlobalMelange,2ndedn(NewYork:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2009).
47
exposesandinteractswithdifferentbodies,definingandexpressingpersonaland
collectiveidentities,bothofNationalGeographicviewersandofBraziliansubjects
representedwithinitspages.
SnapshotsoftheContactZone
Itisimportanttogroundananalysisofhybridityinuniqueandindividual
examples,toensurethatthetermdoesnotdenoteanovergeneralisedand
undifferentiatedformoffusion.Inordertodoso,Iutiliseasnapshotapproachinmy
examinationoftherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographic.Thisis
alsoinaccordancewithPratt’sacknowledgementthat‘thecomplexitiesoflifeinthe
contactzone…showuponlyinglimpses’.56Idonotintendtoprovidean
encyclopaedicaccountoftherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographic
butrather,inthewordsofAlexanderNemerov,toexamine‘apatchworkofglimpses’
thatprovideameansofcomingintocontactwiththepastthroughthe
‘photojournalisticprecisionofaninstantintime’.57Thisthesisunpickseleven
snapshotsfromthefabricofNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil,
whichareunderstoodasaseriesofuniquebutinterconnectedcasestudies,threaded
intotheculturalandvisuallandscapeofaparticulartimeandplace.Asdisplaced
fragments,snapshotsshouldbeaddressedwithprecisionanddepthsincetheyreflect
agazethatmustbeunderstoodinanthropologicaltermsasunequivocallyconditioned
bythesocial,cultural,political,economicandtechnologicalcontextthatproducedit.
HansBeltingcriticallyrecognisedthiswhenheinsistedthatphotographydoesnot
simplymirrortheworldbut,rather,synchronisesourshiftinggazewiththatworld;itis
56Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.52.57AlexanderNemerov,WartimeKiss:VisionsoftheMomentinthe1940s(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2013),p.2.
48
‘ourchanginggazeupontheworld–andsometimesagazeuponourowngaze’.58Not
solelyarecordofsomethingthatexistedintheworld,asnapshotopensup
interpretativepossibilitiesfortheviewer,whoinvestsherownmemories,imaginings,
epistemologicalknowledge,experiences,emotionsandpreconceptionsontoit,
therebyforminginterconnectionswithbroaderverbal,visual,textualandtangible
systemsofcommunication.Asnapshotisadiscerniblemarkerembeddedinthepast,
whichembodiesthefluxandflowoftheinstantinwhichitwascaptured.Yetitalso
existsinthepresent,andisthereforemobile,withanemancipatorynaturethat
investsitwiththepotentialtodistortthelinearityofthehistoricalpastand,indoing
so,destabilisethecertaintyofthecontemporarypresent.TociteNemerov,toviewthe
snapshotistobearwitnesstoacomplexinterplay(ofparticularrelevancetothe
discourseofdress,whichcontinuallyinterweavespast,presentandfuture)as‘what
wasandwhatiscoalesceineeriecombination’.59
Myuseofthetermsnapshotextendsbeyonditscommonusagein
photography,whereitisusedtodescribeaspontaneousmodeofamateurpicture-
makingthatoftenemploystypicalvisual‘mistakes’suchasoff-kilterframing,double
exposureandout-of-focussubjects,torefertothecomplexcombinationoftextand
imagewithinaNationalGeographicarticle.60Clearly,noneofthephotographs
publishedinNationalGeographicweretakenassnapshots:theydonotsharethe
technicalinaccuraciesofthegenre,nor,forthemostpart,dotheyemploythe
ordinarysubjectmatterofamateurphotography,whichhastendedtofocusonkey
momentsormilestonesachievedinlife,suchasbirth,birthdays,weddings,
58HansBelting,AnAnthropologyofImages:Picture,Medium,Body,trans.byThomasDunlap(PrincetonandOxford:PrincetonUniversityPress,2011),p.146.59Nemerov,WartimeKiss,p.2.60SarahGreenough,‘Introduction’,inTheArtoftheAmericanSnapshot,1888-1978,ed.bySarahGreenoughandothers(Washington:NationalGalleryofArt,2007),pp.1-6(p.1).
49
graduationsandfamilyholidays.61Nevertheless,acrucialpartoftheinterpretationof
thesnapshotliesinitsselectiveeditingandarrangementinthephotographalbum,
anditisinthisrespectthatanunmistakableparallelcanbedrawnwithNational
Geographic.Althoughnoglue,tearsorinkscribblesaretangiblyevidentinNational
Geographic,themagazinehasre-contextualisedthefamilyphotographalbumtoserve
asbothadocumentaryrecordoftheworldandasatriggerformemoryand
recollection.Ithasconstitutedaspacetoorderandcontroltheinterpretationof
snapshots,aswellastoalteroraddtotheirmeaningthroughtheuseoftext,design,
aesthetics,juxtapositionsandlayout,fabricatingcontradictorynarrativesthatpromote
identificationandfamiliaritywithsubjects,butalsoexoticismandOtherness.Patrizia
diBello,inheranalysisofwomen’spopularcultureinthenineteenthcentury,points
totheintersensorialityofphotographalbumsandmagazines,whichwerepartofa
complexprocessthroughwhich‘visionwasmodernized…intoafragmented,
subjectiveexperiencebynewtechnologiesandvisualentertainmentmachineswhich
wereoperatedbyandoperatedonthebodyoftheobserver.’62DiBelloacknowledges
thesubjectivevisionoftheembodiedobserver,whobecomesanactiveproducerin
theexperienceandperceptionofmeaninginthemagazine,anotionthatisextendable
toacontemporaryanalysisofNationalGeographicanditsvaried,individualviewers.
61RichardChalfen,SnapshotVersionsofLife(BowlingGreen,OH:BowlingGreenStateUniversityPopularPress),p.11.62PatriziadiBello,‘VisionandTouch:PhotographyandWomen’sPopularCultureintheNineteenthCentury’,inVisualDelights:ExhibitionandReception,ed.byVanessaTomalinandSimonPopple(Eastleigh:JohnLibbeyPublishing,2005),pp.3-16(p.14).
50
BrazilianAuto-EthnographyandStructureofChapters
Aspartofitsanalysisofindividualsnapshots,thisthesiswillidentifyinstances
of‘auto-ethnographicexpression’,whichPrattemphasisedisahybridphenomenonof
thecontactzone.Auto-ethnographicexpressionisanautobiographicalmodeof
writing,performingandreflectinguponthesubjectivityofone’sownculture;itis
engagingandemotional,asopposedtoputatively‘objective’,andtherebydiffersfrom
ethnographicaccountsofaparticularculturemadebyanostensiblyneutraland
distancedobserver,suchasNationalGeographic.Theprocessencompassesan
appropriationoftheidiomsofthedominantculture,butalsoaninfiltrationby
indigenousmodes,whichenabletheauto-ethnographicsubjecttocreativelyand
activelyself-fashionandself-present.Pratt’sformulationofauto-ethnographic
expressionisclearlyinformedbyandexpandsuponthepoststructuralistthinkingof
BrazilianscholarSilvianoSantiago.Santiagocoinedtheterm‘writingback’in1978to
refertothepalimpsesticprocesswherebyWesternliterarypracticesaremodified,re-
presentedorevenresistedinpartbyLatinAmericanwriters,inordertoprovidespace
withinLatinAmericanliteratureforthereinscriptionofdifferentandalternative
modesofnon-Westerncreativeexpression.63Braziliandressisaformofauto-
ethnographicexpression,asartorialmanifestationof‘writingback’,whichhasenabled
Braziliansubjectstore-presentthemselvesastheywishedandtohighlightsomeofthe
tensions,contradictionsandnuancesoftheirethnographicrepresentationbyNational
63SilvianoSantiago,TheSpaceIn-Between:EssaysonLatinAmericanCulture,ed.byAnnaLuciaGazzola,trans.byTomBurns,AnaLuciaGazzola,andGarethWilliams(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2001),p.31.Morerecently,PratthasreferreddirectlytoSantiago’sworkanddrawnuponhisconceptualisationofthe‘spacein-between’,definedbyPrattas‘asitefromwhichsheorhe[theLatinAmericansubject]canreflectbacktothecenterimagesofitselfthatthecentercouldnevergeneratebutfromwhichitstandstolearn’.See‘ModernityandPeriphery:TowardsaGlobalandRelationalAnalysis’,inBeyondDichotomies:Histories,Identities,CulturesandtheChallengeofGlobalization,ed.byElizabethMudimbe-Boyi(NewYork:SUNIPress,2012),pp.21-48(p.32).
51
Geographic.Prattacknowledgedthat‘whilstsubjugatedpeoplecannotcontrolwhat
thedominantculturevisitsuponthem,theydodeterminetovaryingextentswhat
theyabsorbintotheirown,howtheyuseit,andwhattheymakeitmean’.64Although
auto-ethnographicexpressionsarepredeterminedtobeunderstooddifferentlyby
diversereaderships,thisisnotofprimaryconcern,sincetheynevertheless‘constitute
agroup’spointofentryintothedominantculture’.65
Todeveloptheanalysisofdressasamultifacetedformofauto-ethnographic
expression,thisthesisutilisesamulti-disciplinaryanalyticalmethod.Ithasahybrid
structurewherebythefirstpart,constitutedbyChaptersOne,TwoandThree,
examinestherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographic,whilethe
secondpart,comprisedofChaptersFourandFive,examineshowtherepresentation
ofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil,itselfanexemplaryauto-ethnographic
expression,castslightuponthesedominantrepresentationsofBrazil.Organisedover
thesefiveinterconnectedchapters,thethesismediatesthreadsofthoughtfromfive
theorists,eachofwhomhavegrappledwiththeauto-ethnographicconstructionof
Brazilianidentityindiverseandsingularways.ItisnotsurprisingthatOswaldde
Andrade,RobertStam,SilvianoSantiago,RobertoSchwarzandRenatoOrtizhaveall
engagedwith,andtheorised,formsofauto-ethnographygiventheirownmixed
culturalidentitiesandexperiencesoflivingandwritingwithindifferentcontact
64Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.7.65Ibid.,p.9.InherinvestigationoftheEuropeanreceptionofJapanesefashiondesignersinthe1980s,DorinneKondohasusedtheterm‘auto-exoticgaze’todescribetheWesterngazethatnon-Westernculturesplaceupontheirowncultures,whichtheytranslateintoanexoticproductthattheythenofferbacktotheWest.Kondo’sexpressiondrawsaparallelwithPratt’sunderstandingofauto-ethnographicexpression,sincetheprocessofauto-exoticismis,asKondopointedout,‘nevermerelyareinscriptionofthedominant’butrathercontains‘adis-easethatalwayscontainsanimplicitthreattothecolonizer’shegemony’.DorinneKondo,AboutFace(London:Routledge,1997),p.10.
52
zones.66Notonlyhavethesescholarswovendressmetaphorsintotheirwriting,but
theirdifferentdisciplineshaveencompassedpoetry,filmstudies,poststructuralist
theory,literarycriticismandanthropology.
ThefirstchapterusestheworkofBrazilianmodernistauthorOswaldde
Andrade(1890-1954)toexaminetherepresentationofBraziliandressinNational
Geographicinthefirsthundredyearssincethemagazinewasestablished.67Itopens
upacriticaldiscoursewiththemagazine’srepresentationalpoliticsandanalysesto
whatextentitcanbeseentohavefulfilledaformofU.S.-drivenculturalimperialismin
itsrepresentationofBrazil.Throughaclosereadingofthreesnapshots,whichreflect
threethemesthatareroughlychronologicalandreflectiveofthreedifferentgazesthat
NationalGeographichasplacedonBrazil,myanalysisbringstotheforetheadditional
layersofcomplexityprovidedbyarevisionistre-readingofNationalGeographic
throughdress.Thispavesthewayformysecondchapter,whichusestheworkof
NorthAmericanscholarofBrazilianfilmRobertStam(1947-)todevelopacomplexand
criticalanalysisofdressinthemagazine’srepresentationofBrazilintheperiodpost-
1988.68ItexaminestheshiftinNationalGeographic’srepresentationalpolicy,toa
66Andrade,forinstance,wasborninSaoPauloin1890andlivedthereforthedurationofhislife,butwasofmixedEuropeanandindigenousancestry.Stam,alsoofmixedparentage,wasbornintheUnitedStatesin1941andcompletedhisPhDinComparativeLiteratureattheUniversityofBerkeleyin1977.Hehasdescribedhisthree-decade‘intense,palimpsesticcohabitationwithallthingsBrazilian’as‘thefruitofalongpersonalconnectiontoLatinAmericaduetoanimportantpartof[his]familylivingthere’.Santiago,ontheotherhand,wasborninBrazilin1936,receivedhisPhDincomparativeliteratureattheSorbonnein1961,andhastaughtintheUnitedStatesandBrazil.HispersonalexperienceoflivingbetweendifferentcultureshassurelysparkedhisconcernwithLatinAmericanhybridity.RobertoSchwarzwasborninViennain1938butgrewupinSaoPaulo,receivedhisPhDattheSorbonneinLatinAmericanStudiesin1976,andcurrentlylivesandteachesinBrazil.Hisformulationof‘misplacedideas’canbeunderstoodasareflectionofhispersonalexperiencesoffeeling‘outofplace’betweenthesedifferentcultures.Finally,Ortiz’sconceptionoftheneologism‘mundialization’isareflectionofhishybrididentity,asaBrazilian(b.1947)whowaseducatedinFranceandreceivedhisPhDatl’UniversitédeParisVIIIin1975,butnowlivesandworksinBrazil.RobertStam,‘Acknowledgements’inTropicalMulticulturalism:AComparativeHistoryofRaceinBrazilianCinemaandCulture(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1997),p.xi.67OswalddeAndrade,'ManifestoAntropofago',RevistadeAntropofagia,1.1(1928),6-7.68RobertStam,‘HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage’,CulturaVisualenAmericáLatina,9:11(1998),<http://www.tau.ac.il/eial/IX_1/stam.html>[accessed11February2015]
53
moreperformativeandsubjectiveapproach,whichwasencapsulatedbythe
September1988centennialedition.Themagazine’sincreasedconcernwithimagery
overtextisanalysed,withinwhichBraziliandresscanbeseentohaveinsistently
disturbedthespatialandtemporallogicofrepresentation.Itcontextualisesthetwo
snapshotsexamined,reflectiveoftwothemesthatemergedwithinthistimeframe,
withinabroaderframeworkdrivenbytheforcesofcontemporaryglobalisation.How
fashionedsubjectsmightbreakoutofaparticulargazeimposeduponthembythe
camerawillbeaddressedinmoredetailinthethirdchapter,whichusesthe
poststructuralistthinkingofBraziliantheoristSilvianoSantiago(1936-)toexamine
NationalGeographic’sengagementswith(Brazilian)fashionsince2001.69Overa
timeframeoftenyears,Ipresenttwosnapshotsthatconstitutetheexceptionthat
proves(inthesenseoftests)myhypothesis–thatsince1988NationalGeographichas
movedfromcool,distancedviewing,andtowardsanintimateandmultisensory
engagementwithimagesasobjects.Althoughtheprimaryconcernofthisthesisisthe
printedmagazine,theeffectsofenlargedandpervasivedigitalmedianetworkscannot
beignored.NationalGeographichasmetamorphosedsince1995toincorporatethese
changes,constructingawebsite,andaniPadandiPhoneeditionofthemagazine.Inan
efforttoacknowledgethesechanges,thischapterextendstheanalysistoconsider
brieflytherepresentationofBrazilianfashionontheNationalGeographicwebsite.The
fourthchapterusestheworkofBrazilianliteraryscholarRobertoSchwarz(1938-)to
extendtheanalysesmadeinthefirstthreechapterstoNationalGeographicBrasil,
whichwasestablishedinMay2000.70ItexaminesthreesnapshotsofBraziliandress,
whichareorganisedchronologically.Theanalysisisattentivetotherepresentational
69Santiago,TheSpaceIn-Between.70RobertoSchwarz,MisplacedIdeas:EssaysonBrazilianCulture,ed.byJohnGledson,trans.byPeterAnti(London:Verso,1992).
54
agendaofNationalGeographicBrasil:howithasconfrontedandre-presentedearlier
representationalparadigmsproducedbyNationalGeographic,butalsohowithas
producedoriginalmodesofrepresentation.Thefifthchapterdrawstogetherthe
differentstrandsexaminedinthepreviousfour,usingtheworkofBraziliancultural
criticandsociologistRenatoOrtiz(1947-).71Itfocusesonanarticlepublishedin
NationalGeographicBrasilin2012,andbrieflyconsiderstherepresentationof
BraziliandressinthedigitaliPadedition,makingalinkwiththethirdchapterandits
discussionoftheNationalGeographicwebsite.Eachofthesefivechaptersaimstobe
sensitivetothecommunicativepossibilitiesandtactileintimationsofdress,aswellas,
wherenecessary,itscriticallimitations.
EnteringtheContactZone:ACommentonMethodologyandMyAuto-Ethnography
Itisimportanttocommentuponmyownauto-ethnographyandwhereI
situatemysubjectivityasresearcherinrelationtothemethodologicalframeworkof
thecontactzonethatisusedthroughoutthisthesis.Inconductingthisexaminationof
NationalGeographic,Inecessarilyenterthecontactzone,andsituatemyselfin
dialogue,discussionanddebatewitharangeofdifferentsubjectsthatIhavecome
intocontactwith:predominantlythoserepresentedinthepagesofNational
GeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil,butalsothoseinferredfromthe
principally(butbynomeansexclusively)whiteorEuropean-descendedmale
readership,inadditiontoNationalGeographicstaffinWashingtonDCandtheir
BraziliancounterpartsinSaoPaulo,aswellasthenumerousBrazilian,NorthAmerican,
71RenatoOrtiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge–GenealogiesoftheGlobal/Globalizations’,Theory,Culture&Society,23(2006),401-03.
55
andEuropeanartists,photographers,fashiondesigners,writersandresearchersthatI
havemetthroughouttheprocess.Mygender,age,sexuality,ethnicity,nationality,
culturalbackgroundandreligionhasnecessarilyaffectedthesubjectivepositionthatI
haveadopted,howeversubconsciously,throughoutthisproject,andhadabearingon
bothmyreadingsofrace,andmyunderstandingoftheself-reflexiveexperienceofthe
clothedbodyoftheNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilviewerin
relationtothedressedBraziliansubject.Itisusefultointroducemyselfattheoutset:I
amatwenty-sevenyearoldheterosexualwhiteBritishwomaneducatedintheUnited
Kingdom.MymothertongueisEnglish,butIhavelearntandpracticedvaryingdegrees
ofcomprehension,writtenandoralproficiencyinItalianandBrazilianPortuguese.Asa
dresshistoriantrainedinanarthistorytradition,withanunderstandingofthe
practicaltechniquesofdressmakingandakeeninterestinfashionablemodesof
clothing,Ihaveanimage-centredandmaterialnotionofwhatdressandfashion
constitute,andhowthisisencapsulatedthroughrepresentation.Iunderstandthatnot
onlyisthereaconsciousnessinthewaythatactivesubjectschoosetodressand
presentthemselvestotheoutsideworld,butthattheimagesthatsurroundusinprint
anddigitalmediaprovideanadditionallayerofmeaningthatinfluencesmyown
awareness,asaviewerandawearer,ofhowidentitiesarefashioned.Iuseart
historicalmethodsasacriticalstrategytoanalyseimagesofdressheuristically;
althoughfocusingonelevenselectcasestudies,Imakearichervisualandmaterial
analysis,byallowingcloseexaminationofthephotographicobjecttoopenouta
broaderdiscussionthatdrawsontheoryandcontext.
WhilstmyuseofLatinAmericanscholarsisintendedtosituatemyown
argumentsderivedfromvisualanalysisinrelationtocontemporarywritingonBrazilian
56
nationalidentity,Iamawarethatmysubjectivepositionprovidesanadditional,self-
reflexivegazeontoNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.72I
understandthisgazetobeafundamentalandintegralpartoftheresearchprocess;it
isameansofcloselyexamining,witharevisionistimperative,imagesofBraziliandress
publishedinthemagazinesince1888.Idonotmerelytakeintoaccountthespecific
contextofthetimeandplaceinwhichtheseimageswerefirstpresentedand
perceived,butIalsoconsiderhowmycontemporarygazemightre-presentthemin
thecurrentday.Aself-reflexivere-engagementwiththeseimagesholdsthepotential
foracontestedhistoryofNationalGeographictoberevealedwhereby,asElizabeth
Edwardshasarticulated,thephotographitselfacts‘bothasaconfrontationwiththe
pastandasanactiveandconstituentpartofthepresent’.73Theimages,orsnapshots,
thatIdiscussofferasiteofpotentiality,toidentifypointsoffractureanddistinction
fromtheoverdeterminedargumentsofpreviousscholarship.Whilstitcannotbe
deniedthatanasymmetricaldynamicofpowerhasoftenbeeninoperationbetween
NationalGeographicphotographersandtheirBraziliansubjects,inallowingtheimages
themselvestoperformonabroaderstageacrossspaceandtime,mymethodof
analysisprovidestheopportunityforacounternarrativetoberevealed,fromwithin
therepresentationofdressandfashion.Inpeelingbacktheselayersofmeaning,I
hopethatasIenter,andbyextension,research,writeandformevaluationsfrom
withinthecontactzone,newideas,conversations,debates,andevenhistorieswillbe
produced.Thesediscussionshavethepotentialforthetotalisingandreductiveviewof
NationalGeographic,astheultimatearchetypeofthepopularethnographicgaze,to
72Myuseofthepronoun‘her’forthereader,inadditiontothephotographsofmyselfholdingNationalGeographicthatareincludedthroughoutthisthesis,isameansofforegroundingthisautobiographicalmodeofwritingandresearchingthatsituatesmyselfself-reflexivelyinrelationtheprimarymaterialthatIexamine.73ElizabethEdwards,RawHistories:Photographs,AnthropologyandMuseums(London:BloomsburyAcademic,2001),p.7.
57
bere-engagedwithinawaythatmightmovebeyondpreviousscholarship.This
scholarshiphasundeniablyconstitutedanimportantstageinthediscussionofthe
magazine,butIsuspectisbynomeansthedefinitiveone.74Thisthesiscanbe
understoodinitselfthenasamomentof‘writingback’,wherebyIpositionmyselfself-
reflexivelyastheauto-ethnographicwriter,whoundertakestheprocessofmodifying,
re-evaluatingandre-presentingthehistoriographyofNationalGeographic.Myintent
indoingthisistosculptoutaspacewithinexistingacademicdiscourseforalternative
historiesofthemagazine,whichallowforthecreativesartorialexpressionsofBrazilian
subjectstobeforegrounded,asopposedtosilenced.
Intakingintoaccountmyauto-ethnography,itisimportanttooutlinewhatwas
atstakeinmyselectionofindividualsnapshots.Ratherthanimposeanyassumptions
ontotheprimarymaterial,Iallowedthestartingpointtobetheimagesthemselves.In
ordertoremainsensitivetothematerialityofthemagazine(andthedigitalscreenof
myiPadandcomputerscreen),aswellastothereader/viewer’sspecificexperienceof
interactingwithit,thiscarefulandclose-upanalysiscouldonlyhavebeenconducted
byme,sincetheexperiencewasnecessarilyoneofunequivocalsubjectivity.During
thenumeroushoursspentinLondon,WashingtonDCandSaoPauloexaminingevery
singlecopyofNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasiltodate,butalso
duringthetimespentthinkingaboutanddiscussingtheimageswitharchivists,editors
andcontributors,Iwasconcernedfirstandforemostwiththoseparticularimagesthat
74Itiscertainthatno-onecanknowexactlywhatNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilviewersthoughtandfeltattheexactmomentintimeandspacethattheyengagedwiththemagazine.Suchinformationonthemagazines’readershipisnotthefocusofthethesisbutadifferentprojectthatwouldconstituteaculturalhistoryoftheNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilreadertodate.ThisprojecthasalreadybeeninitiatedinpartbyHawkins,whoengagedwiththeNationalGeographicSocietyArchive’svastcollectionoflettersinordertodeterminehowreadersdirectlyrespondedtoimagespublishedinNationalGeographic,throughhowtheyvoicedtheirresponsestothemagazineinwriting.Hawkins,AmericanIconographic.
58
revealedthenuancesandcomplexitiesofBraziliandress.75Whilstthecomplete
archiveofeachissueofNationalGeographicproducedtodateispublishedand
availabletopurchaseinexpensivelyasadigitalcollectiononDVD,theNational
GeographicSocietyArchiveinWashingtonDCisfarlesswillingtoallowscholarsand
journalistsaccesstoitsricharchivalmaterial,whichincludescorrespondencesent
betweeneditors,contributorsandreaders,workingdraftsofarticles,andunpublished
photographs.76Thatmyrequestforaccesswasreceivedfavourablyislikelyduetothe
natureofmytopic,whichstaffgenerallyseemedmoreintriguedbythananxiousofits
potentialtodamagethereputationofthemagazine.Nevertheless,oncegranted
accesstothearchive,Iwasnotallowedfreereign,butcouldonlyaccessinformation
withintheRecordsLibrarybyrequestingmicroficheanddigitalfilesrelatedto
particulararticles.Iwasfrequentlyinformedthatfileswereunavailabletoview,andit
wasonlythroughdeterminationandinsistencethatIwasabletoexamineallofthe
materialrelatedtotheparticularsnapshotsthatIhadselectedpreviously,through
closevisualanalysisofeveryeditionofthemagazinepublishedtodateintheBritish
Library,London.ThenatureofmyexperienceatNationalGeographicBrasilinSao
PaulowasmarkedlydifferenttothatinWashingtonDC,sinceaccesstoarchival
material,althoughbynomeansasextensive,wasfluidandopen,andstaffwentoutof
theirwaytolocaterelevantfiles,whichincludedunpublishedphotographs,readership
statistics,andeveryeditionofthemagazinepublishedtodate.Itwasveryeasytofind
outinformationverballyontheeditorialprocessesofNationalGeographicBrasil,
75Thisclose-upview,however,concernedasitwaswiththemoresubtleandperformativequalitiesofdressasamaterialobject,couldnotalwaysadhererigidlytoitsmethodology,andoccasionally,thetermsnapshotdenotesnotjustoneimage,butanumberofimages.Totrytolevelthedatasothatitcouldfittoarigidmethodology(ofonesnapshotconstitutingonephotograph)wouldbetoimposeafalsenarrativeontotheprimarymaterial,sincethefluidityofthechosensnapshotsalsoreflectshowthemeaningsoftheimagesthemselveshaveshifted,andcontinuetoshift.76Thisreluctanceisnotsurprisingduetothehighlycriticalnatureofpreviousscholarship.
59
whichhadnotpreviouslybeenpossibleatNationalGeographic,butIwasunableto
viewcorrespondenceexchangedbetweencontributors,editorsandreaderssincethis
waslargelyconductedinconversationorviaemail.IwasinformedbystaffatNational
GeographicBrasilthatitwasveryinterestingtorespondtothequestionsthatIasked
asanoutsider,sinceitpromptedthemtoreflectupontheirownidentityandculturein
awaythattheyhadnotpreviouslyconsidered.Thiswasagoodexampleofhow
enteringthecontactzoneasaresearchercanbeapositiveexperience,sinceitenabled
metoaskquestionsthatmightnothaveseemedimportantorinterestingtoaBrazilian
researcher,andthereforehighlightstheimportanceofhavinganawarenessofone’s
positionalityasaresearcher.WhilstatNationalGeographicandNationalGeographic
Brasil,Ialsoconducted15semi-structuredinterviewsinperson,onSkypeandvia
emailthatIrecordedandlatertranscribed.AlthoughIplannedaseriesofquestionsin
advance,thesewerereasonablyopen-endedtogivetheintervieweestheopportunity
toanswerfreely,andforthecourseoftheinterviewtotakeamorenaturaldirection
intheformofanextendedconversation.77
IconductedalloftheseinterviewsinEnglish,whichleadsmeontomakea
briefcommentonmytranslationofPortugueselanguagematerialsthroughoutthis
thesis.IstudiedBrazilianPortuguesewhilstresearchingmythesis,whichenabledme
totravelwitheasearoundBrazilwhilstonmystudytripandtoconducttranslationsof
writtenmaterialsforbasiccomprehension.IworkedcloselywithAmandaCalazansto
77Ifoundface-to-faceinterviewstobeamoreeffectivemethodofgatheringinformationaboutthemagazine,sincetheyenabledmetoclarifytheinterviewee’sresponsesandtoprobetheinformationthattheysuppliedalittlemoredeeply.AlthoughIstillmanagedtocollectveryinterestingresults,Ifoundemailalesseffectivemethodofinterviewing,sincetheintervieweestendedsimplytorespondtomyquestionsandIwasunable,withoutsendinganotheremail,toadjusttheinterviewaccordingly,whethertomakeclarificationsortoprobearesponsemoredeeply.Intervieweesalsodifferedinthelengthanddepthofresponsestomyquestions.
60
makearichertranslationoftheNationalGeographicBrasilarticlesthatIhadselected
tofocusoningreaterdetail.Thiscross-culturalandbilingualexperienceenabledmeto
graspthemeaningofBrazilianPortuguesewordssuchassaudade,whichhasnodirect
EnglishtranslationbutiscommonlyusedthroughoutBraziltodescribeafeelingof
nostalgiaorlonging.Collaboratingwithanativespeakerwasagoodexampleofhow
productiveitistoresearchandwritefromwithinthecontactzone;thisprocess
prompteddiscussionanddebateastheperspectiveofatwenty-fiveyearoldwhite
BrazilianwomanfromthenortheasternstateofPernambucomergedwithmyown
interpretations.InmyuseofkeytextswritteninPortuguese,suchasAndrade’s
‘ManifestoAntropófago’,IrelieduponthemostcomprehensivetranslationthatI
couldfind.IwasnotafraidtousemyownknowledgeofBrazilianPortugueseto
questionaspectsoftranslationsthatIfeltwereambiguous,andthisisclearly
highlightedinmyfootnotes.ThiswasveryimportantsinceIamwellawarethatthe
meaningofanytextisoftenheterogeneous,bothonitsproductionandreception,and
willreaddifferentlytosubjectslocatedincontrastingpositionsofpowerwithinthe
contactzone.Crucially,notbeingfluentinBrazilianPortuguesedidnothaveanegative
impactonmyresearch,butwasaproductivedynamicthatrequiredcollaborationwith
anativespeaker,inaprocessthatwasfittingtotheprocessesofreading,writing,
researchingandtranslatingfromwithinthecontactzone.Itmeansthatthisthesis,in
itsvisualandwrittencomponents,istrulytheproductofatleastthreecontactzones,
inexistencebetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,theUnitedKingdomandBrazil,and
Brazilanditself.
61
ResearchQuestions
ThestructureofthisthesisdrawsaparallelwithGaillard’screativeconstruction
of‘L’OrigamiduMonde’andcanbeunderstoodasacontactzonethroughtheway
thatitcompressesspaceandtime,andformscommonalitiesandconflicts,acrossthe
elevensnapshotsexamined.Itseekstounpick,investigateandanalyseseveralkey
questions,andsummarisetheconclusionsprovidedbyanexaminationofthesepulled
threadsinthefabricofNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.Howhas
NationalGeographicfashionedandnarratedanimageofBrazilthroughits
representationofBraziliandressandfashion?Howdotheserepresentational
strategiesrelatetothoseofthebroaderglobalmediascape?Howdothemagazine’s
differentgazesontoBraziliandressandfashionreflectglobal,political,social,cultural
andeconomicattitudesandagendasbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil?Howmight
photographicsnapshotsofdressbreakoutofthesedifferentgazes,whether
ethnographic,documentaryorfashionable,byenablingactiveBraziliansubjectsto
self-consciouslyfashion,throughpose,performance,expression,gestureandthe
mobilisationoftheirownmultiplegazes?HowdoestherepresentationofBrazilian
dressinNationalGeographicBrasilcastalightuponNationalGeographic’s
representationalstrategies?
62
PartOne.
Chapter1.
Anthropophagy:theFirstHundredYearsofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographic
• Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’,April1926• Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear,October1942• Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaint,September1971
Prattemphasisedthatthecontactzonedelineatedachargedsiteof
entanglementbetweentwounequalandseparateculturalgroups.Sheasked:‘What
dopeopleonthereceivingendofempiredowithmetropolitanmodesof
representation?Howdotheyappropriatethem?Howdotheytalkback?’78Brazilian
modernistauthorOswalddeAndradeengagedwithasimilarsetofquestionswhenhe
publishedthe‘ManifestoAntropófago’(May1928,hereafterreferredtoastheMA)in
thefirsteditionofSaoPauloculturalreviewRevistadeAntropofagia.79Asoneofthe
foundersoftheRevistadeAntropofagia,Andradecreatedthemetaphorof
‘antropofagia’,translatedfromPortugueseintoEnglishas‘anthropophagy’,atthe
heightofmodernisationinBrazil,whenEuropeanmodernistavant-gardemovements
werebecomingincreasinglyinfluentialtoBrazilianartistsandintellectuals.80Heused
78Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.7.79OswalddeAndrade,'ManifestoAntropófago',RevistadeAntropofagia,1.1(1928),6-7.ThroughoutthisthesisIwillusetheannotatedEnglishtranslationofAndrade’sworkbyLeslieBary.OswalddeAndrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,trans.byLeslieBary,LatinAmericanLiteraryReview,19.38(1991),38-47.80ItisimportanttonotethatBarytranslatedthe‘ManifestoAntropófago’asthe‘CannibalistManifesto’.Throughoutthisthesis,however,Iprefertousethetranslation‘AnthropophagicManifesto’.Thisisbecausethereisadifferenceintheetymologyandhistoryofthetwonouns:‘cannibalism’,definedas‘thepracticeofeatingthefleshofone’sownspecies’,and‘anthropophagy’,definedas‘theeatingofhumanfleshbyhumanbeings’.OxfordDictionary<http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/>[accessed29May2015]MelePestidiscussedthisdistinctionatlengthinChapter2ofherdoctoralthesis.Shepointedoutthatbothterms,antropofagiaandcannibalismo,existedinBrazilianPortuguesewhenAndradewaswritingand,whilsttheyhavesimilarconnotations(asindeedtheydoinEnglish),cannibalismoisafarmorecommonwordwith‘acargoofpejorativeconnotations’.Andrade’schoiceofthewordantropofagiawasthereforenotaccidental,butanintentionalmeansofreversingthenegativeassociationsofcannibalismo,andplacingtheconceptualactofconsuminghumanfleshinanovelandpositivelight.MelePesti,‘FromanIntuitiveMetaphorTowardsaWorkingCulturalModel:“Anthropophagy”inOswalddeAndrade’s“AnthropophagicManifesto”anditsDevelopmentin20thCenturyBrazil’(unpublisheddoctoralthesis,TallinnUniversity,2014),pp.74-75.
63
themetaphorofdigestiontoconceptualisehowthesubordinateBraziliansubject
consumedelementsofadominantEuropeanorNorthAmericanculture,swallowed
whatwasnecessary,anddefecatedwhatwasnolongerofanyuse.Thiscriticaland
creativeprocess,whichoperatedpreciselyinthisunevenspaceofrelationality
betweenformercoloniserandcolonised,enabledtheBraziliansubjecttocannibalise
thecolonialculturalidentity,inordertoregurgitateanentirelynewanddistinctive
oneinpostcolonialBrazil.Andradedeconstructedthenegativeconnotationsof
cannibalismpervasiveinpopularWesterndiscoursesthatcondemnedthebarbaricand
uncivilisedflesh-eatingOther.81Instead,heofferedacrucialantidotetosuch
carnivalesquefictionsofgrotesquerie,andcreatedapositiveself-presentationofa
Brazilianculturethatcreativelydevoureddominanttrendsfromabroad,addressing
thespecificthemesofmodernism,nationalism,primitivismandanti-colonialismin
Brazil.
AndradewasamajorrepresentativeofBrazilianModernismo,aninfluential
intellectualandartisticmovementthatemergedinSaoPauloaftertheFirstWorldWar
andsoughtacriticalresponsetoEuropeanmodernitywhichcouldre-positionBrazil
withoutneglectingnationalrealities.Thisinterdisciplinarymovementincluded
BrazilianartistsEmilianodiCavalcantiandTarsiladoAmaral,composerHeitorVilla-
Lobos,sculptorVictorBrecheretandpoetMáriodeAndrade(norelationtoOswald).It
washeraldedbytheModernArtWeek,heldinSaoPauloinFebruary1922,which
celebratedthecentennialofBrazilianindependencefromPortuguesecolonialrule.82
81ThecollectionofessayspublishedinCannibalismandtheColonialWorldaddressedtheWesternfascinationwiththenegativeimageofthesavageandnon-WesterncannibalsinceChristopherColumbus’‘discovery’oftheNewWorld.CannibalismandtheColonialWorld,ed.byFrancisBarker,PeterHulme,andMargaretIverson(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).82BeatrizResende,‘BrazilianModernism:TheCanonisedRevolution’inThroughTheKaleidoscope:TheExperienceofModernityinLatinAmerica,ed.byVivianSchelling(LondonandNewYork:Verso,2000),pp.199-218.
64
ModernismosoughtaestheticindependencefromEuropeandtheUnitedStates,and
conceptualisedadistinctivelymodernBrazilianartisticandculturalidentitythatdid
notmerelyimitatevanguardart,literaryandarchitecturalmovements,but
refashionedthemtoaddressBrazilianconcerns.ItbeganwithOswalddeAndrade’s
‘ManifestodaPoesiaPau-Brasil’(March1924)publishedintheCorreiodaManha,
whereinhearguedthatBrazilianidentitywassituatedinbetweenthemodernandthe
tropical.83Thiswasfollowedbyhistourdeforce,theMA,whichresonatedwith
Modernismo’sdesireforamodernBrazilianculturalidentitythatcouldengagewith
thePrimitivistartaestheticcurrentlyinvogueinEurope.Andradefoundinspirationin
pre-colonialBraziliancultureandusedthemetaphorofanthropophagytodescribethe
processbywhichtheBraziliansubjectfashionedhermodernnationalidentityas
autonomousandoriginal,asopposedtodependentandderivative.Thispositive
identificationofgivingaqualitytosomethingthroughtheprocessofanthropophagy
hasbeenexpandeduponbyBeatrizResende,whohaspointedoutthat‘enemies
deservetobeeatenonlyiftheydemonstratespecialqualities[…]suchascouragein
battleandindefeat’.84Andradecelebratedanthropophagyasacriticalstrategy
throughwhichtheBraziliansubject,ratherthanstraightforwardlyimitatingor
rejectingaforeignEuropeanorNorthAmericanculture,swalloweditspositive
strengths,defecatedwhatwasofnouse,andincorporatedforeignthoughtintothe
nativeself.
Thefirstsevennon-linkedshortsectionsoftheMAhighlightitsinterrupted
form,contradictorysentences,varietyofallusions,fragmentedvisualspacing,anduse
ofparodyandpuns:
83OswalddeAndrade,‘ManifestoofPau-BrasilPoetry’,trans.byStellaM.deSáRego,LatinAmericanLiteraryReview,14.27(1986),184-87.84Resende,‘BrazilianModernism:TheCanonisedRevolution’,p.207.
65
Cannibalismaloneunitesus.Socially.Economically.Philosophically[…]
* * *
Tupiornottupi,thatisthequestion[…]
* * *
Iamconcernedonlywithwhatisnotmine.LawofMan.Lawofthecannibal[…]
* * *
Whatclashedwiththetruthwasclothing,thatraincoatplacedbetweentheinnerandouterworlds.Thereactionagainstthedressedman.American
movieswillinformus.85
Withnocoherentnarrativeandnumerousunfinishedstatements,theMAisdifficultto
interpretandmustbeunderstood,asCarlosJaureguihasemphasised,as‘acollection
ofsurrealistphrases’asopposedto‘asystematicproposal’.86Ambiguityisabundant
throughoutAndrade’swritingstyle,whichintentionallyinterweavesnumerous
ambiguousmeaningsandinterpretativepossibilitiesinfragmentedform.Thiscritical
strategymayhavebeenintentionallydeployedbyAndradetorelievethewriterof
completeandoverdeterminedcontroloverhistext,whichisinsteadoffereduptothe
readertoextrapolatefurthermeaning.Dress,byitsveryambiguityasacontradictory
formofculturalexpressionsubjecttocontinuousrepositioning,isafittingmedium
throughwhichtoteaseoutandanalyseanumberofpossibleinterpretativethreads
fromtheMA.87
TheMApresentsaninnovativeformofBrazilianartisticexpression,which
rejectsEuropeanstylesofwriting.Thisisexplicitinthecannibalisationofthemostwell
85Andrade‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.86CarlosJauregui,‘Antropófagia’,inDictionaryofLatinAmericanCulturalStudies(Gainesville:TheUniversityPressofFlorida,2012),p.25.87Whetherintendedbythewearerormerelyimputedbytheviewer,dress,asFredDavishasasserted,‘”merelysuggests”morethanitcan(orintendsto)stateprecisely’.FredDavis,Fashion,CultureandIdentity(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1992),p.3.
66
knownphrasefromHamlet,astheprotagonistcontemplatedhisownsuicideand
weighedupwhetherornottoexist:‘TupiornotTupi,thatisthequestion’.88Thisline
waswritteninEnglishintheoriginalBrazilianPortugueseversionoftheMA.Tupiisthe
common,generalisednameforthevariousdifferentindigenousgroupslivinginBrazil.
Inthefifthsection,Andradeusedthemetaphorofdigestiontore-interpretthe
traditionalunderstandingofcannibalisminWesterndiscourseinawidersenseto
relatetothatwhichisnothis.Hetherebymovedawayfromthenegativitythatthe
WesthasconstructedaroundtheoppressivefigureofthesavagecannibalOtherwho
devouredhisenemies,andtowardsanunderstandingoftheprocessofanthropophagy
asacreativeactofappropriation:‘Iamconcernedonlywithwhatisnotmine.Lawof
Man.Lawofthecannibal.’89
Andradereferredtodressdirectlyonlyintheseventhsection,whenhe
expressed:‘Whatclashedwiththetruthwasclothing,thatraincoatplacedbetween
theinnerandouterworlds.Thereactionagainstthedressedman.Americanmovies
willinformus.’90Hedrewanimportantconnectionherewiththebroaderhistorical
trajectoryoftravelandwrittenaccountsofit,bothofteninextricablylinkedto
Westerncolonialism,withinwhichtheunclothed‘primitive’non-Westernbodywas
frequentlyusedtoconstructandarticulatefundamentalsocial,cultural,politicaland
moraldifferencesfromtheclothedand‘civilised’Westernbody.Inthisregard,
Andrademayhaveequatedcolonialismwithanoppressiveattempttodressand
oppressthenaturalBrazilian‘body’.Yethisuseoftheterm‘raincoat’isinteresting,
sincethisitemofdressisbothanimpermeablebarrierworntoprotectthebodyfrom
undesirable,outsideelements,andamediator,asecondskinthatenablesthewearer
88Andrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.89Ibid.90Ibid.
67
tocomeintocontactwiththeoutsideworld,regardlessofweatherconditions.Inthis
respect,araincoatcanbothcreateboundaries,separatingandcontainingthe‘inner’
worldoftheprivateSelffromthe‘outer’worldofthepublicOther,andde-construct
them,constitutingavehiclethroughwhichtheother(theunknownandoutsideworld)
istangiblyexperiencedandbroughtintocontactwiththeself(ourknown,inside
world).AparallelcanbedrawnherewithMarks’assertionthatwe‘allliveonthesame
surface,thesameskin.Ifothersareunfathomable,itisbecauseittakesaninfinite
numberoffoldstoreallyreachthem.’91Toapplythisstatementwithspecificreference
tothischapterwouldbetosuggestthatitisnotthatBraziliansubjectsareultimately
unknowabletotheNationalGeographicviewerbecauseoftheirostensibledifferences
indress,butthatitrequirestheunfoldingofinfinitenumbersoflayersbeforethe
meaningoftheirsartorialpracticescanbeunderstood,andthereforebeforeBrazilcan
becomeknowable.Fromhisdisjointedphrases,onecannotbeentirelysureofwhat
Andradewasdescribing,exceptthatthereisa‘reactionagainstthedressedman’.92He
alsoassertedthat‘Americanmovieswillinformus’andacknowledgedthepopularity
ofHollywoodfilmsinBrazilthroughoutthe1920s,whichreflectedadeepfascination
withU.S.culture.93IfwereflectonNationalGeographic’sgazethroughtheprismof
anthropophagy,wemaydetectthenowactiveandclothedanthropophagicBrazilian
subject,whobecomesamultivalentsiteofpotentialtobreakdownthebarrier
betweenSelfandOther,bypresentinganimportantsubjectivitythroughwhichtore-
thinkthemagazine’srepresentationalpolitics.
ByhighlightingtherepresentationalambiguityofBraziliandressthathasbeen
wovenintothefabricofNationalGeographic,thischapterwillexaminethe
91Marks,Touch:SensuousTheoryandMultisensoryMedia,p.xii.92Andrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.93Ibid.
68
complexitiesofclothingasbothbarrierandmediator.Thethreesnapshotsorcase
studiesthatthischapterexaminesspanaperiodofforty-fiveyearsandwillbe
contextualisedwithcontemporaryexamplesfrommainstreamprintmedia,todraw
pointsofcomparisonanddistinction.94Thefirstsnapshotwaswrittenand
photographedbyU.S.ArmyAirCorpsofficerAlbertW.Stevensandpublishedinthe
magazineinApril1926,twoyearspriortothepublicationofAndrade’sMA.95The
secondwaswrittenbytheAmericanauthorHenryAlbertPhillipsandpublishedin
NationalGeographicinOctober1942.96Thethirdwaswrittenandphotographedby
theBrazilianphotographeranddocumentaryfilmmakerofGermandescent,W.Jesco
vonPuttkamer,andpublishedinNationalGeographicinSeptember1971.97This
chapterusesanthropophagyasacriticallensthroughwhichtoquestion,firstly,what
visualandtextualstrategiesNationalGeographichasusedtofashionanideaofBrazil
overthecourseofthetwentiethcenturyand,secondly,towhatextentBrazilian
subjectscanbeseentohaveself-fashioned,throughtheirabilitytoselectively
appropriateideas,stylesandmotifsderivedfromcontemporaryNorthAmericanand
Europeanculture.98Doesanthropophagyprovideapotentialmeansofresistance,
94AlbertW.Stevens,‘ExploringthevalleyoftheAmazoninahydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.353-420;HenryAlbertPhillips,‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporterspotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnitedNations’,NationalGeographic,October1942,pp.503-36;W.JescovonPuttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’,NationalGeographic,September1971,pp.420-44.95Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’.96Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’.97Puttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’.98AlthoughtheMAwaspublishedin1928,itisrelevanttoadiscussionofallthreesnapshotsbecausetheideasdiscussedwithinitwerebeingarticulatedandnegotiatedinBrazilthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Forexample,OswalddeAndrade’s‘ManifestodaPoesiaPau-Brasil’waspublishedinMarch1924,onemonthbeforethefirstsnapshotexaminedwaspublishedinNationalGeographic.ThesecondsnapshotwaspublishedinOctober1942,thesameyear(inFebruary)thatMáriodeAndradepublishedanessayentitled‘OMovimentoModernista’,inwhichheretrospectivelyacknowledgedhowBrazilwascreatedanewthroughthemetaphorofcannibalism,butalsopointedoutsomeofthelimitationsofOswalddeAndrade’sargument.ThethirdsnapshotwaspublishedinSeptember1971andcoincidedwiththeleft-wingculturalandartisticmovementinBrazilknownasTropicàlia,whichrecycledthethemeofanthropophagyinthelate1960sasareactiontotheearlyyearsoftheright-wingBrazilianmilitarydictatorship.Inordertomaintainitsfocus,thisthesiswillusetheManifestoAntropófagoasitsstartingpointforananalysisoftherepresentationofBraziliandressinallthreesnapshots.
69
whichhasenabledBraziliansubjectstopreservetheirownculturalagencywhilst
sartorially‘talkingback’todominantrepresentationsofBrazilinNationalGeographic?
Arethereanyproblemsinherenttotheprocessofanthropophagy?
TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicOverOneHundredYears
ItisimportanttoincludeabriefcommentontherepresentationofBrazilin
NationalGeographicoverthefirsthundredyearsaftertheestablishmentofthe
magazineinSeptember1888.NationalGeographicfirstmadecontactwithBrazilin
April1906,thesameyearthatthePan-AmericanConferencewasheldinRiode
Janeiro.99Pan-AmericanismemergedatthecloseofthenineteenthcenturyasAmerica
activelysoughttoexpanditscommercial,social,political,economicandmilitary
contactwiththenationsofCentralandSouthAmerica.100Fromthispointonand
continuinguntilMarch1987,NationalGeographicpublishedthirty-sevenarticleson
Brazil.101Althoughtheyappearedtofollownoregularpattern,threekeytrendscanbe
notedoverthecourseofthetwentiethcentury.Thefirsttrendemergedbetween1909
and1933,whenNationalGeographicfocuseduponthevastandunexploredAmazon
regionanditsindigenouspopulations.AnarrativeofAmericanexpansionismwas
mythologisedbyarticlesthatstressedactive,masculinepursuitsintheAmazonregion;
see,forexample:‘FishingandHuntingTalesfromBrazil’(October1909),‘TheAmazon,
FatherofWaters’(April1926),‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’
99Anon.,‘WhattheLatinAmericanRepublicsthinkofthePanAmericanConferences’,NationalGeographic,August1906,pp.474-79;Anon.,‘BrazilandPeru’,NationalGeographic,April1906,pp.203-04.100JosephSmith,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil:ConvergencesandDivergences(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2010),p.4.101RefertoAppendix1foratimelinetracingthese37articlesontokeyeventsinthehistoryofBrazilandBrazilianinteractionswiththeUnitedStatesfrom1888to1988.
70
(April1926),‘ThroughBraziltotheSummitofMountRoraima’(November1930),‘In
Humboldt’sWake’(November1931),whichreferencedtheGermannaturalist
AlexandervonHumboldt,renownedforhislate-eighteenth-centuryromantic
descriptionsoflushvegetationcurvingandswellinginthetropics,and‘AJourneyby
JungleRivers’(November1933).102Thesecondtrendappearedbetween1939and
1945,aperiodofworldwidefragmentationandanxietyasaresultoftheevents
leadingupto,andfollowing,theoutbreakofwarinEuropeinSeptember1939.Four
articlesonBrazilwerepublishedinNationalGeographicduringthisperiod.Each
focusedonRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,andoutlinedthesimilaritiesbetweenBrazil
andtheUnitedStatesintermsofmagnitude,modernityandcapitalism,emphasised
throughdynamicarchitectureandbusystreetspopulatedbyworkersandshoppersof
predominantlyEuropeandescentdressedinWestern-stylefashions.Thearticles
emphasisedthemodernisationandindustrialisationofBrazil,asisclearfromtheir
titles:‘AsSaoPauloGrows’(May1939),‘RioPanorama’(September1939),‘Air
CruisingThroughNewBrazil’(October1942),and‘Brazil’sPotentWeapons’(January
1944).103ThisnarrativecanbeunderstoodasamanifestationofPresidentTheodore
Roosevelt’sGoodNeighborPolicy,whichwasadvancedduringwartimeandappeared
toemphasisealessinterventionistapproachtointeractionswithintheWestern
102DeweyAustinCobb,‘FishingandHuntingTalesfromBrazil’,NationalGeographic,October1909,pp.917-20;W.L.Schurtz,‘TheAmazon,FatherofWaters’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.444-63;Stevens,‘ExploringthevalleyoftheAmazoninahydroplane’;G.H.H.Tate,‘ThroughBraziltotheSummitofMountRoraima’,NationalGeographic,November1930,pp.584-605;ErnestG.Holt,‘InHumboldt’sWake:NarrativeofaNationalGeographicSocietyExpeditionuptheOrinocoandthroughthestrangeCasiquiareCanaltoAmazonianWaters’,NationalGeographic,November1931,pp.620-44;ErnestG.Holt,‘AJourneybyJungleRiverstotheHomeoftheCock-of-the-Rock’,NationalGeographic,November1933,pp.585-630.103RobertW.Moore,‘AsSaoPauloGrows:HalftheWorld’sCoffeeBeansFlavourtheLifeandSpeedtheGrowthofanInlandBrazilCity’,NationalGeographic,May1939,pp.657-88;Moore,‘RioPanorama:BreathtakingisthisFantasticcityamidpeaks,palmsandsea,andincarnivaltimeitmovestotheRhythmofMusic’,NationalGeographic,September1939,pp.283-324;Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’;Moore,‘Brazil’sPotentWeapons:BrazilsuppliestheAllieswithmanyvaluableproducts,includingiron,manganese,quartz,rubber,vegetableoils,andinsecticides’,NationalGeographic,January1944,pp.41-78.
71
Hemisphere.104Thethirdtrendappearedbetween1964and1984,duringthethroesof
theright-wingmilitarydictatorshipinBrazil,whichwaspoliticallyalignedtotheUnited
States.Articlespublishedduringthisperiodfocusedontheindigenouspeoplesof
Brazil;see,forexample:‘IndiansoftheAmazonDarkness’(May1964),‘TheWaura:
BrazilianIndiansoftheHiddenXingu’(January1966),‘SavingBrazil’sStoneAgeTribes
fromExtinction’(September1968),‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLarga’(September1971),
‘Brazil’sKreen-Akores:RequiemforaTribe?’(February1975),‘Brazil’sTxukahameis:
GoodbyetotheStoneAge’(February1975),‘ManintheAmazon:StoneAgePresent
meetsStoneAgePast’(January1979)and‘Brazil’sKayapoIndians:BesetbyaGolden
Curse’(May1984).105Thesetitlesstressedasenseofloss,whichpresumedthatthe
interactionsofindigenouspeopleswith‘civilisation’wereleadingtotheireventual
demise.ItwasthereforeapparentlylefttoNationalGeographictorepresentthem
beforetheydisappeared,andindoingso,ensurethattheydidnotvanishirretrievably.
ThefinalobservationtonoteisthatfromApril1906toMarch1987therewasno
representationinNationalGeographicofAfro-Brazilians,norofthenortheasternstate
ofBahiawhich,aftertheabolitionofslaveryinBrazilin1888,establishedits
reputation,stillapplicabletoday,astheregionmostpopulatedbyAfro-Brazilians.106
104AntônioPedroTota,TheSeductionofBrazil:theAmericanizationofBrazilduringWorldWarII(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2009).105HaroldSchultz,‘IndiansoftheAmazonDarkness’,NationalGeographic,May1964,pp.736-58;Schultz,‘TheWaura:BrazilianIndiansoftheHiddenXingu’,NationalGeographic,January1966,pp.130-52;OrlandoandClaudioVillasBoas,,‘SavingBrazil’sStoneAgeTribesfromExtinction’,NationalGeographic,September1968,pp.424-44;Puttkamer,‘BrazilprotectsherCintaLargas’;Puttkamer,‘Brazil’sTxukahameis:GoodbyetotheStoneAge’,NationalGeographic,February1975,pp.270-83;Puttkamer,‘ManintheAmazon:StoneAgePresentmeetsStoneAgePast’,NationalGeographic,January1979,pp.60-83;VanessaLea,‘Brazil’sKayapoIndians:BesetbyaGoldenCurse’,NationalGeographic,May1984,pp.674-94.106RefertoAppendix1foramapdetailingthegeographicallocationofthe37articlesonBrazilthatwerepublishedinNationalGeographicduringthisperiod.
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AnEthnographicGazeonBrazilinanAgeofPan-Americanism
ThefirstsnapshotwaspublishedinNationalGeographicinApril1926,inan
articleentitled‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane:twelvethousand
milesofflyingovertheworld’sgreatestriverandgreatestforesttocharttheunknown
Parimariverfromthesky’.107ThearticlewaswrittenandphotographedbyStevens,
‘observerandaerialphotographer’,anddocumentedtheAlexanderHamiltonRice
ScientificExpedition(1924-25)totheupperAmazonRiverbasin.108Thiswasthe
seventhexpeditiontotheAmazonthattheAmericanexplorerAlexanderHamilton
Ricehaddirectedanditwassupportedbythelatestsurveyingtechnology,which
includedabespokehydroplanespeciallyequippedtoundertakeaerialphotography.109
Theaimoftheexpeditionwasto‘surveyandmaptheRioBrancoanditswestern
tributary,theRioUraricoera,followingthelattertoitssourceintheSerraParimaand
toascertainwhetheranypassageexistedbetweentheheadwatersofthisriverand
thoseoftheOrinoco,thustyingthissurveytotheonecarriedoutontheleader’s
1919-1920expedition’.110Italsosought‘togatheranthropologicalandethnographical
data’and‘tomakeamedicalsurvey’oftheindigenouspeoplesencountered.111Amap
oftheexpeditionwaspublishedinNationalGeographicandcanbeseeninFig.2.0.112
Theroutepursuedbythepartycanbetracedonthismapalongthe‘RioNegroto
107Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’.108Ibid.,p.393.109LucianaMartins,‘FilmingTerraIncognita:theExplorationoftheAmazon’,inPhotographyandDocumentaryFilmintheMakingofModernBrazil(ManchesterandNewYork:ManchesterUniversityPress,2013),pp.40-70.ThepartyconsistedofAlexanderHamiltonRice(director),AlbertW.Stevens(observerandaerialphotographer),WeldArnold(cartographer),DrKoch-Grunberg(ethnologist),DrGeorgeShattuck(physician),CharlesC.Bull(assistant),WalterHinton(hydroplanepilot),JohnC.Couzens(engineer),JohnE.Wilshusen(airplanemechanic),JohnW.Swanson(radiotelegraphist),ThomasS.MacCaleb(radiotelegraphist),HermannDengler(draftsman),SilvianoSantos(filmoperator)andRamundoCamara(assistant).110Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.353.111Ibid.,p.357.112Ibid.,p.354.
73
Carvoeiro,thenfollowingtheRioBrancotothetownofBoaVista,beforeheadingto
BoaEsperançaalongtheRioUraricoera.Fromheretheexpeditioncontinuedtothe
confluenceoftheRioAracasaandtheRioParima,followingtheUraricoertoitsSerra
Parimasource’.113Despiteconditionsthatmadeexplorationphysicallyand
psychologicallygruelling,suchexpeditionswerecommonintheearlydecadesofthe
twentiethcentury.114Ex-presidentTheodoreRoosevelthadparticipatedinascientific
expeditiontotheregionin1913-14,andenthusiasticallyreported:‘Thiscountryand
theadjacentregions,formingthehighinteriorofWesternBrazilwillsurelysomeday
supportalargeindustrialpopulationandwillbeahealthyhomeforaconsiderable
agriculturalandpastoralpopulation.’115InanageofincreasedPan-Americanism,North
Americanscientists,geographersandexplorersweremotivatedbyadesireto
documentandmapunchartedterraininSouthAmerica,nottomentionthepossibility
ofcommercialexploitationandeconomicexpansion.116
Asaresultofitsveneerofobjectivityandperceivedindexicality,thecamera
wasinvariablyusedonsuchexpeditionsasanobservationalandrecordingtool,to
documentnotonlytheterrainbutalsotheindigenouspeoplesandplantspecimens
encountered.Aclearexamplecanbeseeninatopographicalphotographincludedin
NationalGeographic(Fig.2.1)thatwasentitled‘Thefliersdiscoverthecampofan
113Ibid.,p.354.114Twowell-knownexamplesofNorthAmericanswhotravelledtoBrazilduringthisperiodaretheex-presidentTheodoreRoosevelt,whoaccompaniedBrazilianColonelCandidoRondontothe1,000metre-long‘RiverofDoubt’(laterrenamedRiverRoosevelt)inaremoteregionoftheAmazonbasinfrom1913-14,andtheAmericanindustrialistHenryFord,whosoughtareliablesourceofcultivatedrubberforthemanufacturingprocessesofhisFordMotorCompanyintheAmazon.Ford’scapitalistventuresculminatedintheill-fatedindustrialcityofFordlandia,locatedinthenorthernAmazoncityofSantaram,whichwasestablishedin1928andsoldatalossof$20millionin1945.TheodoreRoosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness(NewYork:Scribner,1914);GregGrandin,Fordlandia:TheRiseandFallofHenryFord’sForgottenJungleCity(NewYork:HenryHolt&Company,2010).115TheodoreRoosevelt,ThroughtheBrazilianWilderness(NewYork:Scribner,1914),p.217.116Smith,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil,p.56.
74
unknownIndiantribe,skillfullyconcealedfromallexcepttheairmen’.117Thisprovided
avisualreinforcementofdominancethroughitspanopticandprivilegedaerial
perspective,whichcapturedahugeswathofriveramongstablanketofrainforest,
brokenupbyasmallclearingtothetop-leftoftheframe.Thecaptioninformedthe
viewerthatthehydroplane,itselfanexemplarysymbolofWesternengineering,had
enabledNationalGeographicto‘discover’thepreviouslyhiddenhabitationofthis
unknownindigenousgroup.118Sincetheintroductionoftheuseofaerialphotography
formilitarypurposes,notablyduringWorldWarOne,thisformofphotographic
mappinghasbeenequatedwithanideologicalimpulsetomasterandconqueran
unpeopledlandscape.119Pratthasconflatedthissingular,summarisingbirds-eyeview,
elevatedaboveotherdocumentarymodesofrepresentation,withpowerandtermed
it‘themonarch-of-all-I-survey’trope,whereby‘theestheticqualitiesofthelandscape
constitutethesocialandmaterialvalueofthediscoverytotheexplorer’shome
culture,atthesametimeasitsestheticdeficienciessuggestaneedforsocialand
materialinterventionbythehomeculture’.120Thisunevenbalanceofpowerbetween
theseerandtheseenwasreinforcedwithinthetextoftheNationalGeographicarticle
throughcontinuedreferencetothehydroplaneas‘theeyesoftheexpedition’,along
with‘wewereprivilegedtoviewthejunglefromtheair’and‘wheretheuntrodden
junglepresentedamattedandalmostimpenetrablewalltomenonfoot,it
surrendereditssecretsreadilytomeninthesky’.121Theuseofthecamera,andits
117Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.370.118Ibid.119ForfurtherinformationonaerialphotographytakenfromthehydroplanerefertoStevens,‘TheHydroplaneoftheHamiltonRiceExpedition,1924-25,’TheGeographicalJournal,68.1(1926),27-43.120Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.201.MichelFoucaultandAllanSekulahavebothassociatedthisunifyingandtotalisinggazewiththeauthoritarianeyeofthestateandtheindividualvoyeur.MichelFoucault,DisciplineandPunish:TheBirthofthePrison(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1977);AllanSekula,‘TheTrafficinPhotographs’,ArtJournal,41.1(1981),15-25.121Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.353.
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associationswithscientificrationality,demonstratedcompetingimpulsesinNational
Geographic:todiscoverandlearn,butalsotomasterandorder.
Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’
IntandemwiththescientificreorderingoftheAmazonianlandscapefrom
above,photographstakenonthegroundrenderedBraziliansubjectsequally
transparenttoNationalGeographic’squasi-anthropologicalgaze.Thefirstsnapshot
thatthisthesisdiscusseswasprintedontheright-handsideofadouble-pageviewof
themagazine(Fig2.2).Twofull-lengthmonochromestudiespublishedonthesame
page,itcapturedananonymousmanandwomanoftheMakupopulationinanatural
forestsettingnexttoariver.122Inthephotographontheright,themanstandstalland
stillwithhisshoulderspulledback,hisarmshangingathissidesandhisleftlegplaced
atanangleinfrontofhisrightleg.Thereisanawkwardnessinthewaythatthetoes
onhisleftfootseemtocurlinwardsintotheground,whichcouldbeexpressiveof
resentmentatbeingscrutinised,orsimplyareflectionofhisinexperiencebeforethe
camera.Hegazesdirectlyintothelenswithaneutral,evenseriousexpression.Hehas
bobbeddarkhairandwearsacottonloinclothpassedbetweenthelegsandaround
thewaist.Inthephotographontheleft,apregnantwomanstandswithhershoulders
heldback,armsbyhersideandlegsapart.Sheisplacedatanangle,somewhere
betweenafullfrontalandprofileview,andgazesintentlyoutsideoftheframe
towardstheriver.Thisgivestheimpressionthatherprioritiesliebeyondthe
photographicframethatencasesher.Shealsohasbobbeddarkhairandwearsa
122Ibid.,pp.396-97.Thatthissnapshotisinblackandwhitereflectsthenormintheearlytwentiethcentury,whencolourphotographywasstillinitsinfancy.AnycolourphotographsreproducedinNationalGeographicduringthisperiodwerehand-paintedAutochromeimages.
76
patternedcottonaprontiedaroundherhips,wornwithacapemadefromaflimsy
materialdrapedoverhershoulders.Organisedasapair,eachwiththesubject
positionedseparatelyintheframe,isolatedinabrightandshallowspace,these
photographsweretypicalofthewell-establishednineteenth-centuryethnographic
practiceofphotographing‘types’basedupontheirgeographicallocationandphysical
appearance.Thetitle,‘AMakuSquawandHerHusband:ParimaRiver’,anchoredsuch
areductivereadingandattemptedtofixtheindividualswithinthecorrectethnic
identificationofthespecifictypesthattheyweresupposedtorepresent.123Thiswas
reinforcedwithinthebodyofthearticle,throughStevens’detailedaccountofthe
appearanceandcharacteristicsoftheMaku,whichconflatedcleanlinesswithorder
andrationality:
InfacialcontourtheyresembledMongoliantypes,andtheirstraightblackhairwascutina‘soup-bowl’bob[…]Eachindividualwasscrupulouslyclean,andweobservedthattheybathedregularly.Wefoundthemtobekeenmentally,sturdy,contented,helpfulandkindlytoeachother,buteachmanthoroughlyindependentandself-sufficing.Thiswasthefirsttime,apparently,thattheyhadhadanycontactwithcivilization.124
Thetwophotographsprintedontheleft-handsideofthedouble-pageview
mirroredthistypologicaltemplate.Inthecentreoftheframe,theycapturedthehead
andpartialtorsoofananonymousyoungboyandmanoftheMayongongpopulation
(Fig.2.3).125Ontheright,themanwasphotographedsquarelyinfrontofthecamera
andplacedagainstalightbackdrop.Hegazesslightlyupwards,withhisbrowfurrowed
ashesquintsintothebrightsunlightthatcastsashadowoverhisface,andhighlights
thecreasesaroundhiseyes.Tohisleft,ayoungboyisalsoplacedagainstabackdrop
123Ibid.,p.397.124Ibid.,p.400.125ElizabethEdwardshasoutlinedthesekeycharacteristicsinherexaminationofthescientificapplicationofphotographyinthenineteenthcenturyin‘OrderingOthers:Photography,AnthropologiesandTaxonomies’inInVisibleLight:PhotographyandClassificationinArt,ScienceandtheEveryday,ed.byChrissyIllesandRussellRoberts(Oxford:MuseumofModernArt,1997),pp.54-68.
77
devoidofanydistractingfeatures,andphotographedatananglewithintheframe.He
neithersmilesnorfrowns,butgazestohisright,ratherliketheindigenouswomanon
theoppositepage,atsomethingbeyondthephotographicframe.Theseimagesdrewa
parallelwiththeuseofthecamerainscienceandcriminologyintheirexposureofthe
subjects’facestocloseviewing.Withtheirblankbackdrops,thesubjectsbecame
displacedfromtimeandspace,encouragingtheviewertoinspectthemasseparate
racialentities.Thiswaseditoriallyreinforcedbytheclassificatorywhitegrid,consistent
withthegridlinesmarkedonthemapoftheexpedition(Fig.2.0),whichframedall
fourphotographsonthedouble-pagemagazinespread,andencouragedthemtobe
understoodbytheNationalGeographicviewerintermsoftheirimplicitorexplicit
relationtooneanother.Compositionaleffortonthepartofthephotographeris
reduced,andvariabilityintheresultingphotographrestsontheparticularitiesand
peculiaritiesofthesubjectandherimmediateenvironment.
However,acertainamountoftactilitywasrequiredtoviewthismagazine
spread,whichplacedthesecompleximagesbeyond,andincontradictionto,the
photographicgazethatostensiblyscrutinisedthem.TheNationalGeographicviewer
wasrequiredtorotatethemagazineninetydegreesclockwise,andgentlypullitapart
atitsseamsinordertoviewthefourphotographsintheircorrectandentireportrait
dimensions(Figs.2.4and2.5).Thistactilegesturebroughttheviewerintocloser
contactwiththerepresentedsubjects,throughtheinterconnectionspromptedby
simultaneouslytouchingandlooking.DiBellohasarticulatedthat‘forthetouching
subject,theobjecttouchedreciprocatesthetouching’,encouragingamoreembodied
andsensualencounterwiththephotographicobjectand‘blurringtheborderbetween
78
selfandother’.126InApril1926,NationalGeographicwasnotthethin,glossymagazine
recognisabletoday,butfarheavierandthickerwithtextured,mattepages.Ithad
certainsimilaritiestoascientificjournalsettingouttopresentadistancedand
detachedethnographicrecordoftheMaku.Yetitalsohadmanyaffinitieswiththe
familyphotographalbum,asoutlinedintheintroductiontothisthesis,sincethe
proximityofviewarguablyencouragedanintimacywiththesubjects,stirring
memoriesintheviewerandpromptingamorepersonalresponse.Dressenabledthis
dynamictobeextendedtothephysicalsensationofwearing,sothattouchlikewise
triggeredassociationsintheviewer,andrespondedtotheirownheightened
awarenessofhowclothingfeltandmovedontheirownbodies.Thevisualconnections
tobemadebetweenthehapticandthevisualencouragedNationalGeographic
viewers,notsimplytoseerepresenteddressedsubjectsasscientificspecimens,butto
‘feel’andfullycomprehendthemasliving,breathing,digesting,cannibalisingandself-
fashioninghumanbeings.
Thetactilesensationsevokedbythemagazineconstructedamorecomplete
andsingularexperienceofBraziliansubjectsinNationalGeographic,andprovidean
opportunitytore-readthefirstsnapshotinmoreintimatetermsthroughthe
frameworkofanthropophagy.Althoughvisuallythesnapshot(Fig.2.2)depictedthe
anthropometricbody,thecaptionthataccompanieditemphasisedthe
anthropophagicsubject,sinceithighlightedthesingularityofthesubject’sreception
andassimilationofoutsidesartorialinfluencesindicatedthroughtheprocessofself-
presentation.Itread:‘Thereislittleintheircostumetodistinguishthemenfromthe
womeninthistribe;theyevenaffectthesamestyleofhair“bob”.Thewomanhas
decoratedhershoulderswithanoldpieceofclothfortheoccasionofhavingher126diBello,‘VisionandTouch’,p.9.
79
photographtaken.’[myitalics]127Despiteitsinitialnaïveassertionthattherearefew
distinguishingfeaturesbetweenmaleandfemaledress,thecaptionproceededto
contradictitselfbydrawingattentiontothefemalesubject’sdeliberateandself-
consciousfashioningofherself‘withanoldpieceofcloth’forthephotographer.This
actsuggestednotsimplyanawarenessofbeingondisplay,butaknowingand
consensualperformancethatunderminedadeterministicreadingoftheimage.It
presentedashiftofthehegemonicgazetotheindigenoussubject,thehabitualobject
ofanthropology,whoceasestorepresentafixedandunchangingessence,butnow
demonstratesherabilitytodigestforeignculturalreferencesfromtheleftover
materialsthatshehastohand.
Thecaptionintentionallydirectedtheviewer’sattentiontowardsdressasa
meanstocontextualiseandproducenarrativemeaningwithintheimage,employing
whatRolandBarthestermed‘anchorage’–usingtexttodirecttheintendedmeaning
ofanimageanddefinetheprimarypointofreferenceforunderstandinga
photograph.128Thesubject’slow-tech,‘make-do’clothingsolutionhighlightedthe
inventivenessandresourcefulnessoftheMaku,whoareneitherfragilenorstaticin
thefaceoftheNationalGeographicgaze,butabletoconsumeoutsideinfluencesand
re-fashionthemtotheirownends.Itisinthissensethatthephotographcanbeseen
toencapsulatethesymbolicandculturalmeaningofthePortuguesewordgambiarra,
whichcanbeunderstoodasonemanifestationofanthropophagy.Gambiarrahasno
EnglishtranslationbutisusedcolloquiallythroughoutBraziltorefertoamakeshift
127Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.397.128RolandBarthes,Image-Music-Text(London:Fontana,1977),p.38.
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contraptionorimprovisedsolution.129Thisisexemplifiedbythewoman’singestion
andrecyclingofan‘oldpieceofcloth’toassembleanoutfitdeemedsuitableforthe
photographer’sgaze.130Thisfragmentary,readymadecreationhasbeenmodifiedto
fulfiladifferentuse,anddemonstratesthesustainabilityofthesubject’spracticaland
creativeendeavour.
Thewoman’sclothingrenderedherasactiveratherthanpassiveandinturn
encouragedtheNationalGeographicviewertounderstandtheethnographic-style
photographintermsofaself-awareandindividuallystyledportrait.Withinthebodyof
thearticle,Stevensacknowledged:‘Itwasnotdifficulttogetthenativestopose.Our
problemwasrathertogetthemtounpose.Oncetheystruckanattitudewhichthe
photographerdesired,theyhelditindefinitely.NoHollywooddirectoreverhadmore
patientsubjects.’131EventhoughStevensadmittedthathehaddirectedeach
photographicsubject,wecanseeevidencethatthesubjectalsocontributedherown
preferencestothemakingofthephotograph,sinceevenjustholdingthepose
indefinitelycouldbereadasachallengeorformofresistancetotherepressive
measuresofethnographicphotography.TamarGarbhasdelineatedthisparallel
betweenthetraditionofportraitureandracialisedethnography:‘Wherethe
ethnographicdealsintypes,groupsandcollectivecharacteristics,portraiturepurports
toportraytheuniqueanddistinctivefeaturesofnamedsubjectswhosesocial
identitiesprovideabackdropforindividualagencyandassertion.’132Garbhighlighted
thenoticeableparallelbetweenthecharacteristicsthatindicatetheauthoritarian
129RicardoRosas,‘TheGambiarra:ConsiderationsonaRecombinatoryTechnology’inDigitalMediaandDemocracy:TacticsinHardTimes,ed.byMeganBoler(Cambridge:TheMITPress,2008),pp.343-54(pp.343-44).130Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.397.131Ibid.,p.412.132TamarGarb,FiguresandFictions:ContemporarySouthAfricanPhotography(London:V&APublishing,2011),p.12.
81
measuresofethnography,suchasfullfrontalexposure,visualuniformity,andthe
minimisationoflightandshadow,withtheindividualisingtendenciesofportraiture.In
NationalGeographic,thisphotographcanbeviewedasacollaborativeportraitthat
reflectedthechoicesoftheindividual,whowasclearlyawillingparticipantinthe
image-makingprocess,choosingherownprops,pose,expressionandstyleof
presentation.Thiswillingandcollaborativeaspect,highlightedthroughthesubject’s
self-fashioning,displacedtheinstitutionallyimposedobjectivitycharacteristicof
ethnographicimagesofothers,andcomplicatedastraightforwardreadingofthe
image.Asaresult,thephotographstressedaheterogeneousresistancetothe
homogeneityimposedbyNationalGeographic’sdisembodiedimperialistgaze,
exemplifiedbythelandscapephotographstakenbythehydroplane(Fig.2.1),and
insteaddrewattentiontothefluctuatingnatureofanthropologicalphotographs.Dress
mobilisedamorecomplexvisualplayonhowtheethnographicphotographcould
simultaneouslypresentbothvisualspectacleandindividuallivedexperience.
ApointofcomparisoncanbemadewitharatherdifferentimageoftheMaku
thatwaspresentedoneyearearlierinanarticlewrittenbyA.H.Bruno,entitled
‘AirplanesAidExplorersinBrazil’,whichdocumentedthesametripthatAlexander
HamiltonRicedirectedtotheAmazon.Publishedonasingle-pagespreadinPopular
MechanicsinNovember1925(Fig.2.6),thecaptionread:‘Dr.Ricemeasuringafive
foottwoinchMakuIndian’.133ItaccompaniedaphotographofDrHamiltonRicewitha
measuringdeviceashesizedupananonymousMakuman,whostandsinprofilewith
hisarmsfoldedacrosshischestandaboredexpressiononhisface.ChristopherPinney
hasreferredtothemeasuringstickasthe‘anthropometrist’stalisman’;ostensibly
133H.A.Bruno,‘AirplanesAidExplorersinBrazil’,PopularMechanics,November1925,pp.786-90(p.788).
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usedtomeasureheight,itisfrequentlyemployedasa‘merestudioprop’.134In
contrasttotheindigenousman’slackofWestern-styleclothing,HamiltonRiceisfully
coveredinkhakitrousersandabuttoned-upshirt,reinforcingadynamicrhetoricof
differencebetweenfullyclothed‘civilised’Americanmalesandpartiallyclothed
‘uncivilised’Brazilianmen.Anearliertypescript(Fig.2.7)readbyHamiltonRiceata
meetingoftheRoyalGeographicSocietyon21February1921,inwhichhedescribed
his1919expeditiontotheAmazon,demonstratedthatheequatedtheadoptionof
Western-styledresswithanevolutionaryandlinearnarrativeofprogressfromastate
ofprimitivismtooneofso-calledcivilisation.Heforciblypropoundedthisdominant
viewpointwhenhedescribedtheimpositionofWestern-styledressontheindigenous
populationofSaoGabriel(amunicipalitylocatedonthenorthernshoreoftheRio
NegroRiver,inAmazonasstate)aspartofacivilisingmissionsetupin1916by
Christianmissionaries:‘SaoGabrieltodaywithitsclean,nicelydressed,courteous
schoolchildren,neatlyfencedgardens,clearedspacesandatmosphereoforderand
industryisinstrikingcontrasttothesqualidvillageofnakedlittlesavagesand
unkempthoydens,neglectedpurlieus,andlackofmunicipalcontrolandmission
influencethatprevaileduptothreeyearsago.’135Whilstnoattemptatenforced
sartorialappropriationwasmadeinthisparticularsnapshotfromNationalGeographic,
inPopularMechanicstherewasanunmistakablepowerdynamicbetweenthedressed
figureofAlexanderHamiltonRice,armedwithameasuringstick,andthe‘naked’
photographoftheindigenousMakuman,whichwascrudelycensoredsothatonlythe
verytopoftheman’sloinclothcouldbeseen.ContrarytoPopularMechanics,National
GeographicpointedouttheBraziliansubjects’creativeandsymbolicappropriationof134ChristopherPinney,CameraIndica:TheSocialLifeofIndianPhotographs(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997),p.50.135London,RoyalGeographicalSociety,HamiltonRiceExpedition1919-1920Papers,AlexanderHamiltonRice,21February1921.
83
selectedaspectsofWestern-styledressthroughtheuseofthecaption,which
disruptedtherepresentationalstabilityofthephotographandnudgedtheviewer’s
attentiontowardsamorepersonalnarrative.
DespitethewaysinwhichdresssculptedasubjectivegazeontoBrazilinApril
1926,itisclearthatNationalGeographicstillsoughttopresentaBraziliansubject
sufficientlydistancedfromitsNorthAmericanreadership.Thisreadershipcanbe
inferredfromtheadvertisementsthatappearedwithinthemagazine.Oneexample
canbeseeninanadvertisementfortheAmericanmotorcompanyCadillacpublished
inthesameeditionofNationalGeographic(Fig.2.8).136Afair-hairedslimwhite
woman,notsodissimilar,perhaps,fromthefemaleNationalGeographicviewer,
wearsaclochehatandadressmadeofaflowinglight-colouredfabricwithadropped
waistandfrilledcuffs.WithherArtDeco-stylescarfdrapedoverherleftshoulder,she
symbolisesthe‘transcendentluxury’oftheCadillac,asdescribedinthetextatthe
bottomoftheadvertisement.HadNationalGeographicwantedtopresentasimilarly
fashionablydressedBraziliansubjecttoitsfemaleviewers,itcouldhaveeasilyfound
one,asananonymousphotographtakeninRiodeJaneiro(Fig.2.9)in1926attests.
Duringthisperiod,urbanreformssawRiodeJaneiroremodelledonEuropean
architecturalideasandtheincreasingadoptionofEuro-Americanfashionsbywealthy
Brazilianwomen.Inthisphotograph,twosmartandmodernBrazilianwomenwith
carefullyconstructedandcoordinatedensemblesareframedbeforeapalmtreeina
leafyenvironmentthatmightbealandscapedEuropeangarden.Theywearneat
clochehats,contemporarytailoredfashionswithdroppedwaists,stockingsandhigh
heels,andhaveacollectionofaccessories,whichincludeaclutchbagandanumbrella.
Photographedside-by-sideinthecentreoftheframe,thesewomenfacethecamera136Anon.,NationalGeographic,April1926,p.3.
84
directlyandappearreadyforitsgaze.Thewomanontheleftisofindigenousdescent,
wearsanornatelyembroidereddressandsmilesconfidently.Thewomanontheright
hasmoreEuropeanfeatures,wearsabroochonherrightlapel,andenactsamore
controlled,fashionablepout.LiketheindigenousfemalesubjectinNational
Geographic,bothofthesewomenperforma‘look’,butitisonethatmayhavebeen
moreeasilyrecognisableasfashionablebytheNationalGeographicviewer.That
NationalGeographicchosenottodocumentthischoiceofsubjectreinforcesthatit
eitherbelieved,orwantedtodisseminatetheideathat,Brazilwasgeographicallyand
temporallylocatedoutsidethesphereofWesternmodernisation.
RatherthanutilisetheconspicuousnessoftheEuropeanfashionspresentedin
thisanonymousphotograph,NationalGeographicchosetopresentamoremystifying
andinconspicuousexampleofsartorialanthropophagyperformedbytheindigenous
femalesubject,whichrequiredtheviewertounfoldindependentlythesupplementary
layersofambiguitywovenintotheimage.Withnocontextualinformationor
explanatorycommentwithinthebodyofthearticleabouttheprocessofself-
fashioningenactedbythewoman,themeaningofthisNationalGeographicsnapshot,
althoughbreakingoutofatendencyfordistancedanddetachedviewing,nonetheless
remainedasprecariousanduncertainasAndrade’sMA.Thatambiguitywasnotso
pervasiveinthesecondsnapshotthatthischapterdiscusses,whichdrewmoreofa
comparisonwiththisanonymousphotograph.Itpresentedaformofanthropophagy
thatNationalGeographicviewerswouldhavebeenmoreeasilyabletoidentifywith,
althoughtheambivalentmeaningsofdresscanstillbeseentohavefluctuated
betweendistanceandidentification:clothingasabarrierandasamediator.
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ADocumentaryGazeonBrazilduringWorldWarTwo
ThesecondsnapshotwaspublishedinNationalGeographicinOctober1942,in
anarticleentitled‘AirCruisingthroughNewBrazil:ANationalGeographicreporter
spotsvastresourceswhichtheRepublic’swardeclarationaddstostrengthofUnited
Nations’.137ThearticlewaspublishedtwomonthsafterBrazilhadbrokenoff
diplomaticrelationswiththeAxispowersandofficiallydeclaredwaronGermanyand
Italyon22August1942.BrazilwasofparticularimportancetotheUnitedStatesin
1942ontwoaccounts:herrichdepositsofnaturalresources,whichincludedrubber,
manganese,uranium,nickelandironore,andthemilitaryandstrategicsignificanceof
herprotrudingnortheasterncoastline,whichwasconsideredvulnerabletoNazi
militaryattack.138NationalGeographicdocumentedanairbornetriptakenbythe
author,HenryAlbertPhillips,toproduceageographicalsurveyofthecountry’s
‘struggletoimproveitscitiesandcreateaNewBrazil’.139Therelationshipbetweenthe
twocountrieshadshiftedfromanearly-twentieth-centuryNorthAmericanperception
ofBrazilasatropicalsiteripeforexploitationandexpansion,toawartime
intensificationofRoosevelt’sGoodNeighborpolicy,whichperceivedthecountrytobe
anecessaryallyandvitaltotheprotectionoftheWesternhemisphere.140One
exampleoftheconciliatoryattitudetakentowardsBrazilcanbeseenintheU.S.
propagandafilm,BrazilatWar,producedbytheOfficeofInter-AmericanAffairsin
137Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’.138Smith,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil,pp.114-15.139Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,p.503.ForfurtherinformationonthehistoryofdiplomaticrelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,withparticularattentionpaidtotheSecondWorldWar,referto:RobertW.Fontaine,BrazilandtheUnitedStates:TowardsaMaturingRelationship(WashingtonDC:AmericanEnterpriseInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch,1974);MonicaHirst,TheUnitedStatesandBrazil:ALongRoadofUnmetExpectations(NewYork:Routledge,2005);RiordanRoett,TheNewBrazil(WashingtonDC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2011);Smith,BrazilandtheUnitedStates;Tota,TheSeductionofBrazil.140Mutualrespectandunderstandingformedtheideologicalcoreofthecooperativewar-timerelationshipbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStates,bothofwhichusedpopularmediaasaforeignpolicytooltoengendergoodwillandaiddiplomacy.
86
1943.ItcelebratedBrazilas‘apowerfulnewfriend’anddrewacomparisonwiththe
UnitedStatesintermsofsize,population,industryandresources:‘Brazilbringsmuch
totheAlliedCause,notonlytheweightofherresourcesandmanpower,butthe
militantspiritofherpeopleandthereaffirmationofherfriendshipforthepeopleof
theUnitedStates.’141Correspondingly,therewasashiftinNationalGeographicwhich,
ratherthanplacingaquasi-ethnographicgazeontheAmazonregionasithaddone
previously,begantoutilisemorefamiliardocumentarymodesofexposure,andfocus
onindustrialisedurbancentressuchasRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo.
Aclearexamplecanbeseeninthethirty-twophotographsselectedto
accompanyPhillips’article,whichwerereproducedentirelyinblackandwhite,and
madedramaticuseoflightandshade,formandvoid,nearandfartoanimatethe
staticscenesofurbanBrazilwithamodernist,optimisticvisionoftransformationand
progress.Thecrispnessandclarityofthereportagepannedarangeofindustrial,
architecturalandecologicalsites,renderedonamonumentalscaleandinminute
detail,whichincludedthetwenty-six-storeyMarinellibuildinginSaoPaulo(see,for
example,Fig.2.10),theLacerdaelevatorinSalvador,thegrandoperahousein
Manaus,andCopacabanaseafront.Thesewereoccasionallyinterspersedwithimages
oftheBrazilianpopulation,inwhichthemise-en-scènevisuallysupportedanarrative
thatimpliedthesocialfabricofBrazilwascomprisedentirelyofself-motivatedand
determinedindividuals.InalettertoNationalGeographiceditor,J.R.Hildebrand,
dated18June1942,Phillipsexplainedhisrevisionistintentincompilingthearticle(Fig.
2.11):
141BrazilatWar(OfficeoftheCoordinatorofInter-AmericanAffairs,UnitedStatesOfficeofWarInformation,1943).
87
IamgladweshallavoidthesappyGoodNeighborvein.Likewiseweshallsidestepalltouchypoliticalinferences.NoSArepubliccouldhavebeenbetterchosenforacompleteturn-overasBrazil.Perhapsweshouldcallthepiece‘NOVOBRASIL’andfollowthegenerallinesofinnovations,whichofcoursewillcoverthegreaterpartofthegreatcountry.Inthisrespect,Vargasistheoutstandingfigureinthewholeofthecontinent.142
Phillipswantedtomoveawayfromanovertlysentimentalisedrepresentationofthe
GoodNeighbor,personifiedin1942bythecreationoftheWaltDisneycharacterJose
‘Ze’Carioca,ananthropomorphisedparrotfromRiodeJaneirowhoappearedbeside
DonaldDuckinthecartoonSaludosAmigos.143Instead,heemphasisedthecrucialrole
BrazilianPresidentGetulioVargas(inofficefrom1930to1945andagainfrom1951to
1954)hadplayedinthemodernisationandindustrialisationofBrazil.Hepraised
Vargas’popularity,whichresultedfromthefactthat‘thepeoplerecognizedhimas
oneofthemselves–ademocratic,fearlessGaucho’,andpresentedhimasthe
charismaticandpaternalisticleaderofthe‘NewBrazil’.144InaccordancewithPhillips’
intentto‘sidestepalltouchypoliticalinferences’,thatVargas’authoritarianEstado
Novo(NewState)dictatorship(1937-45)hadmanycommonalitieswithfascism,and
thathisallegiancewiththeAlliedForcesinOctober1942hadtakenmanybysurprise,
wentcompletelyundocumentedbyNationalGeographic.
InsteadNationalGeographicwasattentivetoVargas’outstandingand
Westernisedqualities,asacarefullyorchestratedgroupphotograph,takenatNorth
AmericanentrepreneurHenryFord’srubberplantationinSantarem,attested.
Publishedonasingle-pagespread,itcapturedVargasdirectlyintheframe,surrounded
bymembersofhiscabinet,allofwhomappeartobeofwhiteEuropeandescent(Figs.
142WashingtonDC,NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948,HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,18June1942.143SaludosAmigos,dir.byWilfredJackson(WaltDisney,1942).144Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,p.536
88
2.12and2.13).Thephotographisshotagainstablankbackdrop,whichilluminates
Vargas,whoisdressedinadouble-breastedwhitesuit,shirt,stripedtieandtwo-tone
leatherbrogues.Hestandsinaconfidentpose,withhisarmsbyhissides,directly
facingthecameraandyetavertinghisgazefromit.Hisadoptionofwhitetropicalwear
ismatchedbythreeofhiscompanions.Theirsuitsareallmadefromalightweight
linenfabricappropriatefortheBrazilianclimateand,exceptforafewcrumples,retain
theirWestern-styletailoringintheheat.Whitenessisanimportanttropeusedin
NationalGeographicasthevisualmanifestationofthecompleteerasureofimpurities.
ItreferencedtherigorouscleanlinesscentraltocontemporaryNorthAmerican
ideology,inwhichmass-producedwhiteproductswereperceivedassmoothand
sterile,rationalandordered.145Aclearexamplecanbeseeninanadvertisementfor
thedenture-cleaningproductPolident,publishedinNationalGeographicinMay1941
(Fig.2.14).146Itfeaturedthefixedbright,whitesmileofapale-skinned,blonde-haired
woman,whogazeddirectlyattheviewer,thepurewhiteofhereyesmatchingthatof
herteeth.Theinsistentrhetoricofthetextquestioned:‘Areyoulettingdingyteeth
destroyyoursmile…perhapsyourwholecharm?’Theanswertothisproblemcouldbe
quicklysolvedbyusing‘Polident–aproductthatmagicallydissolvesalltarnish[…]
purifiesyourplate–leavesitodorless,clean–attractive–asnaturallookingastheday
yougotit’.147Theadverthighlightedthevirtuesofwhitenessasanattainableidealand
itspared-downorganisation,likethesimplelinesofVargas’whitesuit,visuallyalluded
toMaryDouglas’assertionthatthehumandesireforcleanlinessmustbeunderstood
asaprocessofenvironmentalorganisation,andtheestablishmentofasocialorder
145SuellenHoy,ChasingDirt:TheAmericanPursuitofCleanliness(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).146Anon.,NationalGeographic,May1941,p.16.147Ibid.
89
throughthesystematicprocessofbodilypurification.148Ratherthancapturethe
complex,hybridsocialrealityofcontemporaryBrazil,composedofmultipleethnic,
racialandindigenousgroups,themagazinechosetostageavisionofBraziliannessthat
smoothedoveranderasedanyevidenceofethnicityorindigeneitythatdeviatedfrom
a‘civilised’whitenorm.NationalGeographicsoughttocollapsethedifferences
betweenwhiteskinandwhitecloth,smoothingover‘touchypoliticalinferences’,and
portrayingtheNewBrazilasare-bornwhitenationthatNationalGeographicviewers
wouldbeabletorecognisestraightforwardlyaspartoftheirownworld.149
Yetthisimagealsoprovidedarevealingopportunitytoseehowrace
functionedvisuallywithinBrazilatthisparticularmoment,andhowthisconnectedto
thepreoccupationsoftheVargasregimeinfashioningaunifiednationalidentity
throughthetropeofwhiteness.150Vargas’adoptionofwhiteEuropeanimperialist
dressdemonstratedthathesawhimselfaspartofthewhiteEuropeanelite,andwas
self-consciouslyawareofhisownappearanceasaliteralandfigurativereinforcement
ofnationalistdiscourse.Thepithhelmetthatheholdsinhisrighthand,albeitpartially
obscuredbythesmallboywhostandsinfrontofhim,wasthequintessentialsymbolof
WesternimperialismandanintrinsicpartoftheuniformofWesternoverseasmilitary
campaigns.HereitisadoptedbyVargas,notsimplyasaformofprotectionfromthe
148Thiswaspremisedupontheassumptionthat,asDouglasexplained,‘Dirtoffendsagainstorder.Eliminatingisnotanegativemovement,butapositiveefforttoorganizetheenvironment.’MaryDouglas,PurityandDanger:AnAnalysisoftheConceptsofPollutionandTaboo(London:Routledge,2004),p.2.149NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948,HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,18June1942.LucianaMartinsmakesthislatterpointinherdiscussionofAmericanphotographerGenevieveNaylor’sphotographicexhibitionFacesandPlacesinBrazil(1943).Shecommented:‘ThefiftyphotographsmakinguptheexhibitionseemtohavebeencarefullyselectedtoprovideapictureofthecountrythatwouldenabletheAmericanpublictorecognizeBrazil,acountrytheyknewverylittleaboutbeyondbeinga“GreatCoffeeNation”,aspartoftheirworld’.Martins,‘Epilogue’inPhotographyandDocumentaryFilmintheMakingofModernBrazil,pp.209-16(p.212).150PriscillaPeñaOvalle,DanceandtheHollywoodLatina:Race,Sex,andStardom(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,2011),p.56.
90
sun,butinorderforhimtoaffiliatehimselfwiththeWestthroughtherecognisable
figureofthewhiteEuropeantravellerdressedinwhiteEuropeantravelwear.It
demonstratedhisdesirefortherestoftheworldtoperceiveofBrazilasawhite,
Europeannationundergoingthenecessaryprocessesofmodernisationand
industrialisation.WhilsttheVargasGovernmentdidnotdenytheexistenceof
indigenousandAfricanpeopleswithinBrazil’scomplexmultiracialsociety,official
discoursesmoothedoverthesediverseidentitiesandfashionedanimageofthe
countrythatwasunequivocallywhite,orintheprocessofbecomingwhite.151Thisis
framedwithinthemise-en-scèneofthisimage,asVargassmilesandgazesdownata
smallboy,dressedinauniformofkhakishortsandjacket,whosalutesandwavesthe
Brazilianflagwithitspositivistmottoof‘OrderandProgress’.Vargas’gazedirectly
linkshimselftotheboy,whoissilhouettedagainsthiswhitesuit;theimplication,it
seems,isthattheorderandprogressofBrazilrestuponitsyoung,white,European-
descendedmalepopulace.Ratherthanmerelyaself-consciousattempttoalign
himselfwiththeUnitedStatesastheamicableGoodNeighbor,Vargas’whiteclothing
encapsulatedhowtheBrazilianeliteprizedEuropeanfashions.Thisimagemustalsobe
readthenasapervasivereinforcementoftheEstadoNovo’sracistideology,which
reflectedcomplexpowerrelationsinoperationwithinBrazilthatsoughttovisually
consume,andtherebymarginalise,ethnicitiesthatdeviatedfromawhiteEuropean
norm.
151Racialandcultural‘branqueamento’,‘whitening’,hadconstitutedanecessaryprocessinthemodernisationofBrazilfollowingtheabolitionofslaveryin1888.Theeugenics-influencedpolicyofvariousBraziliangovernmentssincethelatenineteenthcenturyencouragedwhiteEuropeanimmigrationfrom‘desirable’countriesinthehopethatitwouldultimately‘whiten’thefaceofBrazilanditsculture.JeffreyLesser,NegotiatingNationalIdentity:Immigrants,MinoritiesandtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazil(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1999),p.4.
91
Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear
Thecross-culturaltensionsandlayersofmeaningevokedbywhiteclothingcan
alsobeseeninthesnapshotwhichiscentraltothissection,printedontheright-hand
sideofadouble-pageviewaspartofPhillips’article(seeFig.2.15).152Afull-pageblack
andwhitephotograph,itcapturedagroupofathleticyoungwhitewomen,who
appeartobeofEuropeandescent,astheystandtoattentionbeforethecamera.The
upward-lookinggazeofthecameraelevatesandprojectsthewomenagainstanopen,
unobstructedsky.Tallanderect,theirfeetplacedtogether,armsstraightbytheir
sides,shouldersback,andstomachstuckedin,theygaze,forthemostpart,straight
ahead.Theyareorganisedintopairswithmilitaryprecision,andformauniformline
thatstretchesseeminglywithoutlimitintothedistance.Theirsupplelimbsandpale
skinareilluminatedbyanaturalsunlightthatradiatesfromtheright-handsideofthe
frameandstretchesacrosstheimage.TheconstructionofBrazilianfemininitybased
uponglowingwhiteidealswasnotunknownintheNorthAmericanpress,asa
photograph(Fig.2.16)publishedinAmericanVogueinJuly1941attested.153Entitled
‘SouthAmericanVisitors:FiveBeautifulNeighborsfromBrazil,PeruandtheArgentine
…recentvisitorstotheU.S.’,itfeaturedVargas’daughter,SenhoraAlziraVargasdo
AmaralPeixoto,capturedside-on,theflashofHorstP.Horst’scamerailluminatingher
paleskinandwhitecottondress.RichardDyerhasexaminedhowcameralightingand
filmtechnologyarespecificallycalibratedtoassumeandprivilegewhiteskin.Hehas
conflatedtherepresentationofwhitebodieswiththephotographicqualityof
‘lightness’,inwhichbodiesare‘literallybutalsofigurativelyenlightened’,reinforcing
152Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,pp.518-19.DespitethefactthatbytheoutbreakofWorldWarTwocolourfilmwasinincreasinglywideusage,NationalGeographicstillshotmanyofitssubjectsintime-honouredblackandwhite.Thismayhavebeenanattempttodemonstratetheseriousnessofthemagazine’sreportage.153Anon.,‘SouthAmericanVisitors:FiveBeautifulNeighborsfromBrazil,PeruandtheArgentine…recentvisitorstotheU.S.’,AmericanVogue,July1941,p.22.
92
anirreconcilablepolaritybetweenthecolours,blackandwhite,andthebodies,non-
whiteandwhite.154Lookingaheadandcontemplatingtheprospectofabrighterand
byextensionwhiterfuture,thewomeninNationalGeographicappearhealthyand
positive,reflectingthedynamismofanationreadyforwar,amessageofnational
unity,despitetheirindividualfacialfeaturesandbodyshapes,conveyedthroughgroup
activity.Thelightilluminatestheiridenticalcleanandsimplewhitesportswear:white
socks,whiteplimsolls,whitelaced-uppoloshirtsandwhitebelts,allofwhichappear
relief-like,stagedagainsttheirdarkshortsandthedarkflatbackground.The
uniformityoftheirclothingandposesservestotranscendBrazil’sdiverseand
multiracialpopulation,andtherepresentationofmultipledisciplinedglowingwhite
bodies,fusedintoasinglepowerfulentity,canbeunderstoodasametaphorforthe
unifiedglobalbody:apowerfulandcohesiveWesternhemispherecomprisedof
reliableandself-motivatedindividuals,allworkingtogetherinco-operation.
Thecaptionthataccompaniedthisphotographread:‘Freedfromthe
traditionalchaperonofLatinAmericaisthemaidofModernBrazil.Whereformerly
shesatathomewithneedlework,shenowgoesinforsportsinabigway.Thousands
ofsuchsports-cladgirlsdrilledattheinaugurationofSaoPaulo’sstadiumin1940.’155
ThecaptiondescribedBrazilasamodernisedcountryliberatedfromLatinAmerica,
symbolisedbyyoungBrazilianwomenandtheiradoptionofasimpleandpractical
outdoorssportswearaesthetic.NationalGeographicdrewattentiontotheprocesses
ofsartorialanthropophagythroughwhichawell-establishedNorthAmerican
sportswearaesthetichadbeenadoptedandre-presentedinaBraziliancontextto
serveasapotentsymbolofamodern,whiteBrazil.JustasVargasusedwhitecolonial
154RichardDyer,White(NewYork:Routledge,1997),p.101.155Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,p.519.
93
dresstoreinforcehispoliticalmessageinthepreviousimage,here,whitesportswear
presentedaliteralandfigurativeendorsementofthepoliticalandideologicalagenda
oftheEstadoNovoregime.ThepopularityofNorthAmericansportswear,appropriate
forbothathletesandspectators,hadrisensteeplyby1942,liberatingAmerican
fashiondesignfromadependenceontraditionalParisiancouture.156Anexampleof
Americansportswear,whichembodiedanactive,modernandstreamlinednewrole
forwomenengagedinavarietyofactivepursuitsortakingonabroaderrangeofwork
tasks,canbeseeninanadvertisementforBestandCo.’slineof‘Americana’clothing
(Fig.2.17),publishedinAmericanVogueinFebruary1941.157InNationalGeographic,
NorthAmericansportswearnolongerdenotedAmericannessbutbecameapotent
symbolofBrazilianness,centredontheeffortsofVargas’EstadoNovoregimeto
formaliseandinstitutionaliseracialdifferencewhilstcreatingrigidboundaries
betweenmasculineandfemininegenderroles.ThecaptioninNationalGeographic
sidesteppedanyovertpoliticalreferences,butitdidacknowledgethatthisphotograph
hadoriginallybeentakenattheofficialinaugurationofSaoPaulo’sMunicipalSports
Stadiumon27August1940.ThiseventhadbeenattendedbyVargasandwas,as
ChristinaPeixoto-Mehrtenshaspointedout,‘anexplosivepoliticalsymbolof
modernityandametaphortothewaysurbanworksandpoliticsweretofuseincivic
events’underhisauthoritarianregime.158Anotherphotographfromthesameevent
hadappearedintheBraziliannewspaperOEstadodeSaoPauloon28April1940(Figs.
2.18and2.19),accompaniedwithacaptionthatread:‘Participatingintheparadethat
inauguratestheMunicipalStadium,arenumerousathletesfromnearlyalltheSao
156RebeccaArnold,TheAmericanLook:fashion,sportswearandtheimageofwomenin1930sand1940sNewYork(London:I.B.Tauris,2009).157AmericanVogue,February1941,p.3.158ChristinaPeixoto-Mehrtens,UrbanSpaceandNationalIdentityinEarlyTwentiethCenturySãoPaulo,Brazil:CraftingModernity(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2010),p.159.
94
Pauloassociations.Oneseeshere,thecontingentoftheSchoolofPhysical
Education.’159Thisphotographcapturedthefemalesubjectsinmotion,ablurofblack
andwhitemarchingintandem,thedifferencesbetweentheindividualwomenblurred
intoaunifiedwhole.InNationalGeographic,thewomen’sconsumptionandre-
presentationofAmericansportswearsimultaneouslyre-assertedBrazilianness,and
reassuredNationalGeographicviewers,duringawartimeperiodcharacterisedby
fragmentationandanxiety,thatthesuperficialsimilaritiesinwhitesportswearand
whiteskincouldsmoothoverlargerdifferencesbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStates.
DresspromotedidentificationbetweenNationalGeographicviewersandBrazilian
subjects;itprovidedevidenceofsharedidealsandvalues,andreiteratedthe
importanceofBrazilasanimportantallytotheUnitedStates,whilstavoiding,as
Phillipscommented,the‘sappyGoodNeighborvein’.160
However,despitethisidentificationpromotedthroughthenarrativeofdress,
thereremainedanunmistakablepowerdynamicinNationalGeographic.Thiswas
centredonthefactthat,inordertoviewthephotographinitscorrectlandscape
dimension(Figs.2.20and2.21),theNationalGeographicviewerhadtoturnthepage
ninetydegreesclockwise.Whereasinthefirstsnapshotdiscussed,thismaterial
engagementwiththeimageasobjectencouragedamoreintimategazefromthe
viewer,hereitreinforcedadistancedanddisinterestedgazeontothewomen.Thisis
becausethistactileactionbroughttheimageintodirectdialoguewithaphotograph
printedontheleft-handsideofthedouble-pageview(Fig.2.22),whichpresentedvast
quantitiesofBrazilianbeeflinedupoutsideinrowsattheWilsonandCo.Inc.packing
159Anon.,‘AVisitadoSr.PresidenteGetulioVargasaSaoPaulo’,OEstadodeSaoPaulo,28April1940,p.7.160NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.116948,HenryAlbertPhillipstoJ.R.Hildebrand,18June1942.
95
plantnearSaoPaulo,hunguptodrylikegarmentsonawashingline.Thetitlesofthe
twoimagesencouragedtheviewertoperceivethewomenasobjectsofapowerful
gaze,andposited‘Youcanpickyourown“QueenCoffee”fromthisline-upofathletic
beautiesatSaoPaulo’against‘Sun-driedBrazilianbeeflurestheAmericandollarintoa
venerableBrazilianindustry’.161Directandovert,thecaptionshighlightedtheNorth
AmericanconsumptionofBraziliangoodssuchasbeefandcoffee.Theyadvertisedthe
femaleBraziliansubjectsasmass-producedcommoditiesdisplayedonagrocerystore
shelf,oratitsmostcrude,asaharvestripetobegathered,encouragingtheNational
Geographicviewertoselectherpreferred‘QueenCoffee’:adistilledessenceof
BraziliannessneatlypackagedforAmericanconsumption.AlthoughNational
GeographicostensiblyappearedtodocumentanimageofBrazilthatwasvisuallyakin
totheUnitedStates,thiswastemperedbytheeditorialdecisiontoplacethewomen
onthemagazinepageoppositeanimageofmeat.Itreinforcedthat,althoughthis
snapshotpresentedanostensiblymoreintimateandfamiliargazeonthewomen,
demonstratedthroughtheiradoptionofNorthAmericanwhitesportswear,National
Geographicwasstillengagedinportrayingamoreinsidiousformofdominanceover
Brazil.Thefinalsnapshotdiscussedinthischapterpresentsathirdmanifestationof
thecomplexinteractionsbetweenBrazilandtheUnitedStatesinrelationtothe
conceptofanthropophagy,andanothershiftinthefabricofNationalGeographic’s
representationofBrazil.
161Phillips,‘AirCruisingThroughNewBrazil’,pp.518-19.
96
AnEthnographicGazeonBrazilduringtheMilitaryDictatorship
ThefinalsnapshotwaspublishedalmostthirtyyearslaterintheSeptember
1971editionofNationalGeographic,withinanarticleentitled‘BrazilProtectsher
CintaLarga’.162Thisarticlepresentedastarkcontrasttothemodern,industrialised
visionofBrazilanditsthrivinginfrastructurethatwasimpresseduponNational
GeographicviewersduringtheSecondWorldWar.HereBrazilrevertedtoan
underdevelopednationofvastresources,whichdrewaparallelwiththeimageof
Brazilpresentedinthefirstsnapshot.Thisisperhapsnotsurprisinggiventhatthis
articlewaspublishedduringtheBrazilianmilitarydictatorship(1964-85),whichhad
begunwhenacoupd’étatsupportedbyU.S.ColdWarpoliticsculminatedinthe
overthrowofleft-leaningBrazilianPresident,JoaoGoulart,bytheBrazilianArmed
Forces.163Duringtheearlyyearsofthedictatorship,theU.S.governmentfrequently
overlookedthesystematictortureofBrazilianpoliticaldissidents.Correspondingly,
NationalGeographic’sshiftinggazeduringthisperiodturnedawayfromurbancentres
andpolitics,andtowardsBrazil’sindigenouspopulations.
ThearticlewaswrittenandphotographedbyW.JescovonPuttkamer,
‘semiofficialphotographeranddiarist’,anddocumentedtheattemptsbytheFundação
NacionaldoÍndio(theNationalIndianFoundation,orFUNAI)to‘pacify’theCinta
Largaspopulation,inoneofthe‘longesthardest,mostdangerousjobsever
undertakenbymynativeBrazil’sNationalFoundationfortheIndian’.164In1971the
CintaLargasinhabitedaterritoryinthesouthwestoftheAmazonrainforest,covering,
ascanbeseenonthemapinFig.2.23,theBrazilianstatesofRondoniaandMato
162Puttkamer,‘BrazilProtectsherCintaLarga’,pp.420-44.163Thedictatorshipcontinueduntil1985,duringwhichtime191politicalmurdersand243disappearancestookplace.JamesGreen,WeCannotRemainSilent:OppositiontotheBrazilianMilitaryDictatorshipintheUnitedStates(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2010).164Puttkamer,‘BrazilProtectsHerCintaLarga’,p.420.
97
Grosso.Withinthearticle,anexoticisedimageoftheCintaLargaswasfashioned
withinanimposedandtimelessethnographicpresent.Puttkamerdescribedthemas
‘tensewildtribesmen’who‘for400yearshadescapedtheencroachmentof
civilization’.165PuttkamercategorisedandclassifiedtheCintaLargaaccordingtothe
widesashesmadefromblacktreebarkthatmalemembersofthegroupweararound
theirwaists,explaining:‘ForthetimebeingwearecallingtheseIndians“CintaLargas,”
fromthePortuguesewordsforthebroadbeltsoftenwornbymenandboysofthe
region.’166Thereisahomogenisationandsimplificationinherentinthistypological
gesture,whichdrewaveilovertheindividualinteractionsthatmaleandfemale
indigenoussubjectshadwithdress,andsubjectedthemtoalevelofscrutinybased
entirelyupontheirexternalappearance.ThiswasreinforcedwhenPuttkameroutlined
thegoalsofFUNAI,whichappearedmoreproprietorialthanaltruistic,andnurturedan
ideaoftheCintaLargasasaclearlydifferentiatedOther,inneedofpaternal
protection:
FUNAI’smissionisadualone.First,itpacifieshostileIndianssothatBrazil,anunderdevelopednation,mayextracttherichesofitsvastwildernessareaasefficientlyandpainlesslyaspossible.Secondly,itprotectstheIndiansitpacifiesagainsttheharmfulaspectsofourcivilizationwithwhichtheycannotcope[…]Thereisonethingthateventheselfless,dedicatedpeopleofFUNAIcannotprevent.Thatistheerosionofasimpleculturebyastrong,complexone[…]andthatiswhyeachFUNAIsertanista,orIndianexpert,carriesinhisheartsaudade,anostalgicsadness.[myitalics]167
Puttkamer’scommentisrootedinadiscourseofsalvageethnography,arecurring
anthropologicaltropeconcernedwithcapturingtheessenceofapresencebeforeits
anticipatedabsence.HeproducedanidealisedimageofamythicalBrazilianpastand
165Ibid.166Ibid.‘CintaLargas:MaterialCulture’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/cinta-larga/427>[accessed3June2015]167Ibid.,p.421.
98
reducedtheCintaLargastoanineffablenostalgia,‘saudade’(aBrazilianwordfora
nostalgiclonging,whichhasnodirectEnglishtranslation),reinforcingtheideaofthe
disappearanceoftheir‘authentic’culture.Puttkamerwasconcernedwith
simultaneouslydocumentingthe‘lost’indigenouspracticesoftheCintaLargaswhile
carefullyinsertingthemintomainstream‘civilised’Braziliansociety.Heexplainedthat
FUNAIworkers‘livedindailyperiloftheirlives.Atanytime,acivilizadomight
inadvertentlydosomesmallthingthatcouldbemisconstruedbytheprimitivemind
andtriggeramassacre.’168Suchjuxtapositionswereabundantthroughoutthearticle
andclearlydemarcatedthe‘civilised’fromthe‘savage’,justifyingFUNAI’sneocolonial
activitiesthroughanunderstandingofitsculturalandmoralsuperiority.
Yetthetwenty-threefull-colourphotographsoftheCintaLargaspublished
withinthearticledissolved,toanextent,thisdivisionbetweenthe‘civilised’andthe
‘savage’.Thephotographsweredistinctfromthedistancedandnon-participatory
scientificeyeofthehydroplanethatwasseeninthefirstsnapshot,whichemployed
ostensiblymoremeasuredandpreconceivedstrategiestodocumentorganised
typologiesofdifference.Rather,theseimageshadarelaxedqualityandcorresponding
immediacy,whichgavetheimpressionthatthesubjectshadforgottenthepresenceof
Puttkamer’scamera(see,forexample,Fig.2.24).Thiswasamarkofthe
photographer’smoreintimateconnectiontotheCintaLargas,assomeonewhohad
gainedknowledgeotherwiseinaccessibletooutsiders,andwasconsequentlyableto
photographthemfromapresumablyinformed,albeitstilloutsider’s,perspective.The
unselfconscious,day-to-daynatureofthephotographsseemedtoconfirmtheidea
thattheviewerwaslookingataspontaneousmomentinthelifeofthesubjects;they
functionedunderthequasi-ethnographicpretenceoftheauthorasparticipant-168Ibid.
99
observer,toemphasisethatthesearerealpeopleandreal-lifesituationsthat
Puttkamerwasdocumenting.Theimageswereprintedclose-upasfull-pagebleeds
(Fig.2.25),asopposedtobeingcontainedwithinawhiteborderastheywereinthe
firstandsecondsnapshotsexamined;thistechniquecollapseddifferenceandinviteda
moredirectresponsefromtheNationalGeographicviewer.Furthermore,asopposed
tothematte,texturedpaperoftheprevioustwosnapshots,thisonewasprintedina
slimmereditionofNationalGeographic,whichhadacombinationofglossyandmatte
paper.Thephotographsweremoreself-reflexiveabouttheencounterbetween
membersofFUNAIandindigenoussubjects,andpresentedthemclosetogether,even
hugging,suggestingthatFUNAIweredirectlyinvolvedinthesociallifeoftheCinta
Largasandhadformedrelationshipswiththem.Thisshiftwasaresultofadvancesin
cameratechnologywhichenabledphotographerstodocumentmovingsubjects,butit
wasalsoareflectionoftheturntowardsNationalGeographic’sdifferentmethodsof
quasi-ethnographicresearch,fromadistancedviewtoamoreinvolvedparticipation.
Itisimportantnottoexaggeratethesingularnoveltyofthismoreintimate,
self-reflexivegazethatNationalGeographicplacedontoCintaLargassubjectsin
September1971.EthnographicandphotographicpracticesinBrazilsincetheearly
1940shadalreadyshiftedtoencompassmoresubjectiveapproachestodocumenting
indigenouspeople,exemplifiedbythephotographsandfilmstillsproducedbytheSPI
(theIndianProtectionservice,thestateagencysetupin1910thatwasresponsiblefor
theprotectionofindigenousgroups,whichin1965becameFUNAI)withinthe
expansivethreeeditedvolumesIndiosdoBrasil[IndiansofBrazil],publishedbetween
1946and1953.169The1,515imagescollatedbytheBrazilianmilitaryengineerand
169C.M.Rondon,IndiosdoBrasil,VolI:Indiosdocentro,donoroesteedosuldeMatoGrosso(RiodeJaneiro:ConselhoNacionaldeProteSaoaosIndios,1946);Rondon,IndiosdoBrasil,VolII:Cabeceirasdo
100
explorer,CândidoMarianodaSilvaRondon(1865-1958),thefirstdirectoroftheSPI,
constitutedastateprojecttomoderniseandindustrialisethemoreremoteregionsof
interiorBrazil.170Yetratherthantreatindigenoussubjectsasgenericspecimensof
ethnographic‘difference’,anobstructiongettinginthewayofprogress,thevast
majorityoftheseofficialimagespresented,asStephenNugenthaspointedout,
‘humansubjectsratherthanmaterialcultureobjects[…]apartialyetcompelling
portrait’ofaculturally-diverse,contemporaryBraziliansociety.171
ManyofthephotographsreproducedinRondon’sthreevolumeshaveamore
relaxedandimmediatequality,whichbecameasignificantandestablishedgenrein
theillustratedmagazineOCruzeiro(launchedin1928)throughoutthe1940sand
1950s,andweremarkedlydifferentfromtheimageshithertopublishedinthe
mainstreamBrazilianpress.172Inordertofuelanincreaseddemandforvisual
documentationofaBraziliansocietyintheprocessoftransformation,in1943O
Cruzeirooverhauleditspreviouseditorialvaluesandbegantoaccompany
ethnographicexpeditions,suchasthoseconductedbytheVillasBoasbrothers,to
documenttoawidespreadaudienceforthefirsttimecontactwiththedifferent
indigenoussubjectsthattheyencountered.TheempatheticportraitsofBrazilian
photojournalistJoseMedeiros(seeforexampleFig.2.26,whichcapturesan
anonymousXavanteman,indigenoustotheeasternstateofMatoGrosso,close-upin
theframein1949)andthecandidshotsofFrench-BrazilianphotographerHenriBallot
RioXingu,RiosAraguiaeOiapoque(RiodeJaneiro:ConselhoNacionaldeProteSaoaosIndios,1953);Rondon,IndiosdoBrasil,VolIII:NortedoRioAmazonas(RiodeJaneiro:ConselhoNacionaldeProteSaoaosIndios,1953).170StephenNugent,ScopingtheAmazon:Image,Icon,Ethnography(WalnutCreek,CA.:LeftCoastPress,2007),p.92.ForacomprehensiveintroductiontotrendswithinBrazilianethnographicpractice,andhowthisdiffersfromdevelopmentsin‘Western’anthropologyconductedinBrazil,seeAlcidaRitaRamos,‘EthnologyBrazilianStyle’,CulturalAnthropology5:4(1990),pp.452-472.171Ibid.,pp.92-3.172MariaLuizaMeloCarvalho,ContemporaryBrazilianPhotography(NewYork:Verso,1996),p.14.
101
(seeforexampleFig.2.27,whichdocumentsananonymousgroupofTxukarramaes
women,locatedalongtheXinguRiverontheborderbetweenthestatesofParaand
MatoGrosso,whoappearunperturbedbythephotographer’spresencein1953)
encapsulatedthisnewaestheticofanintimateandsubjective‘realism’.AndreSeguin
desHonshasdescribedhowthemagazineusedtheinnovationsofdocumentary
photographytoconstructahumanisedimageofindigenoussubjects,whowereplaced
intheprocessofbecomingintegratedintoBraziliansociety:
Aesthetically,OCruzeiroadoptedtheinnumerableformalmeansusedinmodernphotography:obliquehorizons,unusualangles,theuseofreflectionscausingspatialconfusion,lenseswhichdeformtheimage,tightclose-ups,geometricalcompositions,back-lightingandphotomontage.Withinthepagesofthemagazine,thesemethodshadconsiderableimpact.Theycreatedanauraofdramaandgrandeurabouttheirsubjects.173
Imageswerenolongerpurelyillustrative,butpresentedasubjectivenarrative,in
whichanynotionofobjectivityordistancewasobliteratedbythephotographers’
close-upandintimateengagementwiththeirsubjects.Thisphotographicgenrewas
eclipsednotsimplybytheadventoffilmandtelevision,butmostabruptlybythestart
ofthemilitaryregimein1964,whichheavilycensoredthemainstreampressand
closednumerousmagazinesandnewspapers.Indoingso,itopenedupaspacefor
NationalGeographictotakeoverthesenewaestheticvalues,asthischaptermoveson
toexamineincloserdetail.
173AndreSeguindesHonsquotedinCarvalho,ContemporaryBrazilianPhotography,p.16.
102
Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaint
Theparticularsnapshotthatthischapterfocusesonwaspublishedasafull-
pagebleedandoccupiedtheright-handsideofadouble-pageviewinNational
Geographic(Figs.2.28and2.29).174Itcaughttheviewer’sattentionsinceitwasthe
onlyphotographthatcapturedCintaLargaswomen.Placedoppositeablankpageof
text,threefemalesubjectsstandside-oninaforestclearing,nexttotheremainsofa
smoulderingfire.Theydonotlookatthephotographerbutappeartobeposingfor
anotherphotograph,whichisbeingtakenbysomeonetotheleftofthephotograph
frame.Theyhaveshortdarkbobbedhair,wearnecklacesofdyedtucumnutsandred
string,andhavepaintedgeometriclinesontheirfacesinjenipapdye.175Thesubjectin
thecentreandhercompanionontherighthaveusedblackandredbodypaintto
divideupanddeconstructtheirbodies,fragmentingthemintoseparateparts.This
sophisticatedprocessisolatesarms,chest,hips,legs,andankle,anddepartsfromthe
moreprescriptivemethodsbywhichWestern-styleclothingtendstoperceivethe
clothedbodyasaunifiedwhole.Forthesewomen,paintedandunpaintedbodyparts
becomeinterdependentandhaveequalsignificance:boththepositiveshapesformed
bythepaint,andthenegativespacesinbetweenthoseshapes.Thisprocessof
decontextualisingone’sownbodyparts,andperceivingeachasanobjectinandof
itself,demonstratesaself-reflexivegazebywhichthesewomenaddresstheirown
bodieswithacomparablelevelofscrutinytothatplacedonthembythephotographic
gaze.
174Ibid.,pp.440-41.ThissnapshotreflectsthewidespreaduseofcolourphotographyinNationalGeographicandbroadervisualmediabythe1970s.175‘CintaLargas:MaterialCulture’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/cinta-larga/427>[accessed3June2015]
103
Thewomendisplayacreativityandingenuityinadoptingnewdresscodes
whilstretainingtechniquescustomarytotheirownculture.Indoingso,theydevelop
theirownversionof‘Western’clothing,whichre-inventsitthroughtheiruseofbody
paint.176Theirresultingensemblescreateshiftingpointsofreferenceasthewomen
representtheclothestheysee,justasPuttkamerisdocumentingwhathesees.The
creativeactofthewomeniscomparabletoanobservationmadebyClaudeLévi-
StraussinTristesTropiques(1995).Lévi-Straussdescribedhowthesophisticated
SpanishAmericanCaduveoIndians(alsocalledtheMbaya)appropriatedaspectsofthe
uniformwornbySpanishsailorsinthemid-nineteenthcenturythroughtheir
customarypracticeofbodypainting:
AftertheIndianssawaEuropeanwarshipforthefirsttime,whentheMaracanhasaileduptheParaguayin1857,thesailorsnoticedthenextdaythattheirbodieswerecoveredwithanchor-shapedmotifs;oneIndianevenhadanofficer’suniformpaintedingreatdetailalloverhistorso–withbuttonsandstripes,andthesword-beltoverthecoat-tails.177
Lévi-StraussacknowledgedtheMbaya’sappropriationandre-presentationofthe
Spanishsailors’uniforms,whichretainedtheirvisualmotifsanddesigndetailsbut
transformedthemthroughtheuseofbodypaint.ThisprocessenabledtheMbayato
negotiatenewsartorialmeaningsrelevanttothesociopoliticalorganisationoftheir
ownculture.InNationalGeographic,thewomen’spaintedclothingmayhavebeena
comparablyfluiddemonstrationofthesubjects’creativeself-invention,whichrefutes
claimsmadewithinthetextthattheCintaLargashaveastaticand‘simpleculture’176Itisinterestingtonotethatthewomen’sdresshasmoreincommonwithEasterndress,suchasthatproducedbytheJapanesedesignerIsseyMiyakeinthe1970s.Miyakewasinterestedinthespacethatexistedbetweenclothandthebody,andre-fashionedtheprincipletenetsofWesterndress,whoseformisconventionallymodelledcloselytothebodyofthewearer,likeashell.WhileMiyakewasconcernedwiththespacebetweenclothingandthebody,thesewomenareinterestedintheshapesbetweentheirdifferentitemsofpaintedclothingonthesurfaceoftheirskin,andlikewisere-negotiateWesternunderstandingsofdressandthebodyand,indoingso,turntheperformanceofdressintoanartform.177Lévi-Strauss,Claude,TristesTropiques(London:Penguin,2011),p.189.
104
abouttobeerodedbya‘strong,complexone’.178Thesubjects’dressedbodies
becomeasiteofheterogeneouspotentiality,which,ratherthanreinforcingthe
disintegrationofCintaLargasculture,suggestsitsongoingcreativerenewalthrough
dressthatisreceptivetocontactwithothercultures.
InNationalGeographic,thecaptionacknowledgedthatthewomen’sbody
paintwasaformofclothingratherthanmeresurfacedecoration,andread:‘Stylishly
cladinpainted“clothing”,afemininecontingentarrives.Expeditionmembersfeltthe
women’spresencemarkedanewlevelofconfidence.Impressedbytheirpoise,the
authornamedthemthe“ThreeGraces”.’179Althoughthisexperimentalformof
sartorialanthropophagywasnotexplicitlypointedout,thecaptionacknowledgedthat
thewomenhaddigestedanexistingdiscourseofWestern-styleclothing,andreapplied
itusingelementsofindigenousmaterialculture.Thecaptionpromptedtheviewerto
pickouttheWestern-styleshapesofT-shirts,shorts,vestsandbodysuitsthatcouldbe
seenwithinthephotograph,whichdemonstratedthewomen’squickgraspofand
adaptabilitytoWesternculture,therebysubvertingtheclaimsinthetextthattheyare
‘StoneAgeIndians’.180Theperformativeaspectofthismodeofdresswasenhanced
bytheposesthatthewomenadopted,suggestinganawarenessoftheconventionsof
posinginWestern-stylephotography.Thereisanevidentattemptatself-presentation,
butalsoaself-consciousexhibitionism,performedbeforethecamera.Thesubjectin
thecentreplacesonehandonherhip,tiltsherfacetowardsthecameraorgaze
locatedtowardstheleftofthephotographframe,andplacesherweightonherleft
leg.Theothertwosubjectsaremid-waytowardsapose.Barthescriticallyrecognised
thatposingwasaself-consciousactofmakingoneselfintoanimageforthe
178Puttkamer,‘BrazilProtectsHerCintaLarga’,p.421.179Ibid.,p.440.180Ibid.,p.421.
105
photographer’sgaze:‘Ipose,IknowIamposing,IwantyoutoknowthatIam
posing.’181Thepresenceofallthreewomenisundeniablyfeltastheyparticipateinthe
constructionoftheirownposesandappearancesbeforethetwocameragazeswhich
provideanambivalentcomplexitytotheimage.Theviewer’sawarenessofthesetwo
gazesthathavebeenplacedontothefemalesubjectsencourageshertoimaginatively
re-constructthewomeninthree-dimensionalterms.Puttkamer’spositionwithinthe
bodyofthearticleisoneofnostalgicmourningforthelossofCintaLargaculture,yet
thisparticularsnapshot,whichappearedattheendoftheNationalGeographicarticle,
offeredaglimmerofhope,sinceitdemonstratedtheCintaLargas’creativeand
sustainablesurvivalthroughdress.TheassociationwiththeThreeGraces,the
mythologicaldaughtersofZeus,saidtorepresentbeauty,charmandjoy,whoare
frequentlyvisuallydepictedinsmooth,whiteartisticrepresentationssuchasAntonio
Canova’sneoclassicalmarblesculpture(1814-17),impliedbothbackwardnessand
evolution,sinceclassicalcultureconstitutedthestartingpointforWesterncivilisation,
butalsothestandardbywhichitwasmeasured.182
ApointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwitharatherdifferentviewofBrazilian
womenthatwaspublishedinLifemagazineon12November1971(Figs.2.30and
2.31),inanarticlewrittenandphotographedbyJohnDominisandentitled‘Tamingthe
GreenHell:BrazilRamsaHighwayThroughTheWildAmazon.’183Thearticle
concernedtheBrazilianGovernment’sbuildingoftheTrans-Amazonianhighway,a
4,000kmroadconceivedoftounifyNorthernBrazil,whichopenedinSeptember1972
andranthroughtheBrazilianstatesofParaiba,Ceara,Piaui,Maranhao,Tocantins,181RolandBarthes,CameraLucida:ReflectionsonPhotography(NewYork:NoondayPress,1981),p.12.182ChristineM.GuthmakesthispointinherdiscussionofhowEuropeantravellersencodedJapaneseculturewithinEurocentricframeworksthatdrewonAncientGreeceandMedievalEurope.Guth,Longfellow’sTattoos:Tourism,CollectingandJapan(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2004),p.31.183JohnDominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,Life,12November1971,pp.30-31.
106
ParaandAmazonas.Inthetop-left-handcornerofthearticle,animagecapturedfive
Brazilianwomenstraightforwardlyintheframe,againstadullbackgroundofclouded
sky,awoodenfencedisappearingintothedistance,andthegreen-and-whitefaçadeof
abuilding.Thecaptionthataccompanieditread:‘Townsalongtheroadarebooming
withsuchby-productsofcivilizationaselectricityandbargirls.OnSaturday,hundreds
ofworkerscomeintoAltamira,above.Girlsentertainthemenforabout$3each.’184A
closerexaminationofthephotographdemonstratedhowsimplifiedthisdescription
wasinanchoringthemeaningofthephotograph,sinceitunderstoodthewomen
solelyintermsoftheiravailabilityasobjectsofconsumptionandamalegaze,and
refusedtoacknowledgethelayersofmeaningembeddedwithintheirfashionable
ensembles.
Eachsubjectmeetsthephotographer’sgazedirectly,andenactsavarietyof
poses,fromstraightforwardlypresentingthebodytothegazethatscrutinisesthem,to
morestylisedandperformativefashionstancesthatrevealanuncoveredthighand
high-heeledsandal.Theirclothingisacombinationofwhitenylonknee-highsocks
wornwithwhiteshoes,whiteandpinkankle-lengthdresseswiththigh-highslits,and
hotpantsandovercoatsinpsychedelicprintedfabrics,allofwhichstandoutagainst
thegeneraldegradationoftheiraridsurroundings.Theclashingcoloursandswirling
patternsthatadornthreeofthewomen’soutfitsdemonstratetheinfluenceof
contemporaryhippiefashions,popularbothinsideandoutsideofBrazilduringthe
period,withtheirpenchantforexposingthebody,vibranthuesandmismatchedprints
andstyles.Thewomen’sclothingandposeswerenotonlyfashionableinWestern
EuropeandtheUnitedStates,butalsocirculatedinmainstreamBrazilianmagazines,
newspapersandsoapoperas.Thewomenthusdisplayacommonawarenessof184Dominis,’TamingtheGreenHell’,p.30.
107
fashionthatlinksthemtotheoutsideworld,despitetheirremotegeographical
location,andencapsulatestheglobalnatureoffashion,asindividualsnegotiate
differentsubjectpositionsinthecontextofcomplex,transnationaldynamics.Totake
thesesartorialreferencesintoaccountwhich,unlikeNationalGeographic,Lifefailedto
do,enablestheimagetobereadagainstthegrain,andthewomentobeunderstood
asnolongermerelypassiveobjectsofapresumedmalegazebutactivefashion
consumersinthecontextofaglobaleconomywhohavenegotiatedandnavigatedthe
constructionoftheirownidentitiesthroughdress.
ThereceptionandinterpretationoftheNationalGeographicsnapshot,as
exemplifiedbyletterswrittentothemagazine,demonstratedthatitremained
ambiguousandprovocativeinthemindsofviewers,ratherasthe‘Manifesto
Antropófago’hadbeenin1928.OnereaderwrotetothesecretaryofNational
Geographicon3September1971(Fig.2.32)acknowledgingtheeducationalvaluethat
sheattachedtothemagazine,butcriticisingitfordisplayingnudity:
Wehavesubscribedtoyourmagazineforseveralyears.TheSeptember1971issuehaspromptedthisnotetoyou–22picturesorpagesofnear-nudemenandnudewomen!Ihavenoticedanincreasingtrendinyourmagazine–andIamawarethatthisistheactuallivingpatternofthesenativetribes–ofnudity.Myteenagedaughterreferstoyourmagazineandhasreceivedinvaluableassistanceinherstudies.Herfriendsalsoenjoythemagazinewhichoccupiesaprominentplaceonmycoffeetable–butthisSeptemberissuewillbeputaway.I’msurethatintheBrazilianjungleW.JescoandvonPuttkamer[sic]musthavebeenabletofindotherinterestingthings–andbeenabletophotographtheseIndiansmorediscreetly.SimplybecausetheseIndianswearnoclothesatallshouldhavepromptedlimitedexposureoftheirbodies.Idonotconsider22pagesofnakedmensuitableviewingformyteenagedaughter.185
185NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JoanG.WallistoTheSecretaryNGS,29August1971.
108
ThisreaderdidnotperceivethethreeCintaLargaswomenasdressedanddescribed
themas‘nude’,disregardingtheircomplexuseofbodypaintasaformofclothing.In
response,althoughnotactuallyoutliningthatbodypaintwasaformofdress,National
Geographicexpressedtheviewthatitwasnotnecessarilyamarkofcivilisationtobe
clothed,andthatitwouldbewrongtoattempttoacculturatethesepeoplesbyforcing
themtoadoptclothing(Fig.2.33):
IfwearegoingtoportraytheCintasLargaofBrazil,ortheStoneAgetribesmenofnewGuinea,ormanyofthenewlyindependentpeoplesofAfrica,wemustacceptthatalargenumberofthemgoaroundwearingverylittleindeed–asdoalsomanya‘civilized’American,EnglishmanorRussiantoday.Toignorethiswould,inouropinion,createjustasfalseapictureoftheworldasifwedidtheopposite,andunnecessarilyemphasizedthisaspect.Honesty,itseemstous,iskeytothiswholequestion.Thisisaverydifferentthingfromthedeliberatelypornographic(andessentiallydishonest)publicationssoreadilyavailablethesedaysinmostdrugstores.186
NationalGeographic’sacknowledgementthat‘wemustacceptthatalargenumberof
themgoaroundwearingverylittleindeed’stillsuggestedaninabilityonthe
magazine’sparttocriticallyrecognisethesignificanceoftheCintaLargas’different
modesofdress.Furthermore,themagazine’sinsistenceon‘honesty’maybe
consideredasanattempttosmoothovertheambiguityinherentinethnographicand
documentarymodesofphotography,whichalwaysreflectaparticulargazeandare
inextricablytiedtotheattitudesofthemaker,whohaschosennotonlythesubject
butalsothecomposition,lightingandframeworkwithinwhichthatsubjectis
captured.
186NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JohnScofieldtoJoanG.Wallis,20September1971.
109
Therewerealsolettersthatappearedtoexpressanoppositeviewpoint.
AnotherviewerwrotetoNationalGeographiccriticisingthemagazineforcensoringits
subjects(Fig.2.34):
Iwishtoissueacomplaintregardingthepoortasteinvolved[…]Youwillnotewhenlookingatthepictures,youhavecensoredthesexorgansofthemalesineverycasebringingattentiontothefact.Ipresumethisisbasedonsomepuritanconceptthatwearenotsupposedtoseesuchthings.Ifso,youarewaybehindthetimes.Wearenotaswingingfamily,infact,weareconsideredrathersquare,butwhenthekidssay‘tellitlikeitis’,youshouldsitupandtakenotice.Ifyourreadersareincapableofhandlingsuchvisualinformation,thendon’tputitinthemagazineatall,butpleasedonotdegradeyourmagazineanddegradethereaders’intelligenceinthemannerthatyouhave.187
NationalGeographichadnotinfactcensoredthepictures;theviewerwas
inadvertentlyreferringtotheCintaLargas’techniqueofkeepingtheirscrotumspulled
upandsecuredwithpalm-leafribbons,ascanbeseeninFig.2.24.Inresponse,
NationalGeographicgavethevieweradetailedexplanationoftheprocedure(Fig.
2.35):
CintaLargamalesrepairthatpartoftheanatomywhichyouquestioninawaywhichobscuresitfromview.Thatpartwhichisnormallyextrinsicismadeintrinsic,ortoputitbluntly,tuckedbackin.Ourbestinformationisthisaidsfertilitywhichyoumustconsiderintermsofarelativelynomadictribewhichengagesinhuntinginthejungleforitslivelihood.Thesmallreedisattachedbyinsertingapieceofloosefleshintoaconicalpocketresultingfromanangularoverlapattheendofthereed.188
Thedifferentviewpointsofferedbythesetwoviewersprovideanindicationofthe
inconsistentorcontradictorymessagesthattherepresentationofdressprovokedin
themagazine,demonstratingthatneithersubjectnorphotographer–noreditorfor
187NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JohnT.GosstoMelvilleB.Grosvenor,5October1971.188NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.21.121397,JonSchneebergertoJohnT.Goss,2November1971.
110
thatmatter–everhascompletecontroloverthemakingofmeaningwithina
photograph.
ThischapterhasusedAndrade’sself-awaremetaphorofanthropophagy,
wherebyBraziliansubjectshaveswallowedforeignelements,selectedaspectsto
consume,andincorporatedthemintotheirownorganisms,toexaminethree
snapshotsthatfeaturedBrazilandwerepublishedinthefirsthundredyearsof
NationalGeographic.Thecontradictoryandambiguousnatureofanthropophagy
madeitaconstructivecriticaltooltore-thinkthesethreeverydifferent,historically
andgeographicallydistanced,butparticularlycharged,cross-culturalinteractions
withintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone.IreturntoAndrade’sassertionthat‘what
clashedwiththetruthwasclothing,thatraincoatplacedbetweentheinnerandouter
world’.189InallthreesnapshotstherehasbeenacuriositylinkedtoNational
Geographic’sobservationofBraziliandress.190Yetthischapterhasalsodemonstrated
thatdresshasprovidedameansforBraziliansubjectstonegotiateandre-negotiate
withcreativitytheirindividualidentities.Myanalysishasattemptedtoassessthe
aestheticsingularitiesandcreativeinnovationsofBraziliansubjects’engagementswith
cross-culturaldress.Arevisionistre-readingofthesethreesnapshotsthroughthelens
ofdresshasarticulatednewframesofreference,potentialitiesandsubjectivities,
whichhaveinterruptedmoredominantnarrativesembeddedwithinthetextofthese
NationalGeographicarticles.Dresshasenabledustore-readtheseimagesagainstthe
189Andrade,‘CannibalistManifesto’,p.38.190Itisinterestingtonotethatdressstudyitselfisgroundedinanencyclopaedicinterestindocumentingdiversetypesofdress,exemplifiedbyItalianscholarCesareVecellio’sexpansivetwovolumes,HabitiAntichi,Modernidituttoilmondo[OldandModernHabitsofDressinAllPartsoftheWorld],whichcatalogueddressindifferentpartsoftheworldasearlyas1598.CesareVecellio,HabitiAntichi,Modernidituttoilmondo(Venice:AppressoiSessa,1598).
111
grainandchallengesomeofthestraightforwardassumptionsthathavebeen
associatedwiththemagazine.Ithasprovidedacounter-narrative,tochallengethe
prevailingscientificideologyofNationalGeographictopursue‘theincreaseand
diffusionofgeographicknowledge’.191ItmustbeacknowledgedthatitwasBrazilian
womenwhoweremoreopenlyscrutinisedbymaleNationalGeographic
correspondents,whichraisesissuesofgenderedauthority,butneverthelessitwas
Brazilianwomen’sdressthatexhibitedmorepotentialtochallengeahegemonicgaze.
Thismaybearesultofthefactthatwomenwereunderstoodaslessimportantduring
thetimeframeunderexamination,whichmeanttheyhadamorefluidsubjectivityto
constructtheiridentitiesinmoreidiosyncraticwaysthanmen.
ItmustalsobeacknowledgedthattherewerelimitationstoAndrade’s
methodology,sincetheinterpretationofthesethreesnapshotswereoften
dependent,tovaryingdegrees,upontheircaptions,which‘anchored’theirmeanings
inaBarthesiansense.Yet,ratherthanfullyacceptingBarthes’argumentthatthis
processfixedthemeaningofimages,Iwouldarguethat,inNationalGeographic,the
captionsfurthercomplicatedtheimages,providingadditionallayersofmeaningto
unfold.IturnheretoGerardoMosqueira,whohasaptlycharacterisedanthropophagy
asbeing‘notsofluidasitseems,sinceitisnotcarriedoninneutralterritorybutrather
[…]issubdued,withapraxisthattacitlyassumesthecontradictionsofadependence.
Intheend,whoeatswhom?’192Mosqueira’scriticismofanthropophagyrevealsa
paradox:althoughwecannotrefuse,denyordisavowthecreativeappropriationsthat
havematerialisedthroughit,theprocesscanonlytakeplacewithinasymmetrical
relationsofpower.Duringthisperiodsartorialanthropophagytookplaceboth
191Anon.,'Announcement',NationalGeographic,October1988,p.1.192GerardoMosqueira,‘GlobalIslands’inCreoliteandCreolization:Documenta11Platform3(Ostfildern-Ruit,Germany:HatjeCantz,2003),p.31.
112
inconspicuouslyandconspicuously,simultaneouslyformingamediatorandabarrier
betweenNationalGeographicandBraziliansubjects.NationalGeographicfulfilleda
U.S.-drivenculturalimperialismineachofthesethreesnapshotstotheextentthatthe
magazine’sagendawasclearlyconnectedtobroaderpoliticalinterestsadvancedby
theUnitedStatesduringthisperiod,ratherthansolelytotheinterestsofBrazil.
DespitebeingabletoseeinstancesinwhichBraziliansubjectsnegotiatedandre-
negotiatedtheirownidentitiesthroughdress,itwasstillNationalGeographicwhoate,
orfashioned,Brazil,asopposedtotheotherwayaround.NationalGeographic’s
imagesweredistinguishedfromthebroaderglobalmediascapeinthesensethatthey
werefarmorecomplexandambiguousthanthoseproducedby,forexample,Popular
Mechanics,AmericanVogueandLife.Thisunequalpowerdynamicshiftedinthepost-
1988periodwhenNationalGeographiccelebrateditscentennial,andsartorial
expressionsbyBraziliansubjectstookonanewformas,tociteatermemployedby
NorthAmericanscholarofBrazilianfilm,RobertStam,an‘aestheticsofgarbage’.193
ThiscoincidedwithashiftatNationalGeographic,asitmovedfromanunderstanding
ofitsphotographsaspurelyillustrativetothetext,towardsamoretactile
understandingofimageryaskeytotheinterpretationofitsarticles.
193Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.
113
Chapter2.
AestheticsofGarbage:GlobalisationandtheRepresentationofBrazilianDressinNationalGeographicsince1988
• Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts,December1988• Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianGirl’sLycraTopandDenimJeans,August2002
WhilstAndradeusedthemetaphorofanthropophagyin1928toconceptualise
BrazilianModernismoasanaestheticsofbricolageanddiscontinuitywiththecountry’s
historicalpast,in1998RobertStamdrewaconnectionwithpostmodernismand
describedBrazilianfilmsincethelate1980sasan‘aestheticsofgarbage’,articulated
throughthecreativeandhybridactofpastiche.194Stam’smetaphoriscomparableto
anthropophagyinthesensethatitprovidesameanstoinvertcross-cultural
expressionsthathavepreviouslybeenseenasnegative,andrevalorisethemasan
anti-colonialtrope,turningapremeditateddisadvantageintoatacticalstrength.
However,whereasanthropophagywasdependentuponthestrongbinaryoppositions
betweenoppressorsandoppressed,theUnitedStatesandBrazil,NationalGeographic
andBraziliansubjects,an‘aestheticsofgarbage’encapsulatedthemorenuanced
subtletiesandcomplexitiesthathavebeenwovenintothefabricofcontemporary
encounterswithintheglobalcontactzone.Certainly,Andrade’sambiguousmetaphor
wasinnovativeinitsattemptstodissolvetheirreconcilabledualitiesofcross-cultural
interactionsand,whenusedasananalyticaltool,itrevealedthreeparticularlycharged
examplesofexchangeanddialogue,whichilluminatedBraziliansubjects’skillsinself-
fashioningandself-presentationbeforeNationalGeographic’sgaze.Yettherewere
limitationstohisargument,whichcouldnotaccountfortheincreasingly
interdependentandfluidnatureofagloballyrestructuredandcontinuallychanging
world,whichhasinfluencedthevariouswaysthatdress,butalsoitsrepresentationin
194Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.
114
massmedia,hasbeenmanufactured,distributed,sold,purchased,worn,discarded
andrecycled.Themetaphorofanaestheticsofgarbageprovidesabroadercritical
approachforaglobalera,whichexpressesadditionaldegreesofuniquenessand,as
Stamarticulated,how‘adiscourseof“mediaimperialism”’hadgivenwayto
‘reciprocityand“indigenization”’.195Itenablesglobalisationnotmerelytobereduced
toanobjectiveeconomicprocess,butalsotonarratethedifferentstories,personal
andcollective,localandglobal,visualandmaterial,whichdefineanddescribeit.
Stamusedgarbageasametaphortorecountthesubversivepotentialand
dynamicindividualismofcontemporaryBrazilianculture,whichnegotiatedandre-
negotiateddiscardedaestheticcodesandconventionswithintheexpanded,
accelerated,andintensifiedglobalcontactzone:
AnotherwaythatBraziliancultureisfiguredasamixedsiteisthroughthemotifofgarbage.Garbage,inthissense,standsatthepointofconvergenceofourthreethemesofhybridity,chronotopicmultiplicity,andtheredemptionofdetritus.Garbageishybrid,firstofall,asthediasporized,heterotopicsiteofthepromiscuousminglingofrichandpoor,centerandperiphery,theindustrialandtheartisanal,thedomesticandthepublic,thedurableandthetransient,theorganicandtheinorganic,thenationalandtheinternational,thelocalandtheglobal.Theidealpostmodernandpostcolonialmetaphor,garbageismixed,syncretic,aradicallydecenteredsocialtext.[myitalics]196
Stamoutlinedthethreestrandswovenintohisconceptualisationofanaestheticsof
garbage:hybridity,chronotopicmultiplicity,andtheredemptionofrefuse.Primarily,
heemphasisedthathybridityisnotaneutralterm,buthasrecurrentlybeenadopted
byLatinAmericangovernmentstoarticulatenationalidentitywithinintegrationist
195Ibid.196Ibid.
115
discoursesthatdismisstheexistenceofcultural,racialandsocialdiscrimination.197
Stamacknowledgedanimportantcritiqueofhybridity–that,asananti-essentialist
discourse,itcanoftencamouflageessentialisms,centreduponitsostensiblefailureto
discriminatebetweendiversemodalities,andinsteadstressoversimplifiednotionsof
blending,assimilation,mimicry,co-option,imposition,exploitation,andsubversion.198
HeusedBrazilianfilmasacasestudytoanalysethisnewhybridformofmultitemporal
andintertextualaesthetics.Themultifariousnatureofdressequallyenablesthe
complexarticulationsandre-articulationsofcross-culturalexchangetobeunravelled
sothathybridity,whichunquestionablyunfoldsinpower-ladencontexts,isableto
drawdistinctionsasopposedtoblurthem,andcrucially,isnotreducedtoanebulous
and‘descriptive,catch-allterm’.199
Inaddition,Stamusedtheterm‘chronotopicmultiplicity’,derivedfromRussian
literarytheoristMikhailBakhtin,todescribethemultipleandintertextualstrandsof
world-timeandworld-spacethatareinterlacedandoverlayeredinBrazilianfilm.200
Bakhtindrewuponthetemporallypalimpsesticnatureofliteraryexpressionsandtheir
inseparablelayeringofspatio-temporalities.Inhis1981collectionoffouressays,The
DialogicImagination,hecoinedtheterm‘chronotope’toreferinafigurative,as
opposedtomathematicalorphysical,senseto‘theintrinsicconnectednessof
197LatinAmericaisoftenperceivedasthehybridregionparexcellencebaseduponthevariousencounters,clashes,contact,interaction,miscegenationandexchangebetweenindigenouspopulations,Europeans,andAfricansbroughttothecontinentasaresultoftheEuropeanslavetrade.OneofthefirstscholarstocriticallyacknowledgehybriditywasBraziliansociologistGilbertoFreyrewhoin1933definedBrazilianidentityintermsofmixing,namelyofEuropeanandAfricancultures.GilbertoFreyre,TheMastersandTheSlaves:AStudyintheDevelopmentofBrazilianCivilization(NewYork:Knopf,1956).198AnoutspokencriticofhybridityisJonathanFriedman,whohasarguedthatthetheoryreproducesthenotionofculturalpuritythatitintendstotranscend.JonathanFriedman,‘GlobalCrises,theStruggleforCulturalIdentityandIntellectualPork-Barrelling:CosmopolitansversusLocals,EthnicsandNationalsinanEraofDe-Hegemonisation’inDebatingCulturalHybridity:Multi-CulturalIdentitiesandthePoliticsofAnti-Racism,ed.byPninaWerbnerandTariqModood(London:ZedBooks,1997),pp.70-89.199Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.200Ibid.
116
temporalandspatialrelationshipsthatareartisticallyexpressedinliterature’.201A
parallelcanbedrawnherewithdress,whichisinterconnectedandintertextual;itis
theproductofamultiplicityofhistoricalperiods,continuallyharkingbacktoafleeting
pastthatitrefabricatesinthepresent.LyndaNeadhasusedthedressmetaphorofa
‘crumpledhandkerchief’toarticulateatopologicalconceptoftimeandspaceas
folded,wherebydistantpointscanbecomecloseinproximity,orsuperimposedover
oneanother.202Thisexperienceoftimeascrumpled,ratherthanflatandlinear,
weavestogetherpast,presentandfutureincontinualandunexpectedconversation.
Whiletimeandspaceconstituteabstractconceptsandcontexts,dressenablesusto
pinpointanddecipherparticularexamplesofwhenindividualshaveexpressedasense
ofwhotheyareinrelationtowhenandwheretheyare.203
Neadusedthemetaphorofthecrumpledhandkerchief,suggestiveofoldand
greyingqualities,asopposedtoaclean,crispandfreshlyironedone.Thisissignificant,
anddrawsacorrelationwiththefinalstrandthatStamwoveintoanaestheticsof
garbage:thestrategicredemptionorrecyclingofmarginalorsecond-handaesthetics.
Aconnectioncanbemadeherewiththeconceptofgambiarra,whichwastouched
uponinthefirstsnapshotinchapteroneandexemplifiedbythefemalesubject’s
inventiverecyclingofan‘oldpieceofcloth’,inordertoself-presentbeforethe
photographer’sethnographicgaze.Stamlocatedtheserecycledaestheticswithinthe
archiveofUdigrudi(underground)Braziliancinemaofthelate1960s,heraldedby
BrazilianfilmmakerRogérioSganzerla,whodevelopedtechniquesthatappropriated
internationalcinemaandre-presenteditinanirreverent,overtlyaffectedbut201MikhailBakhtin,TheDialogicImagination:FourEssays,trans.byMichaelHolquist(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1981).202LyndaNeedquotedinCarolineEvans,FashionAtTheEdge:Spectacle,ModernityandDeathliness(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2003),p.22.203SusanB.KaisermakesthispointinherintroductiontoFashionandCulturalStudies(London:Berg,2012),p.1.
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innovativemanner.204ThoughundergroundBraziliancinema,whichusedsecond-hand
aestheticstoparodyborrowedideasfromEuropeandtheUnitedStates,was
groundedinthecountercultureofthe1960s,Stamlocatedanewformofthese
techniquesinBrazilianfilmfromthelate1980sand1990s.205Brazilians,heasserted,
wererequiredtosiftthroughtheremnantsofaglobalcapitalistcultureand
incorporateandre-presentleftoverorsalvagedelements‘liketheheterogeneous
scrapsmakingupaquilt’.206Indoingso,hegaveapositiveidentificationand
revalorisationtothetransformativeprocessofmending,alteringandrecyclingdiverse
swatchesoftheWest’sunwantedproducts,andusingthemtoconstructanew,cross-
culturaltextilethatmediatedbetweenthelocalandtheglobal.Stam’suseofasimile
thatdrawsondresshasanincreasedsignificanceinrelationtothetimeframeunder
examination;sincethelate1980s,increasedconsumerismanddecliningclothing
priceshaveresultedinavastsurplusofsecond-handgarmentsnolongerrequiredin
NorthAmericaandWesternEurope.Theseuseditemsofdresshavebeendonatedto
charitableorganisations,sortedandbaled,andsubsequentlyexportedtoLatin
America,AfricaandAsia.207Itisthroughtheirre-useandtransformationindiverse
geographicallocationsthattheircross-culturalmeanings,asKarenTranbergHansen
hasremarked,‘shiftinwaysthathelpredefineusedclothinginto“new”garments’.208
Thischapterwillweavetogetherthethreestrandsthatcompriseanaestheticsof
204Stamdrewononeparticularexample:TheRedLightBandit,dir.byRogérioSganzerla(UranoFilmes,1968).205Hedrewuponthreeexamples:IsladasFlores,dir.byJorgeFurtado(CasadeCinemadePortoAlegre,1989),BocadeLixo,dir.byEduardoCoutinho(CentrodeCriacodeImagemPopular,1992)andOFiodaMemoria,dir.byEduardoCoutinho(Cinefilmes,1991),eachofwhichengagedfigurativelyandliterallywiththetropeofgarbage.206Stam,'HybridityandtheAestheticsofGarbage',n.p.207AlexanderPalmerandHazelClark,OldClothes,NewLooks:SecondHandFashion(NewYork:Berg,2005).208KarenTranbergHansen,‘Youth,GenderandSecondhandClothinginLusaka,Zambia:LocalandGlobalStyles’,inTheFabricofCultures:Fashion,IdentityandGlobalization,ed.byEugeniaPaulicelliandHazelClark(London:Routledge,2009),pp.112-27(p.116).
118
garbage(hybridity,chronotopicmultiplicityandthestrategicredemptionofdetritus)
tounpickanumberofthreadsfromthediverseandmultisensorystoriesof
contemporaryglobalisationthathavebeenfabricatedthroughtherepresentationof
BraziliandressinNationalGeographicsince1988.
Thischapterbeginswithanexaminationofthearticle‘WithintheYellow
Border’,writtenbythetheneditorofNationalGeographic,WilburE.Garrett(1980-
90),whichwaspublishedinthemagazinetocelebrateitscentennialinSeptember
1988.209Thisarticleencapsulatedashiftthatdepartedfromanobjective,scientific
approachtothedocumentationofpeoplesandplacesintheworld,andmoved
towardsaheightenedmultisensoryandsubjectiveengagementwithdressedsubjects.
ItwillbeusedtooutlinethechangesthathavetakenplaceatNationalGeographic
since1988,whichhavebeendrivenby,butincreasinglyhavealsodriven,theforcesof
globalisation.Imoveontoanalysethelayersofmeaningwovenintothetwokey
snapshotsorcasestudiesofBraziliandressthatthischapterexamines,whichwere
publishedinthemagazineinDecember1988andAugust2002.210Thefirstarticlewas
writtenbytheAmericanauthorandphotojournalist,LorenMcIntyre,and
accompaniedwithphotographstakenbytheBrazilianphotographeranddocumentary
filmmaker,W.JescovonPuttkamer,whoseworkwasexaminedintheprevious
chapter.211ThesecondwaswrittenbyAfrican-Americanjournalist,CharlesE.CobbJr.,
andaccompaniedwithphotographsbyAmericanphotographer,DavidAlanHarvey.212
Thischapterdrawsconclusionstothefollowingquestions:whatvisualandtextual
strategieshavebeenusedbyNationalGeographictofashionanideaofBraziliandress209WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,NationalGeographic,September1988,pp.270-86.210LorenMcIntyre,‘“LastDaysofEden”:Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-WauIndians’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.800-87;CharlesE.CobbJr.,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,NationalGeographic,August2002,pp.62-81.211LorenMcIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’.212CobbJr.,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’.
119
since1988?AndtowhatextenthaveBraziliansubjectsself-fashionedthroughthe
tropeofgarbage,demonstratedbytheirabilitytoengageinsartorial
accommodations,appropriationsandnegotiationsofsecond-handaestheticsofglobal
culture?
TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicsince1988
ItisusefulheretoincludeabriefcommentontherepresentationofBrazilin
NationalGeographicsincethemagazinecelebrateditscentennialinSeptember1988.
Todate,seventeenarticlesonBrazilhavebeenpublishedduringthisperiod.213
Althoughtheyhaveappearedtofollownoregularpattern,threekeythemeshave
emergedbut,unlikethedevelopmenttrackedinChapterOne,thesethemesdonot
runchronologically.Thepredominantthemehasbeenindigenouspeoplesandplaces
intheAmazonorecologicalsitesinBrazil,reflectedinthetitlesofarticlessuchas‘Last
DaysofEden:Rondonia’sUrueu-Wau-Wau’(December1988),‘TheAmazon:South
America’sRiverRoad’(February1995),‘IntotheAmazon’(August,2003),‘The
RainforestinRio’sBackyard’(March,2004),‘TheWildWet’(August2005),‘Lastofthe
Amazon’(January2007),‘DazzlingBrazilianJunes’(July2010)and‘KayapoCourage:
therichandpowerfulBraziliantribeisbattlingadamprojectthatwillnotdie’(January
2014).214ThesecondthemehasbeenRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,reflectedinthe
titlesofarticlessuchas‘Brazil:FlighttotheCities’(December1988),‘Cities:SaoPaulo’213RefertoAppendix2:TherepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographic(1988-December2014).214McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’;ScottWallace,‘TheAmazon:SouthAmerica’sRiverRoad’,NationalGeographic,February1995,pp.2-39;ScottWallace,‘IntotheAmazon’,NationalGeographic,August2003,pp.2-27;VirginiaMorrell,‘TheRainForestinRio’sBackyard’,NationalGeographic,March2004,pp.2-27;SusanMcGrath,‘TheWildWet’,NationalGeographic,August2005,pp.46-71;ScottWallace,‘LastoftheAmazon’,NationalGeographic,January2007,pp.41-71;RonaldoRibeiro,‘DazzlingBrazilianDunes’,NationalGeographic,July2010,pp.108-17;ChipBrown,‘KayapoCourage:therichandpowerfulBraziliantribeisbattlingadamprojectthatwillnotdie’,NationalGeographic,January2014,pp.30-55.
120
(November2002),‘VisionsoftheEarth:RiodeJaneiro’(April2006),‘Visionsofthe
Earth:Brazil’(January2007),and‘ANewFaceforRio’(October2012).215Thethird
theme,alsotheleastrepresentedintheperiodcoveredbythepreviouschapter,was
Afro-Brazilians,reflectedinthetitlesoftwoarticles,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’
(August2002)and,mostrecently,‘WhereSlavesRuled’(April2012).216Thischapter
drawsontwoofthesethemes–indigenouspeoplesintheAmazonandAfro-Brazilians
–whilstchapterthreedelvesintotheremainingtheme,RiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo.
BeyondtheYellowBorder:AHeightenedPhenomenologyofContact
Tocommemoratethe100thanniversaryofNationalGeographic,afoldout
articlewrittenbyWilburE.Garrett,entitled‘WithintheYellowBorder…’(Figs.3.0-
3.4),waspublishedintheSeptember1988editionofthemagazine.217Thiswasthe
firstofthreecentennialeditionspublishedconsecutivelyanddistributedtothe
magazine’s10.5millionmembersworldwide,eightypercentofwhomlivedinthe
UnitedStates,andtwelvepercentintheEnglish-speakingcountriesofCanada,Great
Britain,AustraliaandNewZealand.218Spreadovereightinterconnectedpagesthat
foldedoutofthemagazine,totheleftandright,backandfront,thearticlereproduced
threehundredandsixtyNationalGeographiccovers:everysinglecoverpublished
sinceSeptember1959,andeachdifferentcoverdesignsinceOctober1888.This
215PaulR.EhrlichandAnneH.Ehrlich,‘Brazil:FlighttotheCities’,NationalGeographic,December1988,pp.934-37;ErlaZwingle,‘Cities:SaoPaulo’,NationalGeographic,November2002,pp.70-99;IzanPetterle,‘VisionsoftheEarth:RiodeJaneiro’,NationalGeographic,April2006,p.14;JorgeSaenz,‘VisionsoftheEarth:Brazil’,NationalGeographic,August2007,p.18;AntonioRegalado,‘ANewFaceforRio’,NationalGeographic,October2012,pp.72-91.216CobbJr.,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’;CharlesC.MannandSusannaHecht,‘WhereSlavesRuled’,NationalGeographic,April2012,pp.122-39.217WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’.218C.D.Bryan,TheNationalGeographicSociety:100YearsofAdventureandDiscovery(NewYork:Abrams,1987).
121
foldoutsectionwasaccompaniedwithapageoftext,framedintheboldyellow
rectanglethathascharacterisedNationalGeographic’sgazeontheworldsince
February1910.219Viewedwithcontemporaryhindsightoftheunprecedentedand
acceleratedgeographicalandpoliticalchangethattheendoftheColdWarwould
engender,thetitle‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,whichattemptedtolimitandconfine
theNationalGeographicviewer’sgazeontotheworld,appearedeerilyportentous.
Constraintandfixitywereencouragedbytheformulaicandsystematicplacementof
thecovers,whichwerereproducedinanidenticalsizeandformat,andorderedwith
precisioninalinearchronology.NationalGeographicpresentedavisualtypologyof
itselfonits100thanniversary,withaneutralandobjectifyinggazecomparabletothat
placeduponitbyCyprianGaillardinhispop-upartwork‘L’OrigamiduMonde’for032c
onthemagazine’s125thanniversary.220
Yetthefoldoutsectionof‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,correspondingwiththe
formatofGaillard’sartwork,requiredatactile,three-dimensionalengagementwith
themagazineasamaterialobject,whichsurpassedasolelyempirical,two-
dimensionaldetachedandobjectivegaze.Thetangiblequalitiesofthearticleoperated
inoppositiontothetitle’srhetoricofcontainmentandconstraint,andurgedviewers
219In2004,ConniePhelps,senioreditoranddesigndirectorforNationalGeographic,explainedtheevolutionandsymbolismoftheyellowborderedcover,whichhasgracedthemagazinesinceFebruary1910:‘Aborderofoakleavesandacorns,emergingfromthebottomcenterandrisinguponeitherside,representstheoriginsandsturdygrowthoftheSociety.Atthetop,itmeetsagarlandoflaurelleavesandberries,atraditionalsymbolofachievementandhonorintheartsofcivilization.Insetatthecardinalpointsaretheearth’sfourhemispheres,representingtheall-embracingnatureofthesociety’sworkandsuggestingthatthecontentsareboundonlyby“theworldandallthatisinit”.Aframeborderedinabuffcolourresemblesakindofwindowontheworld.’ConniePhelpsquotedinWilliamE.RyanandTheodoreE.Conover,GraphicsCommunicationsToday(CliftonPark,NY:Thomson/DelmarLearning,2004),p.504.Iwouldaddtothisthatthecolouryellowhasbeenassociatedwithwisdomandknowledge,therebyreinforcingtheideathatNationalGeographicisanauthoritativesourceofinformationabouttheworld,butitisalsorepresentativeofthesun,thelifesourceoftheearth,thusresonatingwithNationalGeographic’smottotocareabouttheplanet.Itiscertainthatyellow,whichhasbecomeincreasinglyvibrantovertheyearsandatthetimeofwriting,hasvisuallydistinguishedNationalGeographicfromotherNorthAmericanprintmedia.220CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c,Autumn/Winter2013,pp.160-67.
122
toventureonamultisensoryexcursionbeyondtherectangularyellowborder–
somethingthatmayhavebeenhintedatwiththeinsertionofanellipsisintothetitle,
suggestiveofanunfinishedthought.Thearticleunfoldedasfarasthearmscould
stretchandplayedwiththeaffectivecapacitiesoftheviewer.Toscrutinisethecovers
intheirentirety,theviewerwasrequiredtoholdthemagazineinherhandsand
realignherbodyinrelationtoit:topressherchestforwards,tomoveherfacecloser
toinspectthesmallprinteddetails,toachieveasensoryrelationwiththetextured
surfaceandsmelloftherecentlyprinted,thinglossypages.‘WithintheYellowBorder
…’wasdesignednotjusttoberead,buttobeheldandtobefelt.ArtcriticAndy
Grundberg,writingintheNewYorkTimeson18September1988,recalledhismemory
ofNationalGeographiconitscentennial:‘Fromtheperspectiveofsmall-townU.S.A.,
thewildanimals,tribalculturesandmountainvistaspicturedonitspagesseemed
utterlyforeignandcompletelyforeign.Theywerefaroffbut,withthemagazine
nestledinmylap,theywerealsotantalizinglynear.’[myitalics]221Indeed,the
centennialeditionofNationalGeographicventuredonestepfurtherthanGrundberg’s
observation,andattemptedtofoldtheviewerintothemagazine,akintoMerleau-
Ponty’sobservationthatperceptionisafoldintothefleshoftheworld,andestablisha
visualexcitationthatwasinextricablylinkedtotouchbutalsotothebodyofthe
subjectflattenedinreproduction.222FilmhistorianLauraU.Markshaseloquently
writtenofhow‘visionitselfcanbetactile,asthoughoneweretouchingafilmwith
one’seyes’.223Shehasacknowledgedtheimportanceofsurfacetextureinevokinga
rangeofexperimentalbodilyresponses,whichstretchbeyondcool,rational
221AndyGrunberg,‘AQuintessentiallyAmericanViewoftheWorld’,NewYorkTimes,18September1988,pp.11-12.222Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,p.368.223LauraU.Marks,TheSkinoftheFilm:InterculturalCinema,EmbodimentandtheSenses(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2007),p.vi.
123
observation,andtowardsamoredynamicsubjectivityandbodilyinterconnection
betweenviewerandimage.Withitssmooth,glossypages,‘WithintheYellowBorder
…’consciouslypromptedamultisensoryresponsefromitsviewers,whohadthe
potentialtore-constructcriticallyandsinglehandedlythemagazine’slinearhistory.
Thearticlehadsimilarconventionstoafoldedpapermapinthesensethat,
althoughthefoldingandunfoldinggesturesthatitrequiredoftheviewerhada
predetermined(inthesenseofbeingpre-folded)structure,theyweredestinedto
generateinconsistencies,andpotentiallycauseconfusion,throughthedistinctive
mannerthatindividualsengagedwithit.‘WithintheYellowBorder…’becamean
imaginativeandambiguousspace,inwhichnosinglehistoricalviewpointwas
privileged,butratherafragmentednetworkofpossibleandoverlappinghistories.
Thesere-constructedversionsofthepastwereentirelydependentupontheNational
Geographicviewer,whounfoldedandre-folded,arrangedandre-presented,the
articleinaccordancewiththeirindividuallyspecificdesiresandwhims,whether
intentionaloraccidental.TheviewerhadtheauthoritytodeconstructNational
Geographic’sveryprecisehistoriographyofitsdocumentationof‘theworldandall
thatisinit’,exemplifiedbytheneatlypresentedcoversinagridformation,andre-
imagineitthroughaseriesoffoldinggestures,whichenableddisjointedtimeperiods
anddiversegeographicallocationstoconnectintimatelywithoneanother,and
therebyprovideapatchworkquiltmadeupofscrapsandfragmentsfrompossible
pasts.Theresultwasaninnovativeandfictionalre-stagingofthemagazine’sone-
hundred-yearhistory,whichdirectlyimplicatedtheactiveviewerintheprocessof
simultaneouslylookingandtouching,foldingandunfolding,fashioningandre-
fashioning.‘WithintheYellowBorder…’reinforcedtheimpossibilityofasingle
124
definitivehistoryandresonatedwithGarrett’stellingcomment,printedinthetextual
accompanimenttothearticle,thatinthiscentennialedition‘welooknotjustatwhat’s
old,butalsoatwhat’snewaboutourpast’.[myitalics]224
‘WithintheYellowBorder…’fashionedaslipperinessbetweenobjectivityand
subjectivity,factualandimaginary,pastandpresent,whichwasreinforcedbythe
ambiguoustextwrittenbyGarrettthataccompaniedit.Hecommented:‘ThoughI
can’trelatetoallofthem,thesecoversmarkacenturyofholdinguptotheworldour
uniquelyobjectivepublishingmirror’[myitalics].225GarrettprivilegedNational
Geographic’sdefinitiveviewpoint,whichhadsetouttodisseminateanunmediated
andfaithfulreflectionoftheworld,actingasdetachedwitnesstothepeoplesand
placesobservedforonehundredyears.Yet‘mirror’isaninterestingchoiceofword;an
idealmirrorwouldduplicateexactlywhatisseeninitsvisualessence,butarealmirror
canonlyeverbeanapproximationofthatideal,sinceitis‘necessarilyreducedtotwo
dimensions’and,asWolfgangCoyhasrecognised,‘moreorlessdistortedin
accordancewiththelawsofoptics’.226Whenweviewourownimageinamirror,we
areoftenaware,evenifnotatanentirelyconsciouslevel,thatitisamutableand
distortedrepresentation,whichhasblurredtheboundarybetweenrealityandfiction.
Interestingly,Garrettappearedtoself-reflexivelyacknowledgethiscontradiction,
whenheproceededtoassertapointofdeparturefromthemagazine’sprevious
224WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.225Ibid.GarrettindirectlyengagedherewithanarticlewrittenbypreviouseditorGilbertH.Grosvenor(1899-1954)inMarch1915,whentheNationalGeographicSocietyboastedamembershipof337,000subscribers,inwhichhelaidoutthe‘GuidingPrinciples’ofthemagazine:‘TheFirstprincipleisabsoluteaccuracy.Nothingmustbeprintedwhichisnotstrictlyaccordingtofact.TheMagazinecanpointtomanyyearsinwhichnotasinglearticlehasappearedwhichwasnotabsolutelyaccurate.’GilbertH.Grosvenor,‘ReportoftheDirectorandEditoroftheNationalGeographicSocietyfortheYear1914’,NationalGeographic,March1915,p.319.226WolfgangCoy,‘InPhotographicMemory’,inPhotographyAfterPhotography:MemoryandRepresentationintheDigitalAge,ed.byHubertusv.Amelunxen,StefanIglhautandFlorianRotzer(Amsterdam:G&BArts,1996),p.66.
125
editorialobjectives,andurgentlycalledfor‘aonce-in-a-centurybitofintrospection–
holdingupthemirrortoourselvesforachange…we’relookingaheadtothenext100
years’[myitalics].227Garrettdeconstructedthenotionofasingular,objective
geographicalorhistorical‘truth’,andacknowledgedthatitcannotexistbeyondthe
author’ssubjectivepointofview,northeviewer’sinterpretativeunderstanding.He
announcedare-constructionofthemagazine’smodeofreportageinwhich,fromthis
pointforth,NationalGeographic’sownsubjectivity,itsmirrorimage,wouldbe
discerniblewithinthemagazine.228Garrettself-consciouslylaidbaretheartifice
prevalentinanyformofrepresentationthatseekstomarginalisetheotherso-called
proximatesenses–inparticular,touch–asameanstoforegroundanobjectifiedand
essentialisedvisionoftheworldinformedbyscienceandtechnology.229Indoingso,he
highlightedtherepresentationalinstabilityofNationalGeographic,whichhasnot
simplymirrored,butactivelyfashioneditssubjects,manufacturingtheobjectsofits
gaze,insofarasithasregisteredthem.
Theperformativeandself-reflexivenatureof‘WithintheYellowBorder…’had
aninherentawarenessofthepluralityofself-narrativeswovenintothemagazine,
whichwerefractured,overlappingandmulti-layered.Coupledwithitsfocuson
creativelyre-presentingitsownreportagehistory,withtheassistanceoftheactive
NationalGeographicviewer,itencapsulatedaparadigmshift,wherebythemagazine
nolongervieweditselfasanexemplarofobjectivescience,butasacreativesite
wherethedirectdocumentationanddramatisationofdifferentindividualand
collectivesubjectsintertwined.ThiswasreinforcedbyJaneLivingston’s
acknowledgement,withinthesameissueofthemagazine,thattoday‘weareviewing
227WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.228Ibid.229Ibid.
126
NationalGeographicphotographyinaspecialway:holdingitupbyitself,full-frame,
outofcontext,andawayfromwords’.230Shecelebratedtheintrinsicandself-
expressivevalueofNationalGeographicphotography,whichhadbeenliberatedfrom
apriorunderstandingofitasdirectlyillustrativeoftheaccompanyingtext,tobe
praisedforitsownartisticimperative.231ConsideringLivingston’scommentin
conjunctionwithGarrett’sarticle,thecentennialeditionofNationalGeographic,
althoughaU.S.culturalexpressionratherthanaBrazilianone,alsoencapsulated
aspectscomparabletoanaestheticsofgarbage,inthesensethatitwasahybrid,
whichdissolvedtheborderbetweentextandphotography,imageandobject,two
dimensionsandthreedimensions,factandfiction,pastandpresent,objectivityand
subjectivity,touchandvision.Itcreatednewandimaginativeconstellationsfroman
oldhistoricaltrajectory,inwhichworld-spaceandworld-timewereintrinsically
interconnectedandintricatelylayeredoverthetopofoneanothertoformnew
palimpsestic,chronotopicmultiplicities.ItrecycledoldNationalGeographiccoversto
produceaninnovativegaze,whichwas‘lookingaheadtothenext100years’,and
foretoldastorythatconcernedaworldonthebrinkofmassivegeographical,political
andeconomicchange.232Whenviewedwiththeluxuryofcontemporaryhindsight,
‘WithintheYellowBorder…’wasunnervinglyprescientoftheintensificationand
expansionofimagesthatwouldbeproducedbytheglobalmediascape,andwith
whichNationalGeographicwouldberequiredtocontend.233Thearticledrewmany
230JaneLivingston,‘TheArtofPhotographyatNationalGeographic’,NationalGeographic,September1988,p.324.231JaneLivingston,‘TheBestPhotosfromNationalGeographic’inOdyssey:TheBestPhotosfromNationalGeographic(WashingtonDC:CorcoranGalleryofArt,1988),pp.19-38.232WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.233AnarticlebyGilbertM.Grosvenor,full-timeeditorofNationalGeographic(1980-90),demonstratedthatthemagazinewasclearlylookingaheadtothedigitalchangesofthefuturein1988.InMarch1988,withinanarticlepublishedinTheGeographicalJournal,Grosvenorquestioned:‘Whatwillitbelike,Iwonder,bytheendoftheNationalGeographicSociety’ssecondcentury?[…]willtheindextoallthevolumesofourmagazine–theentirecompendiumofourpast–becontainedinamicrochipthesizeof
127
connectionsto‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,discussedintheintroductiontothisthesis,234
butwhereasGaillardwaslookingbackoverthemagazine’scomplexhistoryonits125th
anniversary,andsuggestinghowitmightbere-consideredthroughimaginative
storytellingandnarrativereconstruction,Garrettlookedforward,andprovidedthe
analyticaltoolsthatwouldenablethemagazinetometamorphosetoincorporate,and
competewith,theseunprecedentedandacceleratedglobalchanges.National
Geographic’sincreasedfocusontheimportanceoftactileimageryoverdetachedtext
encouragedviewerstoengagewithimagesofpeoplesandplacesthroughoutthe
worldinanincreasinglymultisensoryway,andindoingso,toventurebeyondthe
rectangularyellowborder.
AnEthnographicGazeontheUrueu-Wau-Wauin1988
Thisparadigmshifttowardsamoremultisensoryandsubjectiveengagement
withBraziliansubjectswillbeexaminedincloserdetailinthefirstcasestudythatthis
chapterdiscusses,whichwaspublishedinthethirdcentennialeditionofthemagazine
inDecember1988,andentitled'LastDaysofEden':Rondonia'sUrueu-Wau-Wau
Indians’.235Thearticledocumented‘thepredicamentofonetribe’astheyfoughtto
protecttheir7,000squaremilesoflandfromencroachmentbyBrazilianpioneersin
theformofloggers,rubbertappers,miners,cattlemen,andtheirfamilies,ofwhom
166,000hadsettledin1986alone.236Onlythreehundredandfiftymembersofthe
Urueu-Wau-Wau(whichisspelledinanumberofways,includingUru-Eu-Wau-Wau)
myfingernail?Willwebedisseminatinggeographicknowledgebylaserbeamsthroughmachinesnotyetinvented,insteadofprintingmagazines,booksandmaps?’Grosvenor,‘AHundredYearsoftheNationalGeographicSociety’,TheGeographicalJournal154.1(1988):87-92(p.92).234CyprienGaillard,‘L’OrigamiduMonde’,O32c.235McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’.236LorenMcIntyre,ExploringSouthAmerica(NewYork:C.N.Potter,1990),p.138.
128
remainedin1988.237Ashunter-gathererswhospeakTupi-Kawahib(priortoofficial
contactin1981byFUNAI,thefederalagencyresponsibleforthepreparationof
indigenousgroupsinBrazilforincreasedcontactwiththerestofworld),theUrueu-
Wau-Wauwereknownasthe‘BlackMouths’;thiswasduetothegroup’stechniqueof
usingblackgenipapdyetotattootheirfacesandtheskinaroundtheirmouths.238Asa
NationalGeographicmemorandumwrittenbytheseniorassociateeditor,JosephR.
Judge,on12August1987articulated(Fig.3.5),themagazinewasparticularlykeento
document‘theIndiantribes,whoaresequesterednowonalargeislandofforestpaid
forbyWorldBankFundsasconsciencemoneyforhavingpavedaninfamousroadthat
openedtheregiontologgersandtruckers’.239JudgereferredtothenewlybuiltBR-
364,whichhadbeencompletedin1984withaloanfromtheWorldBanktocoverone
thirdofthecostsandpavedamainroadthroughtheentirestateofRondonia,from
PortoVelhointhenorthtoCuiaba,400kmtothesoutheast.Theroadhadresultedin
vastdeforestationofaonceremotepartoftheAmazonrainforest,andmass
settlementonpreviouslyUrueu-Wau-Wauterritory.240
Judgewasconcernedwiththe‘salvage’oftheUrueu-Wau-Wauandinthe
samememorandumcautionedagainst‘theheadlongdevelopmentoftropicalforested
regionsandtheconsequencesforindigenouspeoplesandirreplaceablefloraand
fauna’.241ThispreparedthestageforNationalGeographic,whoappearedtooperate
237JohnHemming,DieifYouMust:BrazilianIndiansintheTwentiethCentury(London:MacMillan,2003),pp.296-97.238‘Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau:MaterialCulture’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/uru-eu-wau-wau/1131>[accessed3June2015]239NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517,JosephR.JudgetoJohnMcPhee,12August1987.240RobertH.Wade,‘BoulevardofBrokenDreams:TheInsideStoryofTheWorldBank’sPolonoroesteRoadProjectinBrazil’sAmazon’,WorkingPaperNo.55forGranthamResearchInstituteonClimateChangeandtheEnvironment(2011),<http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WP55_world-bank-road-project-brazil.pdf>[accessed3June2015]241NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517,JosephR.JudgetoJohnMcPhee,12August1987.
129
onbehalfofabroaderanthropologicalconcerntorescueafragileanddisappearing
culture,andrenderedtheUrueu-Wau-Wauinapreserved,evenmemorialised,state
forpublicscrutinybythemagazine’sconcernedreadership.The‘salvageparadigm’,to
referenceatermusedbyJamesCliffordanddiscussedinthefirstchapterofthis
thesis,findsaparallelinPratt’sobservationthatcolonialtravelnarrativesfrequently
severed‘contemporarynon-Europeanpeoplesofffromtheirpre-colonial,andeven
colonial,pasts’.242Prattcharacterisedthisasaformofarchaeology,inwhichactual
livingpeoplewererecognisednotaspartofthepresent,butofaseparatepre-
Europeanera.TheimplicationofJudge’smemorandumwasthatUrueu-Wau-Wau
culturerepresentedanauthenticprimitivenessinneedofbeingsalvagedfrom
extinction.However,NationalGeographichadalsomadeitsownarchaeologicalfind
andrescued,fromthis‘near-extinct-specimen-due-to-disappear’,animportantsample
oftike-uba,ananticoagulantthatisextractedfromtreebarkinUrueu-Wau-Wau
territoryandcontainsanimportantcompoundthatcaninhibitthegrowthofenzymes
thatcauseblood-clotting.243Thiswasclearlydetailedinamemorandumcontaininga
samplecollectedbythephotographer,exchangedbetweenJonSchneeberger,the
IllustrationseditoratNationalGeographic,andJeffreyLawson,abiochemistatthe
UniversityofVermont,on22June1989(Fig.3.6).244Thisgreatpharmaceuticalfind
waslatercommercialisedbytheU.S.pharmaceuticalcompanyMerck,who
appropriatedtheknowledgeoftheUrueu-Wau-Wauwithoutanyobligationto
242Pratt,ImperialEyes,p.132.243ClóvisdeVasconcelosCavalcanti,TheEnvironment,SustainableDevelopmentandPublicPolicies:BuildingSustainabilityinBrazil(CheltenhamandNorthampton:EdwardElgar,2000),p.193.244NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,MicroficheFileNo.510-1-999.115517,JonSchneebergertoJeffreyLawson,22June1989.
130
compensatethem,duringaperiodofinsecurityanduncertaintyforthegroup,when
compensationwouldhaveprovedsignificantlybeneficial.245
ItisclearfromthiscontextualanalysisthatNationalGeographichaditsownset
ofconcernsindocumentingtheUrueu-Wau-Wau;itwasawareoftheproblemsthat
theyfacedasaresultoflarge-scaledevelopmentsinBrazil,yetitalsowantedto
extractandcapitaliseupontheirsophisticatedscientificknowledge,aswellasto
documentthembeforetheiranticipateddemise.Despitethishierarchicalpower-
basedrelationshipbetweenNationalGeographicandtheUrueu-Wau-Wauthat
promptedthecommissioningofthearticle,thefifteenglossyphotographsthat
accompanieditactuallyworkedtoresistthathierarchy,sincetheyhighlightedthe
Urueu-Wau-Wau’ssophisticatedabilitytonegotiateandnavigatetheirownsubjective
positionsinaglobalisingworldasfluidandchangeable,asopposedtostaticandfixed.
Thephotographswereacombinationofcandidreportageandposedportraits,taking
precedenceovertextastheywereprintedinlarge-scale,glossycolourwithminimal
captions,andaccompaniedbyonlytwoshortpagesoftextpublishedattheveryend
ofthearticle.
Aninterestingexampleofhowviewerswereencouragedthroughdressto
literallyfeeltheimageofthesubject,intermsofthephysicalsenses,butalsoto
emotionallyfeel,canbeseeninaphotographthatdocumentedayoungUrueu-Wau-
Waugirl(Figs.3.7and3.8).Sheiscrouchedintheforeground,transfixedbyher
reflectioninthesmooth,shinysurfaceofagreenandsilverballoonthatsheholdsin
herrighthand,whilsttracingthecontoursofherfacewithherlefthand.Sheusesher
physicalandintellectualsensesoftouchandvisiontoevaluateandfeelherselfwithin
245VasconcelosCavalcanti,TheEnvironment,SustainableDevelopmentandPublicPolicies,p.193.
131
theworld.Herclothingcannotbeseenapartfromared,yellowandbluebeaded
braceletwrappedaroundhershin.Herreflectionintheballoonalsoproducesafuzzy-
edgedpatterned‘aura’aroundherreflectedhead,aliteralbutalsosymbolicreference
thatmightalludetothesubject’silluminationassheseesherselfasimage,potentially
forthefirsttime.Behindherayounggirl,whowearsanoversizedbrownvestasa
dress,presumablyanitemofsecond-handadultclothing,withnecklacesofteeth,
boneandawhistle,anappropriateditemthatdidnotoriginateinUrueu-Wau-Wau
culture,observesherownreflectioninthesideoftheballoonwithintrigue.246Bothof
thesesubjectsappearoblivioustoPuttkamer’sgaze,yetawomanwearingbluesports
shortsandholdingachild,bothsoftlyrenderedintheblurredbackgroundofthe
image,smilesbroadlyinthedirectionofthecamera.Thephotographisframedin
whiteandprintedinthecentreofapaleorangebackground,ontheleft-handsideofa
double-pageview.Theseconventionsdrawonportraiture,andencouragetheviewer
toobserveeverythingthatlieswithintheframe,highlightingtheactoflookingbeing
performedbyallthreeofthesubjects,whetherattheirownreflectionsinthesurface
oftheballoon,ordirectlyreturningthegazeofthephotographer,likethewomanin
thebackground,andbyextension,thatoftheNationalGeographicviewer.
EugenieShinklehasacknowledgedthatimagesthataddressthebodybringinto
sharpfocustheviewer’sownexperienceofembodiednesssince‘so-called“mirror
neurons”inthebrainfirenotonlywhenweperformaparticularactionourselves,but
whenwewitnesssomeoneelseperformingit’.247Whenweviewarepresentationof
anotherbodyperformingposturesandgestures,weareunabletoobserveinapassive
246McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’.247EugenieShinkle,‘TheLineBetweentheWallandtheFloor:RealityandAffectinContemporaryFashionPhotography’,inFashionasPhotograph:ViewingandReviewingImagesofFashion,ed.byE.Shinkle(London:I.B.Tauris,2008),pp.214-26(p.220).
132
anddetachedmanner,butinvoluntarily‘maptheseposturesandgesturesontoour
body,feelingtheminourskinandbones,musclesandviscera’.248Thelittlegirl
demonstratesanawarenessofherselfasadressedsubjecttobeseen,andanabilityto
seeherdressedselfasimage.Thisself-reflexivedynamicisextendabletothedressed
viewer,whoisencouragedtoperceiveandexperiencetheimagethroughherown
activeexperienceofdressing,whichencompassesanunderstandingoftheselfas
activeintheformationofmeaning.Afeelingofaffectiveidentificationanduncanny
proximityisexchangedbetweentheNationalGeographicviewerandUrueu-Wau-Wau
subjects,despitethedisparitiesingeographicallocationandtemporalseparation,
markedherebythespatialdistancethattheimagehastravelled,butalsothedisparity
betweentheinstantinwhichPuttkamercapturedthisphotographandthemomentin
whichitwasperceivedbytheviewer.Gestureanddressinviteempathywiththe
subjectsonabodilylevel,asthesensationsoflookingareextendedtobeing,thinking,
wearingandfeeling,andsynchronisedwiththoseexperiencedbytheviewer.These
affectivedimensionsofthegazeareamplifiedbytherangeofsurfacetextures
availableinthephotograph,whichencompasstheroughnessofthewoodenstructure
againstwhichthesubjectsintheforegroundlean,theirsmoothskinandglossydark
hair,theshinyreflectivesurfaceoftheballoon,theribbedcottonofthesubject’s
oversizevest,andthemuddyandstonyhardgroundonwhichtheystand.This
plenitudeofdifferenttactilesurfaceswasnotsoabundantlyvisibleintheprevious
threesnapshotsexamined,butheretheyevokeafigurativesenseoftexturethat
promptsafuller,moremultisensoryresponsefromtheNationalGeographicviewer,
enhancedstillfurtherbytheglossysheenofthemagazinepage.Theviewerhasan
intimateawarenessofhowitfeelstobedressedandthedistinctsensationsthatfabric
248Shinkle,‘TheLineBetweentheWallandtheFloor’,p.222.
133
evokeswhenittouchestheskin,whethersoftness,roughness,smoothnessoreven
scratchiness,inadditiontoitsabilitytorestrict,orenhance,easeofmovement.Itisin
thisregardthatworld-spaceandworld-timearecollapsedthroughtheeveryday
embodiedexperienceofdress,andthroughtheintersectingandmultisensory
positionsthatclothingmobilisesbetweentheNationalGeographicviewerandthe
Braziliansubject.Thecaptionunderneaththisphotographmerelyreiteratedwhat
couldalreadybededucedbyholdingthemagazine,touchingitspages,andlookingat
andfeelingtheimage.Itsimplyread:‘Captivatedbyherownimage,anUrueu-Wau-
WaugirlstudiesaplaythingfromanotherworldatanoutpostofFUNAI,Brazil’s
NationalFoundationfortheIndian.’249
Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts
Themultisensorydimensionsofdresshadanincreasedsignificanceinthe
particularsnapshotthischapterfocuseson,whichdocumentedanevenmore
multilayeredformofUrueu-Wau-Waudress.Publishedonadouble-pagespreadin
NationalGeographic,itfeaturedthechiefoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,Djaui,
photographednexttoanothermemberoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,Caninde,underneath
anorangeheadingthatdeclaimed:‘TheEndofInnocence’(Figs.3.9and3.10).250Itis
importanttoacknowledgethatthetitlestillbuiltuponthecanonicaltropeofthe
vanishing‘primitive’,andfashioneditsBraziliansubjectswithinanevolutionary
narrativethatcategorisedandtypologisedtheUrueu-Wau-Wauasachildlikesociety
livinginastateofbarbarism,unwillinglybeingelevatedintooneofindustrial
civilization.AcomparableglorificationandmemorialisationoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau
249McIntyre,‘LastDaysofEden’,p.804.250Ibid.,pp.812-13.
134
emergedinMcIntyre’srecollection,printedattheveryendofthearticle,whichstated:
‘Jesco[vonPuttkamer]mournedthepassingoftheIndians’naturalnudity,saying“Oh
Loren,they’renotperfectanymore.”’251Puttkamer’sdisappointmentattheUrueu-
Wau-Wau’sincreasedadoptionofWestern-styleclothing,asareplacementtotheir
customarysparsedress,whichsupposedlyrenderedthem‘notperfectanymore’,
suggestedaromanticisedexpectationthatsuchapeaceful,quietandsupposedly
authenticlifestyle,withastrongsenseofcommunity,wouldbeimmunetothe
superficialattractionsofWesternsportswearbrandsandmassconsumption.It
appearedtoreinforceabeliefthattheWesternworldischaracterisedbyfluidity,in
thewordsofZygmuntBauman,‘forever“becoming”,avoidingcompletion,staying
underdefined’,asopposedtothenon-Westernworld,typifiedherebyBrazil’sUrueu-
Wau-Wau,whichisstable,pure,andfixedwithinatimelessethnographicpresent.252
Yettheactualimageofferedapointofdepartureforadeeperunderstandingof
thelayersofcross-culturalmeaningthatwerewovenintothesnapshot,whichwere
communicatedtotheviewerthroughthetactilequalitiesofdress.Theimagewas
givenprecedenceoverthetextofthearticle,andreproducedveryclose-uponthe
double-pagespread,framedonthreesidesinorange.Thiseditorialdecisionisolated
andelevatedthesubjects,usingmuchthesameconventionsasaframedstudio
portrait.Thephotographer’scloseviewpoint,fromdirectlybesidehissubjects,so
muchsothathecannotcapturethefulllengthoftheirbodieswithintheframe,
engendersaclosenessandintensity,onethatiscapableofcollapsingthegeographical
andtemporaldistancebetweentheUrueu-Wau-WauandtheNationalGeographic
viewer.Thereisnothingcasualorunengagedaboutthisphotograph,whichseemsto
251Ibid.,p.813.252ZygmuntBauman,LiquidModernity(Cambridge:PolityPress,2000),p.viii.
135
stemfromthephotographer’sdeepknowledgeofthesubjects,whoallowhimto
observethemunrestrictedastheycarryoutcommonplaceactivitiesintheirdailylives.
Thereisasenseofmobilityandfluidity,andthephotographappearslessconstructed
andlessfilteredbyPuttkamer’slens.Thetwosubjectsarecontemplative,which
consequentlyslowsdowntheviewertoo,andencouragesamoremeasuredresponse.
Italsopromptstheviewertotakeinthetactilequalitiesoftheimageandtherangeof
texturesthatcanbediscernedonitssurface,fromthesoftnessofDjaui’sredcottonT-
shirt,theroughnessofhisfadedblue-and-whitestripedAdidasshorts,thecoarseness
ofthebluetarpaulinagainstwhichthesubjectsareframed,tothesmoothnessofhis
companionCaninde’sreedgirdle.Thesetexturesaddadepthtotheimage,whichthe
dressedviewerisencouragedtomimeticallyexperiencethroughthisvisceralintimacy
withthesubjects,whichisenhancedbythesmoothglossofthemagazinepage,whose
shineenhancesthecoloursofthedifferentfabricsandrespondstotheviewer’stactile
sensibilities.Thelayoutofthisimageonthedouble-pagespreaddrawstheviewer’s
attentiontowardsDjaui,whoisplacedinbrightsunlightontheleft-handsideofthe
double-pagespreadandcanbeobservedinfullview,asopposedtoCaninde,whois
placedontheright-handside,shadedbythebluetarpaulinandpartiallyobscuredby
thecentralcreaseoftheopenmagazine.Canindeisdressedinabroadgirdle
constructedfromrattanandbrownnuts,anecklacemadeofpeccaryteeth,andblack
genipapbodypaint.Bothofthemen’sfacesaretattooedwithblackgenipap,but
CanindeadoptsnoitemsofWestern-styledressandhasalsodecoratedtheskin
aroundhismouthinblack.Djaui,ontheotherhand,isilluminated,tohighlighthis
lighterskincolour,incipientbaldnessandgreyinghair,allcharacteristicsthatinform
theviewerthatheisofmixedIndianandCaucasianancestry.Djaui’shybrididentityis
clearlyreflectedinhisdress,whichsuggestsanambivalencetowardsglobalisationon
136
thepartoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,anddemonstratestheirabilitytopickandchoose
preferredelementsofglobalculture,therebysubvertingthenotionoftheircultural
dependencyupontheWest.
Djaui’soutfitisexemplaryofanaestheticsofgarbage,sincetheseunwanted
andubiquitousWestern-styleclothes–redT-shirtandAdidasshorts–havebeen
appropriatedandtransformedtoserveanewfunction,wheretheyareaccompanied
withanecklaceadornedwithjaguarteethandthefacialtattooscustomarytothe
Urueu-Wau-Wau.SimultaneouslyindigenousandWestern,mass-producedand
irreproducible,newandold,mainstreamandalternative,localandglobal,Djaui’s
outfitembodiestheparadoxesofhybridity.Hisclothingchallengestheprescriptive
textualconstructionsofUrueu-Wau-Wauidentitywithinthetitlethataccompanied
thisdouble-pagespread,whichplacedtheso-calledremnantsofadisappearing
Urueu-Wau-Wauwithinawrittensalvagenarrative.ThisisbecauseDjaui’sclothing
confirmednot‘TheEndofInnocence’forapreviouslyuncontactedsociety,butrather
thecontinuationofasustainedrelationshipbetweentheUrueu-Wau-Wauandthe
outsideworld,whichhadalreadyenabledDjauitopickandchoosepreferredelements
ofcast-asideWestern-styleclothing,andusethemtoarticulatehisowncontemporary
identity,whichwasnotfixed,butconstructedandre-constructedinaccordancewith
thefluiddemandsofeverydaylife.Hedemonstratesdiscretionfromwithinthespecific
optionsthatareavailabletotheUrueu-Wau-Wau.Djaui’sclothingblurredthespatial
andtemporaldisjunctureoftenpresumedtoexistbetweenthedevelopedWestand
thepurportedlyunderdevelopednon-West,becauseitusedsomethingoldfromone
geographicalplacetocreatesomethingnewinaverydifferentgeographicalspace,and
therebyencapsulatedthechronotopicmultiplicitiesdescribedbyStam.Asopposedto
137
ahomogenisationoftheworldthroughtheexportationofglobalconsumergoods,
NationalGeographicpresentedinsteadalocalappropriationoftheWest’sunwanted
clothing,whichresonatedwithAppadurai’sassertionthatlocalisedtastechallenges
thepopularnotionoftheUnitedStatesastheall-powerfulcontrollerofobjects,
commoditiesandvalues.253Heredressprovidedacounter-tendencytoasimplistic
equivalenceofglobalisationwithAmericanisationor,even,McDonaldisation,aterm
coinedbysociologistGeorgeRitzertodescribetheprocessbywhich‘theprinciplesof
thefast-foodrestaurantarecomingtodominatemoreandmoresectorsofAmerican
societyaswellasoftherestoftheworld’.254Thislatterviewwasforciblypropounded
byadazzlingadvert(Fig.3.11)printedonthebackoftheverysameeditionofNational
Geographic,whichunnervinglyrepeatedthemantra‘Noneofusisasgoodasallofus’
underneathaholographicimageofthefamiliargoldenarchesimprintedwiththesign
‘over10,000opened’.255Itpresentedagenericandhomogenisedimageofthe
Americanrestaurantandacar,whichcouldplausiblyhavedenotedanytimeorspace
throughoutthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury,andsoreinforcedanideaofthe
standardisedandimposedspreadofU.S.popularculture,whichRitzerdeemedready
toeclipseindividualworldwidecreativity.
RatherthanbeingareflectionoftheoverwhelmingforceofAmericannorms
andlifestylessuggesting‘sameness’,there-negotiationofitemsofWestern-style
clothingthatweredocumentedinthissnapshotdemonstratedalocalresponsetothe
homogenisingforcesofglobalisation.Theseitemsofdressdidnotoriginateinthe
sartorialcultureoftheUrueu-Wau-Wau,andwerenodoubtanexchangeitemfrom
253ArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1996).254GeorgeRitzer,TheMcDonaldizationofSociety(ThousandOaks,CA:PineForge,1992),p.1.255NationalGeographic,December1988,backcover.
138
FUNAI;yetwhatwasinitiallyanalienarticlehassincebeenadaptedandre-interpreted
asaversatilevehicleforcontemporaryUrueu-Wau-Wauidentityconstruction.As
ProfessorPauloCésarAguiardeMendonça,seniorresearcherattheJescovon
PuttkamercollectioninGoiana,hasexplained:
Justaswhenwhitepeopletravel,theyadoptelementsofotherdressselectively.They[i.e.theUrueu-Wau-Wau]doitfordiplomaticreasons,tonegotiate,becausewhitepeoplewon’tacceptthemwithout.Whentheyreturn,theygobacktowearingnoclothes.256
AlthoughdeMendonçaacknowledgedthatthereisanasymmetryofpowerprevalent
intherelationshipbetweentheUrueu-Wau-Wauandwhitepeople,hehighlighted
howthegroupintegratesasophisticatedunderstandingofWesternsartorial
expectations,andappropriatesandtransformstheseunwantedWesternclothesto
constructtheirvariedandfluididentitiesindifferentculturalcontexts.Thisprocessis
notdisingenuoussinceitenablessecond-handWesterndresstobeadaptedtoservea
newfunction,whichworksonbehalfofUrueu-Wau-Wauneedstoo.
Aninterestingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithanimagetakenby
BelgianfilmdirectorJean-PierreDutilleux,whichappearedinAmericanVogueinJune
1988anddocumentedtheBritishmusicianStingonhis‘SouthAmericantouracross
Brazil,uptheAmazon,visitingIndiantribeswhowantnothingfromthe20thcentury’
(Fig.3.12).257ThearticlefeaturedtheKayapo,aGê-speakingpeoplewholiveina
numberofcommunitiesalongsidetheXinguRiveranditstributariestheIriri,Bacajá
andFrescoRivers.OccupyingaverylargeterritoryincentralBrazil,theyarerenowned
forhavinghadextensivebutambivalentinteractionswithnon-Indiansand
256PauloCésarAguiardeMendonça,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(JescovonPuttkamercollection,PontificaUniversidadeCatolicadeGoias,InstitutoGoianodePre-HistoriaeAntropologia,Goiana,10April2014).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.257Sting,‘PrimalSting’,Vogue,June1988,pp.244-307.
139
environmentalists.258Thoughthisisnotmentionedinthearticle,theKayapowere
filmedforaGranadatelevisiondocumentaryin1987and,inreturnfortheir
cooperation,demandedfilmingequipmentfortheirownuse,anotionthatdisrupted
thequaintWesternperceptionthattheKayapoenjoyedaromanticandauthentic
lifestyledivorcedfrom‘civilisation’.259Thisignorantviewwasexplicitlystatedbythe
subheading:‘Forthreedays,Stingwasoneofthem,thentheysenthimbackto
“civilization”withanewlookandanurgentmessage.’260Itaccompaniedaphotograph
ofStingwiththeleaderoftheKayapo,RaoniMetuktire,alreadysomethingofa
celebrityinEurope,havingappearedinDutilleux’sfilm,Raoni:TheFightforthe
Amazon(1978).261Bothofthesubjectsfacethecamerawearingthecustomarybody
paintoftheKayapo,althoughRaonialsowearsbeadedredandbluejewelleryandalip
plate.ThenotionthatStingcanadopta‘newlook’byappropriatingnon-permanent
elementsofKayapodress,asandwhenhefeelslikeit,reinforceshispowerfulposition
asawhitemanwiththemoneyandleisuretimetotravel.WhereasAmericanVogue
fashionedtheKayapoasinferiorandexistinginaprimitive,backwardand
underdevelopedpast,asourceofexoticinspirationtothecivilisedWesterntraveller,
thevisualrepresentationofadifferentindigenousgroup’sdressinNational
Geographicembodiedanaestheticsofgarbagethatdemonstratedthevitalityofthe
Urueu-Wau-Wau,andtheirabilitytore-useitemsofdressthathaveoriginatedinthe
Westtochallengeandresistsuchreductivecolonialandpostcolonialnarratives.This
distinctionmayhavebeendueinparttothedifferentcontextsinwhichNational
GeographicandVoguecirculate,theformerhavingamoreeducationalremitwhereas
258‘Kayapo:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/kayapo>[accessed11February2015]259Stam,TropicalMulticulturalism,p.7.260Sting,‘PrimalSting’,p.244.261Raoni:TheFightfortheAmazon,dir.byJean-PierreDutilleux(SND,Paris:1978).
140
thelatterisconcernedwithcommerceand,inthisexample,withcelebrities,butitwas
alsoduetothetactilesensationsofferedbythesnapshotinNationalGeographic,
whichventuredbeyondsightandencompassedtheaffectiveresponsesthatit
promptedintheviewer.InVogue,thephotographwasaveryflatimagethat
employedethnographicconventionsandhadnodepthintermsoflightandshadow.
ThisisparticularlyoddgiventhatVogueisamagazineaccustomedtosellingclothes
andproductsthroughafocusontheirtactilequalities,whichareenhancedthrough
photographiclight;thatthemagazinechosenottoemphasisethetactilesensationsin
thisexamplereinforcesthesuggestionthatitconsideredKayapodresstobedistinctly
outsidetherealmsof‘Western’fashion.InNationalGeographic,thesnapshot
confirmedaliteralaestheticsofgarbagethroughtheUrueu-Wau-Wau’sdistinctive
utilisationofsecond-handclothing.Onceagain,nocaptionwassupplied,butequally
nocaptionwasrequiredinordertounderstanditsmeaning.Thesecondsnapshotthat
thischapterdiscusses,asthefollowinganalysisreveals,embodiedamoreconceptual
aestheticsofgarbage,demonstratedbytheappropriationofcast-asidesartorialideas
asopposedtoactualitemsofdressthathadoriginatedintheWest.
AnAfrican-AmericanGazeonAfro-Braziliansin2002
Thissnapshot(inthewidersense)waspublishedinNationalGeographicin
August2002andentitled‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’.262Thetitlerenderedthe
fourthmostpopulousstateinBrazilasacradleofBraziliantraditionandreinforced,as
AnadeliaA.Romohasacknowledged,thepopulartropeof‘Bahiaasamuseum,asa
262Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’.
141
siteoflivingtradition’.263ItisimportanttounderstandBahia’shistoryinorderto
appreciateRomo’scommentfully.SalvadordaBahiawasestablishedasthe
Portuguesecolonialcapitalin1549,whentheareawasoneofthelargestsugar
producersintheworld.Fromthesixteenthcenturytotheabolitionoftheslavetrade
in1888,anestimatedtwomillionenslavedAfricans,oftheoverallfourmillion
transportedtoBrazil,settledinBahia.BythelatenineteenthcenturyBahiawas
consideredaprovincialbackwaterandtodayitisoneofthepoorestBrazilianstates,
withoneofthehighestnationalratesofunemploymentandincomedisparity.264
Despitethis,areportrevealedthatby2002thedevelopmentofBahia’stourism
industryhadsurpassedthatofanyotherregion.265Thiswasmainlyduetotheefforts
ofBahiatursa,theBahiantourismorganisation,whichemphasisedBahia’sstrongAfro-
Brazilianpresenceandadvertisedthestateasthe‘birthplaceofBrazil’.266Paulo
Guadenzi,thePresidentofBahiatursa,hasaffirmedthattheuniquenessofAfro-
BraziliancultureisapowerfultooltomarketSalvadorashavingastrongand
‘authentic’allegiancetoAfricantradition,asdistinctfromothertouristdestinations
throughoutBrazil.267InseekingtoexaminethecontinuedforceofAfricanheritagein
Salvadorthroughitssubstantialpopulationof‘descendantsofthefirstslavesbrought
totheNewWorld’,NationalGeographiccorrespondentCharlesCobbclearlysetouton
awell-troddenpath.268
263AnadeliaA.Romo,Brazil’sLivingMuseum:Race,ReformandTraditioninBahia(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010),p.10.264RachelHarding,ARefugeinThunder:CandombléandAlternativeSpacesofBlackness(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2000).265LuciaAquinodeQueiroz,TurismonaBahia:EstrataégiasparaoDesenvolvimento(Salvador:SecretaradaCulturaeTurismo,2002),n.p.266PatriciadeSantanaPinho,‘AfricanAmericanRootsTourisminBrazil’,LatinAmericanPerspectives,35.3(2008),70-86(p.85).267Queiroz,TurismonaBahia,n.p.268Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.63.
142
ItwasaconsideredchoiceofNationalGeographiceditor,WilliamL.Allard
(1995-2005),toappointCobbascorrespondent;thelatterlateracknowledgedthathis
appearanceandAfrican-Americanidentityhadenabledhimtoblendinandbondwith
hispredominantlyblacksubjectsinafashionthatwouldhavebeeninconceivablehad
hebeenwhite.AshedescribedontheNationalGeographicwebsite,inasection
entitled‘OnAssignment:Bahia.FieldNotesfromauthorCharlesE.Cobb,Jr’:‘Icould
meetwhomeverIwantedtomeetandgowhereverIwantedtogo.’269Inethnographic
parlance,fieldnotesaregenerallyalignedwithaparticulartypeofparticipant-
observationfieldwork,whichevadesadetachedanddistancedmodeofviewingin
favourof,asRobertM.Emersonhasarticulated,‘accountsdescribingexperiencesand
observationstheresearcherhasmadewhilstparticipatinginanintenseandinvolved
manner’[myitalics].270Itiswidelyacceptedthatfieldnotesaresubjecttothe
conscious,butalsounconscious,biasoftheauthorwhoactsasparticipant-observer
andpotentiallyinvestsherownnarrativeandmemoriesintoherdescriptionofthe
eventsthattookplace.ThatNationalGeographicchosetoincludethistypeof
informationonitswebsitecanbeunderstoodasanattempttohighlighttheparadigm
shiftatthemagazinesinceitscentennial,awayfromanunderstandingofitselfasan
exemplarofobjectivescientificrecord,andtowardsamoresubjectivesimultaneous
dramatisationanddocumentationofnon-Westernsubjectsasaninvolvedparticipant.
ThisconnectedtothefactthatCobbdescribedhisancestryastheprimarymotivation
forhistriptoSalvador,whichevadedanynotionofobjectivity.CobbselectedBahiafor
269Cobb,‘OnAssignment:Bahia.FieldNotesfromauthorCharlesE.Cobb,Jr’,<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0208/feature5/assignment1.html>[accessed11February2015]270RobertM.EmersoninWritingEthnographicFieldnotes,ed.byEmersonetal(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995),pp.4-5.
143
itssupposedpreservationandcarefulmaintenanceoftraditionalAfricanculture,
whereinhemighthopetoreignitea‘lost’affiliationwithhishomeland,Africa:
AsanAfrican-American,IhadcometoseewhathadsproutedinthisplacewhereAfrica’sseedswerefirstplantedcenturiesago.IfoundaculturesteepedintraditionalreligionsbroughtbycolouredpeoplesfromWestAfrica,aplacethatremainskeytotheidentityofthissprawlingstate.271
ThiscommentsuggeststhatCobbisabletoprovidean‘authentic’connectionwith,
andthereforedocumentationof,Bahia,yetitisproblematicsincetheauthor’sdesire
toexchangewhatheconceivesofashisown,U.S.-centric,conceptionofblack
‘African-American’modernityforthestaticpreserveofthe‘traditionalreligions
broughtbycolouredpeoplesfromWestAfrica’,manifestinthelivedexperienceofthe
localblackBahiancommunitieswithwhomheinteracted,exemplifiedthe
asymmetricaldimensionsofpoweroperatingwithintheglobalcontactzone.A
disparityishighlightedbetweenCobb,ablackmanlocatedintheNorthofthe
Americancontinent,withajobthatprovideshimwiththeopportunityandexpenses
totravel,andtheBahiancommunitiessituatedintheSouth,whohavefarlessaccess
toglobalcurrentsofpowerthanCobb.Cobb’stravelstoBahiawerenotanisolated
example,andwithinthearticleheobservedthatBahiantourismhadrecently‘been
boostedbyincreasingnumbersofAfrican-Americanvisitors’,whowereattractedby
thepromiseof‘aNewWorldAfricanculturethatmanyfindtruertoitsoriginsthan
theirown’.272HisobservationcorrespondedwithPatriciadeSantanaPinho’s
examinationofwhatshehastermed‘African-AmericanRootsTourism’,whichhas
witnessedthemovementoflargenumbersofAfrican-AmericantouriststoBahiain
pursuitof‘whattheybelievetobetheirrootsbut[…]incontrasttoothertourists,who
271Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.63.272Ibid.,p.77.
144
areusuallyinterestedintheexoticismofthe“other,”theycrisscrosstheAtlantic
hopingtofindthe“same”representedbytheir“blackbrothersandsisters”’.273Pinho
haspointedoutthatthisispartofacomplexidentityprocesswherebyAfrican-
AmericanscultivateaheightenedsenseofAfricannessdeemedessentialforthe
perpetuationoftheirowncontemporarydiasporicblackidentitiesintheUnitedStates.
Whilst‘rootstourism’hasthepotentialtochallengethe‘traditionalNorth-Southflows
ofculturalexchange’,ultimatelyitoften‘confirmstheexistinghierarchywithinthe
blackAtlantic’,sinceitreinforcesthesemi-peripheralpositionofAfricanandLatin
Americanblackcommunitiesinrelationtoblackswhoarepartofadominantcentreof
blackness‘intermsofculturalandacademicproduction’,suchastheUnitedStates.274
Althoughphotographydominatedthisarticle,asitdidinthepreviouscase
study,itisimportantinthiscasetocommentontheAfricanisedimageofBahiathat
Cobbfashionedwithinthetext.Hemadefrequentreferencetotheblackbodiesofthe
baianas,thearchetypalmaturewomenwhodressinvoluminouswhitelacedresses
andadornthemselveswithcolourfulsacredbeadednecklacesandbracelets.An
exampleofabaianadresscanbeseeninFigs3.13-3.17,forsaleonwhitemannequins
attheMercadodoMadureirainRiodeJaneiro.Thischoiceofmannequinissignificant
sincebaianasareassociatedwiththeAfro-BrazilianreligionofCandomble,thegeneric
namethatisgiventoanumberofsyncreticreligionsthatwerecreatedinBrazilinthe
nineteenthcentury,centreduponCatholicismandfacetsofAfricanreligioustraditions.
TheNationalGeographicreaderwasinvitedtoimagineaseasidescenethatCobb
recalledfromhistrip:
WearingthetraditionalwhiteofCandomble,somecarryofferingstoYemanja,themuchbeloveddeityofthesea.Bearingtheirhopesforthefuture,they
273Pinho,‘AfricanAmericanRootsTourisminBrazil’,p.84.274Ibid.
145
movefreelytowardtheoceanthatcarriedtheirforebearstotheseshoresinchains.275
Cobbdescribedtherhythmicmovementsofthebaianapriestesses,andtheeaseand
gracewithwhichtheywalked,movedanddancedtowardstheshoreline,bedeckedin
theirmagnificentwhiteattire,duringanexpressiveformofworshipusedtosummon
theseagoddessYemanja,oneoftheCandombledeitiesnamedorixastowhomeach
worshipperisdedicated,andtoincorporatedivineenergyintothehumanbody.White
clothingisadoptedbythebaianasbecauseitisthecolouroftheCandomblespirit
Oxaláandrepresentsgoodnessandpurity,butfromanoutsider’sperspective,italso
servestoideologicallyemphasisetheblacknessofthewearer’sskin.276Cobbusedthe
contactzonehereasaliterarystrategytobuildahistoricaldisjuncturewithinthetext
betweentheautonomyofthebaianasincontemporarySalvador,whoaremergedas
oneandusedtoformanindivisible,homogenisingnotionofblack‘Bahianness’,and
theirenslavedancestorswhowerebroughttoBahia‘inchains’.Herefrainedfrom
acknowledgingthatthemodeofdresswornbythebaianaisahybridfusionof
sartorialelementsthatoriginatefrombothEuropeandAfrica;whereasthesaia,the
flowingfull-lengthgatheredskirtwornwithpetticoatandcrinoline,andthelace-
trimmedblousecalledthecamizu,stemmedfromnineteenth-centuryEuropeandress,
theintricatelywoundhead-wrapcalledtheoja,andthecontasorilekes,beaded
necklaces,haveWestAfricanantecedents.277Cobbdescribedafreneticimagein
NationalGeographicofthebaianasinvolvedinworship:
Intheembraceoftheirgods,followersofCandomblearepossessedbyAfricandeitiescalledorixasataceremonyinSalvador.Themulti-facetedgodOmolu
275Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,pp.80-81.276MattijsVandePort,‘BahianWhite:TheDispersionofCandombléImageryinthePublicSphereofBahia’,MaterialReligion:TheJournalofObjects,ArtandBelief,3.2(2007),242-72(p.245).277CherylSterling,AfricanRoots,BrazilianRites:culturalandnationalidentityinBrazil,(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2012),p.69.
146
movesingrass-shroudedmystery,hislegendarypowertoinduceorcureillnessgreatlyrespected.Punctuatedbychantingandthepoundingofdrums,theritualresembledthoseI’veseeninWestAfrica[…]whereworshippersareseizedbytheholyspirit.[myitalics]278
Hedescribedthenoisygatheringofbaianasusingpowerfullanguagethatgavean
overridingimpressionofablackandmysteriousBahia,afolkloricspectaclerifewith
primitiverituals,populardevotion,mysteriousforcesandAfricanspirits.Cobbignored
thecontemporaryappropriationofthismodeofAfro-BraziliandressbyBahianwomen
employedstrategicallybythestategovernmentofBahiaasasourceofrevenueto
‘sell’merchandiseandculinarydelicaciestoforeigntourists,whohaveanappetitefor
‘exoticculture’anddeducetheensembletobedistinctivelyAfricanandtraditional.279
AclearexamplecanbeseenontheBahianStateTourismInstagrampage(Fig.3.18);
thebaiana’sabundanceofcolourfuljewellery,voluminouswhitedress,vibranteye-
shadow,andblueojaviefortheviewer’sattention,andrenderhertheembodimentof
exoticdifference,distinctfromthemoreausterelydressedtouristsheconverseswith.
Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianGirl’sLycraTopandDenimJeans
AlthoughCobbcementedBahiatextuallyasastaticculturalpreserve,useful
onlyinconstructinghisowncontemporaryblackU.S.identityincontrasttothenotion
ofaBahianOther,theaccompanyingfourteenphotographscapturedbyNorth
AmericanDavidAlanHarveydemonstratedthatAfro-Braziliansweredistinctly
contemporaryintheirstyle,andemployedglobalsartorialreferences.Thiswas
communicatedtotheviewerthroughthedistinctivelytactilequalitiesoftheseimages.
278Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.74.279EricaWilliams,‘SexWorkandExclusionintheTouristDistrictsofSalvador,Bahia’,Gender,PlaceandCulture:AJournalofFeministGeography(2013),n.p.6<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0966369X.2013.786685#.VNtKIcZNMy4>[accessed11June2015]
147
Apertinentexamplecanbeseeninahalf-pagephotograph–thesecondsnapshotthis
chapterfocuseson–thatcapturedaslenderyounganonymousAfro-Brazilianwoman,
whosmilesbroadlyanddancestomusicinacrowdedsetting(Figs.3.19and3.20).She
ispositionedcentrallyintheframeandphotographedfromalowcameralevelthat
lendshergreaterstature.Caughtinthebackgroundoftheimageareabstractout-of-
focusshapesthatdelineateindividualsseatedinwhiteplasticchairsatwhiteplastic
tableslitteredwithdrinkcansandbottles.Weareinformedbythetextthatthe
locationistheNoitedaBelezaNegra(theNightoftheBlackBeauty),anevent
sponsoredbytheAfro-Brazilianmusicalgroup,IlêAiyê(HouseofLife).IlêAiyê
originatedinBahiaintheearly1970sasanaestheticmovementtopromoteprideand
consciousnessinthelocalblackcommunity.280Thewomanhasaconfidentexpression,
whichsuggeststotheviewerthatsheiscomfortablewithherappearanceand
perhaps,pleasedtobeobserved.Theblankwhitespaceabovethephotographasitis
positionedonthepageisfilledwiththewords:‘EverywhereIwent,Iheardthesound
ofsamba,thehigh-spiritedindigenousmusicofBrazilwhoserhythmsareAfrican
throughandthrough.’281AlthoughtheheadingreiteratesthedeepAfricancultural
rootsoftheevent,thewoman’sclothingalignsherwithcosmopolitanmodernityand
contemporaryglobalfashiontrends.Shewearslargesilverhoopearrings,asilver
watchandacollectionofwhitestringbraceletsonherlefthand,andasilverringon
thefourthfingerofherrighthand;thisispossiblyanengagementring,whichinBrazil
istraditionallywornontherighthanduntilthedayofthewedding,whenitis
exchangedtothefourthfingerofthelefthand.Herlongdarkhairispushedbackwith
awideelasticisedpurplehair-bandandneatlybraided,swingingasshemovestothe
280DeborahValoma,‘ClothandAfricanIdentityinBahia,Brazil’,inBergFashionLibrary<http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/BEWDF/EDch2063>[accessed3June2015]281Cobb,‘WhereBrazilwasBorn:Bahia’,p.79.
148
music.Shewearsapairofclose-fitting,low-slungdenimjeanswithasparklyblue
halter-necktopmadefromaclingyLycra-blendedmaterial,whosetactilequalitiesare
emphasisedbythephotographer’suseofabrightflash.Thishighlightsthesparkling
sequinsthatadornhertop,emphasisedfurtherstillbytheglossyveneerofthe
magazinepage,butalsorendersherslightlycut-outfromthebackground,atechnique
thatisoftenusedinfashionphotography.ItissignificantthatHarveymadethese
photographsusingaFujiVelvia50,averyfine-grained,high-coloursaturation
photographicfilmthatisoftenusedbyfashionphotographers,becauseitenhances
theaestheticisationofthesubjectthroughhighpicturequalityandvibrantcolour
reproduction.282Thesetechnicalchoicesdrawourattentiontowardsthesubject’sself-
fashioningandencourageustointerprettheimagewithintheprotocolsofafashion
shoot,ratherthananethnographicstudy,thusblurringthelinebetweenthetwoand
encouragingtheviewertounderstandthesubjectasaself-fashioningindividualas
opposedtoananthropologicalobject.
Theclothingwornbythesubjectembodiesaconceptualaestheticsofgarbage
throughtheleitmotifofthestrategicredemptionorrecyclingofsecond-hand
aesthetics.ItpresentsaninterestinglocaliseduseofLycrathatemergedinBrazilin
1996inMadureira,apoorsuburbintheNorthZoneofRiodeJaneiro,andthatby
2000couldbeseenthroughoutBrazil,inthelessaffluentsuburbsofSaoPaulo,Belo
Horizonte,BelemdoParaandSalvador.LycramanufactureinBrazilhadbeencentred
since1975ataDuPontproductionfacilityinPaulinia,amunicipalityinthestateofSao
Paulo,butin1999a$100millionstate-of-the-artrenovationintroduceddeveloped
processingtechniquesandautomation,whichdoubledtheoutputofLycrainorderto
282DavidAlanHarvey,‘OnAssignment:Bahia.FieldNotesfromphotographerDavidAlanHarvey’,<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0208/feature5/assignment2.html>[accessed4June2015]
149
meetintensifiedpopulardemandthroughoutLatinAmerica.283Lycra-blendedfabrics
wereusedbylow-endanonymousBrazilianfashiondesignerstocreatetightspandex
trousers,tops,shortsandbodysuits,inavarietyofcolours,shapes,structuresand
sizes,withdifferentpatterns,holes,transparenciesandmeshdetails.284Thedesigners
wereheavilyinfluencedbythetightly-draped,figure-huggingaestheticoftheTunisian-
born,Paris-baseddesignerAzzedineAlaiaandotherinternationaldesigners,suchas
GiorgioArmani,DonnaKarenandKarlLagerfeld,whosedesignstheyhadobservedin
second-handEuropeanfashionmagazines,suchasVogueandElle,fromthe1980s.285
Withlimitedmaterialsandeconomicmeans,theanonymousdesignersre-interpreted
ideasderivedfromAlaia’sdesigns,whichhadlittleinthewayofdecorativedetailor
fuss,withsophisticationtocatertothetastesofcontemporaryBrazilianconsumers.
RatherthananunsuccessfulimitationofAlaia’sdesign,theclothesstoodastestimony
tothedesigners’adaptationandtransformationofideasthatwereinitiallyaliento
them,usingthematerialsandaccessoriesavailabletothem.Alaiaalwayschoseaclean
andsimpleline,andpreferreddarkormutedcolours,suchasblack,brown,beige,
navyandsoftpastels,buttheBraziliandesignersexploitedtheendlesspossibilitiesof
colour,whetheranacidhueofgreen,aflashofsilverwovenintoturquoise,asseenin
NationalGeographic,orluridzebraprint.Thedesignersaddedelementssuchas
chains,flesh-exposingzippers,cut-outsectionsandplasticelementstoshowoff
certainareasofthebody,whichthenbecameapartofthedecorationoftheclothing.
WhereasAlaiausedLycratoskimthebodylikeasecondskin,makingitlookassmooth
andstreamlinedaspossiblethroughtheuseofdiscreetcorsetry,theBrazilian
283‘Dupont1962,Lycra.Paulinia,Brazil’,<http://www2.dupont.com/Phoenix_Heritage/en_US/1962_b_detail.html>[accessed11February2015];Anon.,‘DupontPlansBrazilLycraPlant’,WWD,19October1999,p.17.284MariStockler,MeninasDoBrasil(SaoPaulo:Cosac&Naify,2001),n.p.285MariStockler,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(27-31October2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.
150
designersemphasisedthesexualappealandvoluptuousnessofthewearer’sbody,
irrespectiveofsizeorshape.
AstheBrazilianartistMariStockler,thefirsttodocumentthistrend,explained:
‘Braziliansareverysexyandthisisindependentofthesizeoftheirbodies.Fashion
standardsofbeautyinterferelittleinthereallifeofthemajorityofBrazilians.’286The
distinctive‘Braziliansexuality’thatStocklerreferredtoisconveyedmostclearlyinthe
situationsinwhichtheLycra-blendedfashionswereworn,sincethefreedomof
movementpermittedbytheoutfitsenabledBrazilianwomentomoveinan
unrestrictedway.AclearexamplecanbeseeninanimagefromStockler’sphotobook
(Fig.3.21),entitledMeninasdoBrasil[GirlsofBrazil](2001),whichextensively
documentedtheaestheticsofthishybridfashiontrendfromitsinceptionin1996.The
photographcapturesanAfro-BraziliangirlinaLycra-blendedwhitestraptopwitha
built-inbraandadornedwithmetalchains.Shewearsbluedenimjeansandsilver
jewellery,anddanceswithherarmsandhandsspread,anactionthatdrawsattention
tohertorso.TheflashofStockler’scamerareflectsfromthebrightwhiteofher
elasticatedtop,givingatactilesenseofthesensualappealoftheclothing.Thisimage
iscomparabletotheNationalGeographicphotographintherepresentationofhow
dressisanimatedthroughdance,expressionandgesture.WhilstNationalGeographic
attemptedthroughthetexttofashionAfro-Braziliansascementedwithina
generalisedconceptionofAfrica,thevisualrepresentationofdressshowedhowthe
techniquesandmethodsofinternationalfashiondesignhadbeenrecycledand
modifiedbyanonymousBraziliandesignerstoenabletheAfro-Braziliansubjecttoself-
fashionherownidentity.
286Ibid.
151
Arevealingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithaphotographtakenin
SalvadordaBahia,whichwaspublishedinAmericanVogueinMarch2006(Fig.3.22)
withinanarticleentitled‘WhiteHeat’.287PhotographedonlocationinSalvadorbythe
AmericanfashionphotographerArthurElgort,itfeaturedtheEthiopianmodelLiya
Kebede,dressedinacreamRochascolumndressembroideredwithtinyflowerdots,
photographednexttoananonymousbaianawhoisseatedatapianoandwearsan
unnamedwhitelacedcrinolinedress.Vogueomitstoprovideanyinformationabout
thesymbolicvalueofthebaiana’swhitedress,thecolourthatiswornbyadherentsof
Candombletodispeladversityandevil,andreflectthepurityandvirtueofthespirit
Oxalá.288Insteadthebaianaisusedasasymbolofindigeneitytodidacticallyleadthe
eyetowardsKebede,whoisalmosttwofoottallerandstandspoisedwithonehandon
herhip,theotherelegantlydrapedacrossthetopofthepiano.Thecreamofher
dress,whichthecaptioninformstheviewerisavailableatBarneysfor$29,380,isa
subtleyetdistinguishablecontrasttothebaiana’sstarchedwhite,thelatterso
spotlessitisassociatedwithanunremittingstruggleagainstdirtandsweatinthe
warmclimatethroughconstantwashingandbleaching.WhereasNationalGeographic
hadvisuallypresentedBahianwomenfouryearsearlierasyoungandfashionably
dressedinacreativere-interpretationofEuropeanstyles,Vogueprovidedthe
photographiccounterparttotheromanticisedandmythicalnarrativethatCobb
describedinthetext,andinsteaddelineatedarecognisabledichotomybetween
purportedlystatic‘ethnic’dress,andcontinuouslyshiftingEuropeanfashion.
287Anon.,‘WhiteHeat’,AmericanVogue,March2006,pp.518-31.288Sterling,AfricanRoots,BrazilianRites,p.81.
152
Thischapterbeganwithanexaminationof‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,
publishedwithinthecentennialeditionofNationalGeographic,whichencapsulateda
shiftfromadetachedscientificmodeofviewingthemagazine,towardsamore
intimate,tactileandsubjectiveengagementwithit.Drawinguponthisparadigmshift
thattookplaceatthemagazine,itusedStam’smetaphorofanaestheticsofgarbage,
manifestliterallyandconceptually,toexaminetwosnapshotsofBraziliandress,
publishedinDecember1988andAugust2002respectively.Stam’stheoryenabled
lineardescriptionsoftimeandspacetogivewaytoanunderstandingofglobalisation
inwhichshredsandpatchesofthelocalandglobalinteractandareinterwoveninto
thepatchworkquiltthatconstitutesthecontemporaryinterconnectedandfluidworld.
TheeffectsofglobalisationhavebeendocumentedbyNationalGeographic,whichhas
demonstratedthemultidirectionalflowsandideasofdressthathavetravelledfarand
wideacrosstheworldandenabledamultifariousBrazilianpopulationtonegotiateand
re-negotiatetheirlocalandglobalidentitiesinresponsetocross-culturalcontact.This
hasbeencommunicatedinaphenomenologicalsensetoNationalGeographicviewers
throughanincreasinglytactilefocusonimageryovertext,incorporatingaself-
reflexiveawarenessofthewaysthatdressbothtouchesthebodyandfacesoutwards
inthedirectionofoutsidegazesontothebody.Ratherthanaone-directionalflowof
globalgoods,Braziliandresshastravelledinnumerousdirectionsandemergedasa
complex,heterogeneousprocessthatincorporatesmixing,borrowing,creatingand
differentiatinglocalandglobalcontextsthroughanaestheticsofgarbage.
Stam’sgarbagemetaphorhasprovidedameanstounderstandcontactasa
seriesofculturalexchangesandsartorialresistancesdemonstratedbytheself-
fashioningandself-presentationofBraziliansubjectsinNationalGeographic.Inthe
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firstexample,thegarbagemetaphorworkedonamoreliteralbasisandenabledDjaui
toadoptchosenaspectsofglobalculture,anduseittoself-fashioninthefaceofa
moredominantcontextthatattemptedtofashiontheUrueu-Wau-Wauwithinafixed
ethnographicpresent.Inthesecondexample,thegarbageprincipleworkedinmore
abstracttermsandwasevidencedbytheadoptionofLycra-blendedclothingbythe
Afro-Braziliansubject,whosesartorialchoiceswereinformedby,yetreinterpreted,
internationalfashiondesigners,suchasAzzedineAlaiaandGiorgioArmani.Rather
thanemphasisingbinarydualisms,garbagehasprovidedamorenuanced
understandingofexchangesandsubtledifferentiationswithintheUnitedStates-
BraziliancontactzoneasdocumentedinNationalGeographic,evenastheyhave
unfoldedwithinasymmetricalrelationsofpower.Appliedtodress,Stam’smetaphor
hasenabledtherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographictobe
reconsideredinawaythatisnotoppositional,linearoressentialist.Nevertheless,a
newtheoreticalandmethodologicalframeworkisrequiredforananalysisof(Brazilian)
fashionaspresentedintworevealingexamplessince2001.Thefollowingtwo
snapshotsinchapterthreearetheexceptionthatprovetherule,applicablesince
1988,thatNationalGeographicmovedfromdistancedanddetachedviewingtowards
anincreasinglytactileandmultisensoryengagementwithimagesinthemagazineas
materialobjects.
154
Chapter3.
TheSpaceIn-Between:BrazilianFashioninNationalGeographicsince2001
• Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing,September2001
• Snapshot7:BiancaMarque’sBikinisandVictorDenzk’sDresses,September2011
Thesnapshotanalysedinthepreviouschapter,whichwastakeninSalvadordaBahia
andpublishedinNationalGeographicinAugust2002,appropriatedstylistictechniques
commonplaceinfashionphotographyinordertohighlightthefemaleAfro-Brazilian
subject’sperformanceofcontemporaryglobalfashiontrends,inacreativepractice
thatfusedBrazilianstreet-stylewithelementsofEuropeandesignerfashion.The
subject’sinnovativeLycratophadanadditional‘value’thataffiliateditwiththe
seasonallyshiftingstylesoffashion,asopposedtothemoregradualchangesthatare
associatedwithdress,animportantdistinctiontowhichIwillreturn.Although
NationalGeographicdidnotexplicitlyrefertothesubject’sensembleasfashion,the
magazinecommandeeredphotographictechniquesfrequentlyemployedwithina
fashioncontext.Thesetechniques,ofbrightflash,vibrantcolour,andhigh-resolution
reproduction,subconsciouslypromptedtheviewertointerpretthesnapshotwithin
theparametersoffashion,andpotentiallytoperceivethesubjectasanactiveandself-
fashioningindividual,asopposedtoanethnographicobject.
ThistensionatNationalGeographicbetweenthediscoursesoffashionand
ethnography,andtheirassociatedsignifications,canbetracedtoalargecoffee-table
tome,titledNationalGeographicFashion,whichwaspublishedalmostoneyear
earlier,inSeptember2001.289Thiswasthefirstoccasiononwhichthemagazinehad
self-consciouslyusedafashionablegazetore-presentitspublishedandunpublished
289NationalGeographicFashion,ed.byCathyNewman(WashingtonDC:NationalGeographicSociety,2001).
155
editorialhistory.290Itmarkedanexceptioninthemagazine’shistoriographyofthe
‘worldandallthatisinit’since1988,whenthemagazinehadmovedfromcool,
detachedviewing,andtowardsanincreasinglyintimate,multisensoryengagement
withthemagazineasatactile,materialobject.291ThiswasfollowedupinSeptember
2011,withthepublicationofthearticle‘Machisma:HowAMixOfFemale
EmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDownBrazil’sFertilityRateand
StokeItsVibrantEconomy’,whichwaswrittenbyCynthiaGorneyandaccompanied
withphotographsbyJohnStanmeyer.292ThisarticledidnotapproachBrazilianfashion
directly,butuseditindirectlyasatooltoconstructmeaningwithinitsvisualand
textualnarrative.Fashion,asamultifacetedandmultidimensionalprocess,which
thrivesoncontradictionandambivalence,providesanopportuneandfittingmedium
forthischaptertoretrospectivelyconsiderhowandwhereNationalGeographic
encourageditsviewerstopositionthemselvesinrelationtorepresentedBrazilian
subjects.
Thischaptermarksanoticeableexceptionfromtheprecedingandfollowing
twochapters,immediatelyevidentfromitstitle,inthatitconsciouslyemploysthe
term‘fashion’,asopposedto‘dress’,astheprimarymediumforitsexaminationof
NationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategies.Intheintroductiontothisthesis,I
defineddressbroadlyusingEicherandRoach-Higgins’importantandoft-cited
290NationalGeographichadneverexplicitlyfocusedonfashionbeforethepublicationofNationalGeographicFashion,withtheexceptionofonearticle,whichwaswrittenbyNinaHydeandaccompaniedwithphotographstakenbyWilliamAlbertAllard.Entitled‘TheBusinessofChic’,andpublishedinthemagazineinJuly1989,thearticlefocusedonhigh-enddesignersSaintLaurent,Chanel,LacroixandDior,whoweredescribedas‘synonymouswithstyle.TheseFrenchdesignershavecollectivelyspunthefabricofhautecouture,markingParisthecentreofthefashionworld.’NationalGeographicpresentedfashionasanelitecouturedesignsystemcenteredexclusivelyinParis,amongstasmallgroupofcreativeindividuals,whichdisregardedthepossibilitythatfashionmightemergeelsewhereinnon-Westernandnon-capitalistcultures.NinaHyde,‘TheBusinessofChic’,NationalGeographic,July1989,pp.146-157(p.148).291WilburE.Garrett,‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,p.270.292CynthiaGorney,‘Machisma’,NationalGeographic,September2011,pp.96-121.
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definition:‘anassemblageofbodilymodificationsand/orsupplementsdisplayedbya
personincommunicatingwithotherhumanbeings’.293Thisinterdisciplinary
characterisationemphasisedtheimportanceofappreciatingandanalysingthe
materialqualities,butalsotheexpressivecapabilities,ofclothing,bodycovering,
adornment,accessories,tattoos,piercings,makeup,hairstylesandscarificationwithin
across-cultural,fluidframework.294AlthoughEicherandRoach-Higgins’overarching
definitionincludesfashion,whichtheyunderstandtobeademonstrationofchange
withinanydresspractices,inmyunderstanding,thischaracterisationdoesnot
adequatelyencapsulatetheheightenedambiguityoffashion.Whilstremainingan
elusiveandmuchdebatedconcept,fashioncannotmerelybethesubtletiesofchange
indress,butissurelyalsoanadditionalandalluringvaluethatisattachedtodifferent
formsofclothing,whetherrarefiedandelite,fastorthrowaway,localorglobal,and
oftenalsotoitsvisualrepresentation,toenticeconsumers.
Adeeperunderstandingofthedifferentconceptsoffashionisrelevanttothis
chapter,andhelpstorecognisethepotentialofthisthesistoaddtocurrent
scholarshipsurrounding‘non-Western’dressandfashion.Theinterdisciplinaryand
cross-culturalexaminationsofJenniferCraik,MargaretMaynardandSusanKaiserhave
allchallengedtheperennialdistinctionsmadebetween‘Western’fashionand
supposedly‘non-Western’dress,andhighlightedthevibrantanddynamicfashion
systems,botheverydayandelite,thatexistthroughouttheworld.295Thesescholars
293EicherandRoach-Higgins,'DressandIdentity',p.7.294AcrucialcomponentofEicherandRoach-Higgins’definition,whichistobecommendedforitsabilitytore-thinkthedistinctionbetween‘fashion’,misleadinglyassumedtobethedominantformofdressin‘civilised’Westernsocieties,and‘otherclothingand/orbodyadornment’,oftennarrowlyperceivedbytheWesttobemore‘primitive’,isthatdressisnotstaticandfixed,butcontinuallyinflux.295Craik,TheFaceofFashion;Maynard,DressandGlobalisation;Kaiser,FashionandCulturalStudies.TheinfluentialwritingsofGeorgSimmelandJohnFlugelarejusttwoexamplesofscholarlyfashionwritingintheearlytwentiethcenturythathavecontributedtoastillwidespreadunderstandingoffashionasaproductonlyof‘civilised’Western,capitalistandindustrialised,societies.SeeG.Simmel,
157
haveemphasisedtheneedforamoregloballyinclusivere-evaluationofthedefinition
offashion,whichcansurpassEuropean-andNorthAmerican-centredstereotypesof
therestoftheworld.Craikhashighlightedtheconstantlyshiftingandinterdependent
relationshipbetweenWesternandnon-Westernfashionsystems,andtechnologiesof
thebody,withinwhich‘thereisconsiderableleakagebetweencompetingsystems
offeringachoiceofdresstechniquestoconsumerseverywhere’.296Maynardhas
extendedthediscussioninitiatedbyCraikbut,lessconcernedwiththedualityof
differentfashionsystemsanddresspractices,emphasisedinsteadthetacticalcross-
culturalengagementsthatareencapsulatedintheprocessesofmixing,fragmentation,
syncretism,multiplication,creolisationandhybridity.Shehasdemonstratedthatthe
meaningsofdressshiftasitmovesacrossborders,acquiringnewvaluesinindividual
andcomplexways,whichchallengethepresumedhegemonyofWesternfashionto
produceglobaluniformityindress.Mostrecently,Kaiserhasgonebeyondthe
argumentsofCraikandMaynard,andproposedanewdefinitionoffashionas‘an
ongoingchallengeofnegotiatingandnavigatingthroughmultipleambiguitiesand
contradictions’,thatisintrinsicallyconnectedtobeinganindividualsubjectinaglobal
economy,whosimultaneouslyembodiesmultiplesubjectpositions,whetherofrace,
gender,age,sexuality,ethnicity,classornationality.297Craik,MaynardandKaiserhave
allconstitutedacrucialstageinthediscussionconcerningtheproductionand
consumptionofdressandfashionwithinagloballyinclusiveframework.However,
theyareyettoaccountfullyforthevisualdimensionoffashion,andthekeyrolethat
imagesofdresshaveplayedinconstructinganddisseminatingacross-culturalideaof
whatfashionconstitutesthroughouttheworld.
‘Fashion’,InternationalQuarterly,10(1906):130-55;JC.Flugel,ThePsychologyofClothes(London:Hogarth,1930).296Craik,p.39.297Kaiser,p.7.
158
Suchdiscussionshavebeenmovedintothefieldoffashionphotographyby
SarahCheang,whohascontributedimportantdebatesconcerninghowracialand
ethnicstereotypesmightbechallengedfromwithinfashionimagerypublishedin
BritishVogue.298Thisthesisaddstocurrentscholarshipbysituatingthesedebatesin
thecontextofnon-fashionphotographypublishedinNationalGeographic,albeitwith
afocusonimagesthatutilisestylistictechniquesoftenemployedwithinfashion
photography.Bylookingathowimagesofnon-Westerndress,placedwithina
Westernfashioncontext,mightcomplicateadominantEuropeanandNorthAmerican-
centredunderstandingofwhatfashionis,Ihopetobridgeagapbetweenexisting
scholarshiponNationalGeographic,andacademicdebatesconcerningnon-Western
fashionanddress.Iaimtodemonstratethatagloballyinclusivedefinitionoffashion
mustencompassdressbut,andofequalimportance,imagesofdress,soasto
recognisecriticallythatfashionisnotsimplyaneconomicforce,whetheronamicroor
macrolevel,butaninterconnectedformofvisualandmaterialculturethatsculptsour
ownabilitytoself-present,aswellasawarenessofothers’abilitytodothesame.A
crucialpartoftheWesternunderstandingofwhatfashionconstitutesisencapsulated
byNationalGeographic,andsothischapterusesimagesofdresspublishedwithinthe
magazineasaproductivetooltore-thinkdefinitionsoffashionwithinacross-cultural
andinterdisciplinaryframework,onethatisintricatelyconnectedtothevisual.299
Thischapterdepartsfromsimplisticandone-sidedEurocentricdefinitionsof
fashionthatprivilegeitasaWesternconstruct,infavourofmoreexpansive,
interdisciplinaryandtransculturalmethodologies.ItisinthisveinthatIintroduce
298Cheang,‘‘ToTheEndsoftheEarth’:FashionandEthnicityintheVogueFashionShoot’.299Ihavealreadytoucheduponthelackofappropriateterminologytoconceptualisethe‘Western’andtheso-called‘non-Western’,andhopethatreaderswillunderstandthevalueinusingatermthatisproblematic,inordertoproblematiseitdirectlyfromwithinthroughpertinentexamples.
159
Braziliannovelistandpoststructuralisttheorist,SilvianoSantiago,whosecollectionof
essays,TheSpaceIn-Between:EssaysonLatinAmericanCulture,wasfirstpublishedas
anEnglishtranslationintheUnitedStatesin2001.Santiago’sconceptofthespacein-
betweenwillbeusedasananalyticaltooltoenablethecross-culturalstrandsofglobal
fashiontobeseparatedandconsideredinmoreattentiveandisolateddetail.300
Santiagoinitiallydevelopedtheself-consciousconceptofthe‘spacein-between’in
1978,amidstpessimistictheoreticaldiscussionsinBrazil,whichquestionedhow
Braziliansubjectscouldnegotiateandre-negotiatetheirneocolonialentrapmentand
culturaldependencyuponanalienanddominantWesternculture.Santiagodrew
uponAndrade’smetaphorofanthropophagy,usedasacriticaltoolinthefirstchapter
ofthisthesis,todescribehowtheLatinAmericanwriterdevoursWesternliterary
works,consumestheoriginaltext,andregurgitatesasecondtextwithinthesame
space.HeusedanthropophagyinamoredevelopedwaythandidAndrade,
attributabletothefactthathewaswritingduringthelatteryearsofthemilitary
dictatorship.Thisperiodcoincidedwiththeacademicre-evaluationofBrazilianliterary
modernism,inanefforttoexpressthepeculiarityandtransformativepotentialof
contemporaryBrazilianculturalproduction,whichwasunderstoodasahybrid
300SilvianoSantiago,TheSpaceIn-Between.AnameliaFontanaValentimandAlessandraBrandaoarethefirstandonlyscholarstohaveusedSantiago’sconcepttoanalyseBrazilianfashion.InapapergivenattheFourthGlobalFashionConference,heldatMansfieldCollege,OxfordUniversity(16-19September2012),theyarguedthatabetterunderstandingofBrazilianfashionwasrequired,whichwouldventurebeyondsimplisticassertionsthatclaimitislittlemorethananinferiorcopyofEuropeanandNorthAmericanfashion.Rather,Brazilianfashionisacomplexmixtureofforeignandlocalsources,and,althoughSantiago’stheoryemergedasacriticalanalysisofBrazilianliterature,itprovidesafertilestartingpointtogiveapositiveandpostmodernqualitytothecopyinBrazilianfashion.ValentimandBrandao’spaperdrewmyattentiontoSantiago’stheoryand,whilsttheirtwenty-minutepaperwasunabletofullyexhausttheanalyticalpropertiesofthespacein-betweeninrelationtoBrazilianfashion,thischapterseekstoprovideanumberofadditionalexamples.AnameliaFontanaValentimandAlessandraBrandao,‘ThePositionofBrazilianFashioninaBorderlessPlace’,<http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/critical-issues/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/fontanafashpaper.pdf>[accessed13June2015]
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constructionthathasmixedandsynthesisedaspectsofWesternandnon-Western
cultures.301
ThegazeoftheLatinAmericanwriter,Santiagocontended,ischaracterisedby
thishybridorliminalpositionofin-betweenness,whichhepoeticallyarticulatedas:
Betweensacrificeandplay,betweenprisonandtransgression,betweensubmissionandaggressiontothecode,betweenobedienceandrebellion,betweenassimilationandexpression–there,inthisseeminglyemptyplace,itstempleanditssiteofclandestinity,theanthropophagusritualofLatinAmericaisperformed[…]Tospeak,towrite,meanstospeakagainst,towriteagainst.302
Withinthis‘seeminglyempty’andde-territorialisedspace,characterisedby
perpetuallyshiftingmovementbetweenbinaryoppositions,elementsofNorth
AmericanandWesternEuropeanculturalpracticeshavebeenstrategicallyassimilated
byBraziliansubjects,andre-presentedwithreferencetotheirspecificsocial,cultural,
politicalandindividualidentities.303Thisself-consciousstrategyofsubversionhas
copiedthelanguageofthedominantcultureinordertodeconstructitfromwithin,
emphasisedbySantiago’sclaimthat‘tospeak,towrite,meanstospeakagainst,to
writeagainst’.304‘Writingback’isaliterarytermcoinedbySantiago,whichwasfirst
presentedintheintroductiontothisthesis.Itisaformofauto-ethnographic
expressionwherebyWesternliterarypracticesaremodified,re-presentedoreven
resistedinpart,inordertoprovidespacefordifferentcreativenon-Westernmodesof
expressionthatareconstructedinresponse.Santiagodefendedtheneedto
understandthecriticalpotentialofLatinAmericanliteratureandartisticproduction,
whichisnotsimplyaninferiorimitationofWesternliteratureandartisticproduction,
301IdelbarAvelar,TheUntimelyPresent:PostdictatorialLatinAmericanFictionandtheTaskofMourning(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,1999),p.138.302SilvianoSantiago,TheSpaceIn-Between,p.31.303Ibid.304Ibid.
161
butaninfinitelyricherre-presentationofitsinceit‘containswithinitselfa
representationofthedominanttextandaresponsetothatrepresentationwithinits
veryfabrication’.305Santiago’suseofthenoun‘fabrication’isareminderthat‘writing
back’isintentionallyconstructed,andincludeselementsofinvention,storytellingand
dramatisationwhichcomplicatetheboundariesbetweenrealityandartifice.Fashionis
oftenlinkedtothecreativeconstructionofanindividual’sactualidentity,and
thereforeprovidesafittingmediumtodrawoutsomeofthecross-culturalnarratives
wovenintotherepresentationofBrazilianFashioninNationalGeographicsince2001.
Santiagodirectlyreferredtofashion,albeitinthebroadestsenseofprevailing
trends,whichisapplicabletodress,whenhewrote:
ThemajorcontributionofLatinAmericatoWesterncultureistobefoundinitssystematicdestructionoftheconceptsofunityandpurity:thesetwoconceptslosetheprecisecontoursoftheirmeaning,theylosetheircrushingweight,theirsignofculturalsuperiority[…]LatinAmericanartists’creativeproduction[isnolongerreducedto]aworkwhoselifeislimitedandprecarioussinceitisenclosedintheradianceandprestigeoftheoriginal,ofthetrendsetter.306
SantiagousedthepostmodernistthoughtofDerridaandFoucaultasanideological
tooltodeconstructtheassumedbinaryoppositionbetweenoriginalandcopy,
superiorandinferior,Westernandnon-Western,whichhascharacteristicallyframed
debatesregardingcross-culturaltransactionswithintheglobalcontactzone.He
questionedthenotionthatfashionisaWesternconstruct,renderingeverything
producedinLatinAmericaaninferiorcopyofaWesternoriginal.Rather,Latin
Americanculturalproduction,Santiagoargued,heldthepotentialtodislocateand
rupturetheveryideologicalfoundationsofsourceandinfluencethatWestern
modernityhasbeenconstructedupon.IntheintroductiontotheEnglish-language305Ibid.,p.63.306Ibid.,pp.31-3.
162
translationofTheSpaceIn-Between,AnaLuciaGazzolaandWanderMeloMiranda
builtuponSantiago’sfashionmetaphor,andprovidedaneloquentsummaryofhis
concept:‘Theideologicalfallacyinwhichnotionslikesourceandinfluenceareoften
clothedisdismantled,andthevalueofthe(peripheral)copywithrespecttothe
(hegemonic)modelisrecovered.’307ThischapterusesSantiago’smetaphorofthe
spacein-betweenasapointofdeparturetorecoverthevalueofBrazilianself-
consciouslyfashionablerepresentationsthatwereclothedwithinmoredominant
representationsofBrazilianfashionbyNationalGeographic.Santiago’stextisnota
hugeadvanceonStam’s;bothprovideapositivetheorisationandidentificationwith
non-dominantBraziliandiscourse,text,artifactsandculturalexpressionspreviously
seenasdeficient.NeverthelessSantiago’sconcept,althoughfirstusedinacritical
analysisofBrazilianliterature,ismoreabstractthanStam’smetaphorofanaesthetics
ofgarbage,whichwasgroundedinspecificexamplesthatengagedBrazilianfilmas
texts,andthusembodiesthenuances,contradictionsandambiguousnatureof
fashion.
Thetwosnapshotsexaminedinthischapterhavethereforebeenselected
becausetheyexemplifyafashionablegazethatNationalGeographicplacedupon
Brazilintwoparticularandisolatedexceptionsoverthecourseofadecade.Thefirst
sectionseekstounravelsomeoftheinterconnectionsandcomplexitiesbetweenthe
visual,textualandtactilestrategiesthatwereusedinthephotobookNational
GeographicFashiontoconstructafashionablegazeontothemagazine’sowneditorial
historyin2001.Thisgazeoscillatedprecariouslyin-betweencriticalrecognitionof
representedsubjectsasself-fashioningindividuals,incorrespondencewith
307AnaLuciaGazzolaandWanderMeloMiranda,‘Introduction:SilvianoSantiago,aVoiceIn-Between’,inTheSpaceIn-Between:EssaysonLatinAmericanCulture,pp.1-8(p.3).
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contemporaryacademiccritique,andfashioningthemasanexoticspectacle;tocite
Maynard’sacerbicobservation,‘worthyof[aesthetic]appropriation,butbeyond
fashionablechange’.308IuseSantiago’smetaphorofthespacein-betweentoexamine
aparticularsnapshotofBrazil,oneofthreere-presentedinNationalGeographic
Fashion,andunpickhowthemagazine’sfashionablegazemayhavebeen
counteractedthroughthein-betweengazeofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.
ThesecondsectionexaminestheimplicitlyfashionablegazethatNational
GeographicplacedonBrazilianwomeninthearticle,‘Machisma’inSeptember
2011.309Iusetheterm‘implicit’toacknowledgethat,althoughfashionwasnotthe
focusofthearticle,itplayedacrucialroleinfabricatinganarrativeofBrazilto
NationalGeographicviewers.Iuntanglethevisual,textualandtactilestrategies
employedbyNationalGeographictofashionanideaofBrazilinthemagazinebutalso,
takingintoaccounttheenlargeddigitalnetworksthatNationalGeographicexpanded
toincorporatesince1995,onthewebsite(accessibleat
www.nationalgeographic.com).310IuseSantiago’smetaphortoexaminetwoparticular
snapshotsfromthisarticle,andanalysetowhatextentBraziliansubjectscanbeseen
tohaverespondeddirectlytoNationalGeographic’sfashionablegazebypresenting
newsubjectivitiesthroughtheirownself-fashioning.Thischaptercriticallyaddresses
threedifferentmedia(photobook,magazineandwebsite)tobuilduponthe
phenomenologicalmodeofanalysisintroducedanddevelopedintheprevioustwo
chapters.Itconsidershowthesedifferentmediamayhavepromptedtheviewerto
interpretBraziliansubjectsinaparticularfashion.Idrawconclusionsinresponseto308Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,p.69.309CynthiaGorney,‘Machisma’,pp.96-121.310Gorney,‘Machisma’<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/gorney-text>[lastaccessedSeptember2014]Thissnapshotexaminesthepredominanttheme,asnotedinthesecondchapterofthisthesis,ofRiodeJaneiroandSaoPauloinNationalGeographic’srepresentationofBrazilsinceSeptember1988.
164
thefollowingquestions:howhasNationalGeographicfabricatedafashionablegaze
ontoBrazilsince2001?AndtowhatextentdoesSantiago’smetaphorenableustosee
howBraziliansubjectshaveself-fashioned,demonstratedbytheirabilitytosartorially
‘writeback’,throughgaze,poseordress,inresponsetotheirdominantrepresentation
byNationalGeographic?
NationalGeographicFashion:In-BetweenExoticSpectacleandCriticalRecognition
Theofficiallaunchofthelargecoffee-tablebook,NationalGeographicFashion
(Figs.4.0–4.6)on6September2001,washeldattheAmericandepartmentstoreSaks
FifthAvenue,NewYork.ItcoincidedwitheventscoordinatedbytheCouncilofFashion
DesignersofAmerica(CFDA)incelebrationofNewYorkFashionWeekSpring/Summer
2002.Thismarketingdecisionplacedtheluxuriouslarge-scale(31cmx28cmx2.5cm)
photobook,albeitreasonablypricedat$50formass-marketappeal,firmlywithina
highfashionasopposedtoanacademiccontext;arguably,thelatterwouldhavebeen
moreconspicuouslyachievedhadtheofficiallaunchbeenheldatAmericanbook
retailer,BarnesandNoble.311Thisfashionablegaze,whichleanedtowardstheexotic
spectacleofrepresentingNationalGeographicsubjectsforthebenefitofaWestern
high-fashionaudienceratherthanincitingcriticalrecognitionofthemasself-
fashioningindividuals,wasreinforcedbyfashioneditorLamontJones’multisensory
descriptionofthelauncheventforthePittsburghPost-Gazetteon8September2001:
Morethan700guests,wearingBurberrytops,ArmanisuitsandFerragamoscarves,revelledontheSecondFloorofSaksFifthAvenueinManhattan.They
311NationalGeographicFashionwassoldexclusivelyatSaksfor$50throughoutSeptember2001untilitreachedstoresthroughouttheUnitedStatesinOctober.Itcoincidedwiththeopeningoftheexhibit‘WhereFashionComesFrom’,whichdisplayedenlargedphotographsfromNationalGeographicFashioninatentatBryantPark,Manhattan,aspartofaseriesofeventsorganisedbytheCFDAtocoincidewithNewYorkFashionWeek.
165
drankcosmopolitansandnibbledChinesedumplings,filetmignonandmarinatedricerolledingrapeleavesasthesoul-stirringrhythmsofaseven-memberAfricandrumanddanceensemblereverberatedfromanewlyrenovatedareafrontedbytheDonnaKaransalon.TherewerenoremarksorspeechesfromSaksorNationalGeographicofficials,justmusic,foodanddrink.Someguestseventossedtheirdesignerhandbagstoonesideanddancedacrossthefloor.312
NationalGeographicFashiondidnotfeatureanyBurberry,Armani,Ferragamo
orDKNY,butinsteadre-framedandre-contextualisedonehundredandforty-five
NationalGeographicphotographs,ofdiverseandanonymoussubjects,fromvarious
geographicalspacesandplacesthroughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies.
Thesubjectsselectedforinclusionwerecomparableonlybytheirstrikingand
symmetricalmodel-likefacesand,generallyspeaking,symmetricalfigures,whether
slender,ample,ormuscular,whichhadunequivocallybeenselectedbyaneyeattuned
toWesternfashionandbeautyconventions.IntheWest,balancedandsymmetrical
bodiesandfaceshavetendedtobeperceivedasmoreattractivethanasymmetrical
ones.313TheimplicationinNationalGeographicFashionmayhavebeenthatitwas
permissibletobedifferent,assumingthatwithinthatnotionofdifferencetherewasa
recognisablebalance,symmetryandcorrespondingWesternidealofbeauty.314This
fashionableWesterngazebelongedtoNationalGeographicphotoeditor,Annie
GriffithsBelt,whoexplainedthat,inchoosingtheimagesforinclusionshelooked‘for
commonalityanddiversity.Mostly,Ilookedforself-expression.’315Amixtureoffull
colour,monochromeandhand-paintedAutochromeprintsreproducedonhighquality312LamontJones,‘FashionableInfluence:NationalGeographicCelebratesBookThatDocumentsFashionHistory’,PittsburghPost-Gazette,8September2001,p.20.313ItisforthisreasonthatReiKawakubo’sboldexperimentswithasymmetricalfashiondesignsthroughoutthe1980sand1990sweresoshockingandthought-provokingtoaWesternfashionaudience,sincetheyre-definedandre-wrotethebasictenetsofWesternfashionandbeautyconventions.LarsSvendsen,Fashion:APhilosophy,trans.byJohnIrons(London:ReaktionBooksLtd,2006),p.89.314SanderL.GilmanmakesasimilarpointinhisdiscussionofEuropean,post-enlightenmentaestheticsinMakingtheBodyBeautiful:aculturalhistoryofaestheticsurgery(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1999),p.150.315AnnieGriffithsBelt,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(6-15September2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.
166
satin-finishpaper,thephotographswerere-presentedashighlyaestheticisedfull-page
bleeds,double-pageenlargements,andsingle-pageimagesframedinwhite.
ThesubstantialweightofNationalGeographicFashionrequiredadeskortable
inorderforittobeviewedinitsentirety,whichclearlydistinguisheditfromtheslim,
glossymagazine,whichcouldbeheldinthehandsandeasilytransported,whether
rolledupinthepalmorslippedinsideabag.WhilstNationalGeographicmagazine
clearlycannotbedenotedasephemeral,sinceviewersfrequentlyheldontoand
collectedissues,NationalGeographicFashionhadadistinctlymoreseductiveand
tactilequality,whichtemptedtheviewertopickitup,toleafthroughit,and
potentially,totakeithomeanddisplayitprominentlyonacoffeetableorbookshelfas
thelatestexoticfashionaccessory.Thephotobookincludedintroductoryessaysby
culturalanthropologistJoanneEicher,apointtowhichthisanalysiswillreturn,and
fashionhistorianValerieMendes,inadditiontothreechaptersprovidedbyNational
GeographicwriterandeditorCathyNewman,whoconsultedarangeofdress-
historicalresourcesandconductedinterviewswithanumberoffashionspecialists.316
Nevertheless,thephotographs,whichBeltorganisedincollaborationwithdesigner
BenPhamoveraperiodofthreemonthstocreate‘pairingsandspreads’,remained
theprimaryfocusofthepublication,constructingasopposedtoillustratingthe
narrative;thiswasreinforcedbytheeditorialdecisiontoreferencetheimageswith
onlyashortcaptioninminuteprint,whichprovidedthebarecontextualessentials:
photographer,locationanddate.317Beyondsuperficialformalsimilarities,the
photographsborenorelationtooneanother,whichresonatedwithNewman’s
recollectionthatthelayoutofthebookwas‘anaestheticdecisionrelatedtopacing,
316RefertoAppendix7foralistofpeopleinterviewedandbooksconsultedbyCathyNewmaninpreparationforNationalGeographicFashion.317Belt,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.
167
and[had]nothingtodowithscholarship’.318Anexampleisadouble-pageview(Fig.
4.2)whichjuxtaposedasmallSriLankangirlframedbypalmfrondsin1907witha
photographofayoungHawaiiansubjectwearingafeatheredheaddressasshe
competedintheMissUniversePageantin1998.Thephotographswereperiodically
interspersedwithunreferencedquotations,whichlackedhistoricisationand
contextualisation.Acaseinpointisadouble-pagespread(Fig.4.3)depictingaDutch
farmingfamilyontheislandofMarken,dressedinclogsandhandmadeclothing,and
photographedin1914.ItwasaccompaniedbyaquotefromItalianfashiondesigner
ElsaSchiaparelli,whichread:‘Indifficulttimesfashionisalwaysoutrageous.’Taken
fromacompletelydifferenttimeperiodandcontext,thequoteboreanambivalent,
vergingonmeaningless,connectiontotheimage,beyondruminatingononefacetof
theabstractandintangiblenatureof‘fashion’.319
WhilstNationalGeographicFashionwasclearlymarketedtoapredominantly
fashion-orientatedaudience,thatitwaspublishedwithinaperiodwhendressand
fashionacademicscholarshipwasbeginningtoemployincreasinglyinterdisciplinary
andtransculturalmethodologies,whichcriticallyrecogniseddifferentmodesof
dressingfashionablythroughouttheworld,cannotbeignored.320NationalGeographic
waswellawareofthisscholarship,sinceitboldlyincludedanintroductionbyEicher,
whosetthecriticaltoneforthephotobookandcastdoubtuponsimplisticdichotomies318CathyNewman,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,22June2013).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews319NationalGeographicFashion,pp.118-9.320Sincethe1990sthehistoriographyandmethodologicalfocusofdressandfashionstudieshavebeenbroadenedbynewtheoreticalapproachesinfluencedbyanthropology,culturalandmediastudies,designhistoryandmaterialculture.In1993JenniferCraikacknowledgedthenumerousnon-capitalistandindigenoussystemsoffashionthatco-existandcompetewithWesternhighfashion,whichencompassedeverydayaswellasmoreexclusiveandspecialisedpracticesofdressingfashionablyinCraik,TheFaceofFashion.In1995JoanneEicherundertookworkonvariousfacetsofdresswithinaglobalframeworkinDressandEthnicity:ChangeAcrossSpaceandTime(Oxford:Berg,1995).In1997theacademicjournalFashionTheory:TheJournalofDress,BodyandCultureprovidedaforumfortheacademicstudyoffashionastheintersectionofdress,bodyandculture,whichanalysedarangeofphenomenathatincludedfootbindingandfashionphotography.
168
thatpresumedthedominanceofso-calledWestern‘fashion’aboveallegedlynon-
Western‘dress’.321SheurgedtheNationalGeographicFashionviewertoridherselfof
an‘ethnocentrismthatencouragesthebeliefthatwewholiveintechnologically
sophisticatedculturesaretheonlyonescapableof,orinterestedin,change’and
instructedhertoconsidertwothemesassheheldandthumbedthroughthe
photobook:‘First,thesubtletiesoffashionaschangeindress,and,second,howwe
interpretchangeindressasfashionable.’322Eicherlaterrecalled:‘Iwasallowedto
writewhateverIwanted.IwrotewhatIsawasmyphilosophyaboutfashionand
dress.’323Eicher’sphilosophywasmostevidentinherinsistencethatNational
GeographicFashionhadthepotentialtoredefineandbroadenourunderstandingof
fashion,asafluidandcontinualamendmentandre-thinkingofdressthat
characteriseseverydaylifeacrosstheglobe.
YetwhenquestionedwhythephotobookwastitledNationalGeographic
Fashion,asopposedtodress,forexample,ratherthaninvokethisphilosophy,
NewmanandEicheransweredrespectivelythatthedecisionwas‘drivenbymarketing
[…since]fashionisamoreinterestingwordthandressorclothing,bothofwhichseem
ratherdullbycomparison’and‘fashionmadethetitleappealing,moresothandress,
andpublishersdomakebookstosell’.324Thisdisjuncturebetweenacademiaand
commercewasimplicitlyreiteratedintheflyleaftothephotobook,whichcelebrated
fashioninverybroadterms:
Fashionisdramatic,demure,colourful,quiet…it’stimeless,it’stransient,shockingorsoothing,surprising,exciting.It’saninstinctasoldasAdamand
321NationalGeographicFashion,p.26.322Ibid.323JoanneEicher,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(29August–3September2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.324Newman,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor;Eicher,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.
169
Eve,andallovertheworldit’swhereveryoulook.Fashionisculture.Fashionisart.Fashionisus.325
Ontheonehand,thisexpansivedefinitionencompassedfashionablemodesofdressin
theirvariousmanifestationsacrossworld-timeandworld-space,butontheother,it
reducedfashiontoameaningless,undifferentiatedanduniversallayerthroughwhich
togazeupontheworldatlarge,andre-frameNationalGeographic’seditorialhistory
forcommercialgain.326Thephotographsthatwerere-presented,whichfocused
narrowlyon‘ethnic’dress,asopposedtohighfashionorstreetstyle,encapsulateda
palpabletension,betweenacriticalrecognitionofdiversedresspracticesacrossthe
globeas‘fashion’,inlinewithcontemporaryacademicdebate,andalossofanalytical
awarenessduetotheemphasisontheexotic,multisensoryspectacleofdress,which
drewmorenoticeablyonpopularethnography,aconstantsourceofinspirationtothe
Westernfashionworld.327
Viewedinitsentirety,NationalGeographicFashionwasacomplicated
demonstrationofafashionablegaze,whichfusedadiversecatalogueofexpressions,
gestures,poses,clothingandaccessoriesintoasynaestheticspectacleofsights,
sounds,smells,tastesandtactilesensations.Thephotographsencouragedtheviewer
tolookatdress,butalsosubconsciouslytomakecross-linkagesbetweenthesenses,
andtoimaginehowclothingmightfeel,smell,orsoundasitmoved,andtore-
constructathree-dimensionalandmultisensoryimageoffashionablydressedNational325NationalGeographicFashion,flyleaf.326Inthelate1990sNationalGeographicexpandedtobecomepartofaprofit-seekingcorporationcalledNationalGeographicVentures,whichincludedtelevision,website,bookssuchasNationalGeographicFashionandcollectedissuesofthemagazinereproducedonaCD-ROM.Thesewereseparatefromthenon-profitorganisationthatincludedthemagazine.ConstanceL.Hays,‘SeeingGreeninaYellowBorder’,TheNewYorkTimes,3August1997,pp.12-13.327Toclarifymyuseoftheterm,Maynarddefinesethnicdressas:‘attirecharacteristicofaspecificlanguage,religiousandethnographicsocialgroupandmaybewornbydiasporicpeopleswhoretainallegiancetotheircultureheritage.Theterm“ethnic”ispreferredtotraditional,whichimpliesaformofunchangingattire.’Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,p.12.
170
Geographicsubjects.However,whilstthetactilenatureofthetwosnapshots
discussedinthepreviouschapterencouragedamoreintimateengagementwith
Braziliansubjects,whichdepartedfromcold,distancedandrationalscientificviewing,
inNationalGeographicFashiontherewasanoverridingsensationthatthemagazine
hadshiftedonesteptoofar,andproducedadizzyinghyper-synaestheticoverload,
whichthreatenedtoovershadowtheviewer’scriticalfaculties.DavidHoweshasused
theterm‘hyperesthesia’todescribethecommodificationofmulti-sensoryvaluesin
latecapitalistculture,whichfocuseson‘seducingthesensesoftheconsumerinthe
interestsofvalorizingcapital’.328Asimilarformof‘multisensorymarketing’canbe
seeninNationalGeographicFashion,whichattemptedtoseducethe
viewer/consumerbyengagingasmanyofhersensesaspossible.329Indoingso,as
Howeshasarticulated,NationalGeographicmayhavesought‘tocreateastateof
hyperesthesiaintheshopper’,whobecamedistractedbythepleasurable,tactile
qualitiesofthephotographicrepresentationofdress,andlessconcernedbyitsdeeper
significanceforindividualwearers.330
Onemightarguethattherewasanintrinsiccritiqueembeddedwithinthis
haphazardandeclecticarrangementofcolourful,tactileimagery,whichjostledand
competedfortheviewer’sattention.Asimilarlineofreasoningwasemployedinthe
introductiontothisthesis,whichacknowledgedthatthediversearrangementof
NationalGeographic,exemplifiedbythe125thcentennialedition,couldbe
328DavidHowes,‘HYPERESTHESIA,or,TheSensualLogicofLateCapitalism’,inEmpireoftheSenses:thesensualculturereader,ed.byHowes,(NewYork:Berg,2005),pp.281-303(pp.287-8).HowesdrewonVirginiaPostrel’sunderstanding,inTheSubstanceofStyle:howtheriseofaestheticvalueisremakingcommerce,cultureandconsciousness(NewYork:HarperCollins,2003),ofhowthetactilequalitiesoffashionitemsaffectaconsumer’sfeelingandevaluationofthem.Postrelwrote:‘PeoplepetArmaniclothesbecausethefabricsfeelsogood.Theseclothesattractusasvisual,tactilecreature,notbecausetheyare“richinmeaning”butbecausetheyarerichinpleasure.’PostrelquotedinHowes,‘HYPERESTHESIA,p.287.329Ibid.,p.286.330Ibid.
171
conceptualisedasacontactzone.InNationalGeographicFashion,however,therewas
moreevidentlyastandardisation,flatteningandlevellingofindividuals,whichwas
promptedbytheexoticspectacleofdiverselydressednon-Westernsubjects,allof
whomwereaestheticisedinaccordancewithWesternbeautyconventions,but
nonethelessrenderedunequivocallypeculiarthroughthegazeoffashion.Ultimately,
themismatchprocessbywhichdifferentphotographswerearrangedandre-presented
inNationalGeographicFashionwasmorelikelytotantaliseandexcitethecuriosity,
thanengagethecriticalfaculties,ofthegeographicallyremovedviewer.The
photobookthereforeresonatedmorecloselywithSantiago’sdismissaloftheexotic
representationoftheOtheras‘animageofasmilingcarnivalandfiesta-filledholiday
havenforculturaltourism’thanwiththecautionarytonesetbyEicherinher
introduction,whichurgedviewersnottoacceptstraightforwardlytherepresentation
ofnon-Westerndressandfashionasaneverydaycontemporaryreality,since‘itmay
notevenbeanexampleofwhatmostpeopleworeatthetime’and‘photographers
mayhaveaspecificpurposefordocumentingacertaintypeofdress’.331
Santiago’scritiquewasabundantlyclearinthecommentaryprovidedbyone
viewer,whodescribedthecomfortshefoundinNationalGeographicFashionwhen
shereceiveditbyFederalExpress,‘approximatelyfiveminutesbeforetoweroneof
theWorldTradeCenterwashit’.332Assheexplained,‘inthepostWTCAmerican
experience’,thephotobookprovided‘apowerfulvisualandcontextualtoolfor
understandingthevalueofclothesandadornment.Filledwithtimelessimagesof
peoplefromacrosstheglobe,it[offered]acompellingremindertothosebothinand
outsidetherealmoffashiontoconsidertherestoftheworld’sjoysandsorrowsaswe
331Santiago,TheSpaceIn-Between,p.38;Ibid.,p.20.332TobinLevy,‘TobinLevy’sFashionBookReviews:NationalGeographicFashion’,<http://www.lookonline.com/newbookreview-4.html>[21May2013](para.1of5)
172
reflectuponourown.’333ViewerslocatedwithintheWest,anddirectlyafflictedbythe
fragmentationandanxietycausedby9/11,wereinvitedtoseekcomfortinthestability
providedbynon-Westernsubjects,whowereplacedwithinatimelessethnographic
present.ThisviewpointencapsulatedthecontradictionsofNationalGeographic
Fashion,whichequateditselfwithcontemporaryscholarshipthatsoughttodefine
fashionwithinanexpansiveandcross-culturalframework,butalsohadanundeniable
commercialremit,whichsuggestedthatacademicdebatehadnotquitefiltered
throughintopopularparlance,stillcaptivatedasitwasbytheexoticflairofa
presumedOther.Thephotobookself-consciouslyfashioneditselfasanopen
sourcebookofpopularethnographythatre-presentedandre-framednon-Western
subjectsthroughafashionablegazethatenabledtheWesternviewertodistinguish
herselfandtheUnitedStatesfromapresumedstableopposite.Ratherthanengage
withactualfashionsystems,pastorpresent,Westernornon-Western,norwithhigh-
endoreverydayfashion,NationalGeographicFashionfocusedonstereotypesofthe
exoticthatreiterateddistinctionsbetweentheSelfandtheOther.Itfailedtoreporton
themultidimensionalnatureoffashion,asithasnegotiatedandnavigatedvarious
differentsubjectpositions,whetherofrace,gender,sexuality,ethnicity,class,age,or
nationalidentity,withinthecontextofcontemporaryglobalisation.
ThisnarrowviewpointwasnotconfinedtoNationalGeographic,but
widespreadacrosstheU.S.media,exemplifiedbyanarticlepublishedinWomen’s
WearDailyon24July2001,entitled‘Fashion’sSecondCircuit:Plaguedbyfashion
ennuiandtryingtofindsomethinguniquetocaptureconsumer’sattention,buyersare
combingallcornersoftheearthfornew,interestingresources.Herearereportsfrom
333Levy,‘TobinLevy’sFashionBookReviews’(para.2of5)
173
recentfashionweeksinBrazilandAustralia.’(Fig.4.7)334Thetitleacknowledgedthat
BrazilandAustraliaconstitutedasecondfashioncircuit,andbyimplication,secondary
toParis,NewYork,LondonandMilan.Italsounashamedlypointedouttheintentto
plunderexoticlooksfromthesecountriesinordertore-invigorateWesternfashion.
Theoverridingimpressionprovidedwasthat,ratherthannumerousdifferentfashion
systemsinexistencethroughouttheworld,therewasstillonlyone,Western-
dominatedfashionsystem,whichwasdistinguishedfromthenon-West,andcontained
thepowertoincorporatearangeofnewanddifferentethnicitiesandexoticdelights
intoitsownframeofreference,asandwhenitpleased.Thisasymmetricalbalanceof
powerrifeinWWDresonatedwithJones’uncriticalrecognition,intheclosingremarks
tohisarticleinthePittsburghPost-Gazette,thatNationalGeographicFashion
provided‘agreatholidaybookforthatfashionistaonyourlist’.335
Nevertheless,theconceptofthespacein-betweencanbeusedtoanalyse,and
potentiallydeconstruct,individualimagesofBrazilthatwerere-framedandre-
contextualisedinNationalGeographicFashion.RatherthanreduceBraziltoan
ineffablenostalgicandhistoricalpast,Santiagoopensupasiteofpotentialtore-
interpretNationalGeographic’sfashionablegazeontoBrazil,byunderstandingcontact
fromtheperspectiveofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.Brazilappearedthreetimes
inNationalGeographicFashion:ontheleft-handsideofadouble-pageview(Fig.4.4),
andonbothsidesofadouble-pageview(Fig.4.5).Ineachinstance,National
Geographicfocusedonindigenouspeoples,drawingaparallelwiththethirdsnapshot
examinedinthefirstchapterofthisthesis.However,asopposedtofocusingon
334MichaelKemp,‘Global:Fashion’sSecondCircuit,Brazil’sBigDraw’,Women’sWearDaily,24July2001,pp.16-17.335MichaelMarkoquotedinLaMontJones,‘FashionableInfluence:NationalGeographiccelebratesbookthatdocumentsfashionhistory’,PittsburghPost-Gazette,8September2001,p.20.
174
Brazilianwomen,whoprovidedaninterestingexampleoftheappropriationandre-
presentationofWesterndresspracticesinthemagazinepriorto1988,National
GeographicFashionintheseinstancessolelydocumentedmen.
Thefirstimage(Fig.4.8)wastakenbyAmericanphotojournalistLoren
McIntyrein1972,andcapturedaWaurawrestler(indigenoustotheXinguNational
ParkintheWesternstateofMatoGrosso)coveredinlargeredandblackdesigns
paintedonhischestandlegs.336Itwasoriginallypublishedontheleft-handsideofa
double-pageview,oppositeablankwalloftext,intheOctober1972issueofthe
magazine(Fig.4.9),withinanarticleentitled‘Amazon–TheRiverSea’.337Re-
presentedinthephotobook,ontheright-handsideofadouble-pageview,itwas
cropped,enlargedandstretchedtofitthe30cm-squaredpagesofNationalGeographic
Fashion.Theimagewaslightened,whichrenderedthesubject’sskinpaler,sothatthe
lightbouncedoffhismuscularphysique,butitalsosoftenedandsubduedhisredand
blackbodypaint.Thisaestheticisationmadethesubjectappearlessfierce,and
possiblymorepalatabletoWesterntastes.Yetratherthangazingintoablankwallof
text,whichconstrainedandconfinedhimtothemagazinepage,hispensivegazenow
extendsbeyondthephotobook,situatingthesubjectastheperformerofhisown
actions.Hisself-possessedgazeismatchedbythatoftheBraziliansubjectinthe
secondphotograph,whichwascapturedbyRobertW.Maddenin1976andpublished
ontheleft-handsideofadouble-pageviewinNationalGeographicFashion(Fig.
4.10).338TheYanomamosubject(indigenoustotheAmazonrainforestontheborder
betweenVenezuelaandBrazil)gazesdirectlyattheviewerwithwide-openeyes,
requestingaclose-upresponsefromher.Thereisanintimateandquiettheatricalityto
336NationalGeographicFashion,p.178.337LorenMcIntyre,‘Amazon–TheRiverSea’,NationalGeographic,October1972,pp.456-99.338Ibid.
175
thisphotograph,anintensityofmomentbetweentheviewerandsubjectrendered
throughtheimmediacyandsimultaneousstillnessoftherepresentation.339Although
thisparticularphotographwaspreviouslyunpublished,acomparablephotographof
thesamesubjectappearedintheAugust1976editionofthemagazine,inanarticle
entitled‘Yanomamo:TheTruePeople’(Fig.4.11).340Bothofthesubjectshavea
presenceandassertiveness,reinforcedbytheirsingularandcentralpositioningwithin
theframe,whichdemonstratestheirabilitytoassertindividualsubjectivitiesfrom
withintheconfinesofNationalGeographic’sfashionablegaze.
Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographicPhotographer’sClothing
ThefinalimageofBrazilre-presentedinNationalGeographicFashion,andthe
snapshotthischapterfocuseson,mobilisedamoredynamicformofresistanceto
NationalGeographic’sfashionablegaze.Publishedonasingle-pagespread(Fig.4.12),
itre-presentedandre-framedaphotographofaYanomamomanposedwithhisyoung
son,originallydocumentedbyMichaelNicholsin1990,andpreviouslyarchivedina
gridformationontheonlinephotographicarchive,NationalGeographicCreative(Fig.
4.13).341Re-contextualisedwithinNationalGeographicFashion,thephotographwas
stretchedandcroppedalongthebottomedge;thismayhavebeenanintentional
censoringoftheyoungboy’sexposedprivateparts,butitalsoincreasedthefocus
ontothetwosubjects,andframedtheminthemoreintimateprotocolsofportraiture,
asopposedtoethnography.Theportraitwasintensifiedincolour,sothatamore
339NationalGeographicFashion,p.12.340NapoleonA.Chagnon,‘Yanomamo:TheTruePeople’,NationalGeographic,August1976,pp.211-23(p.211).341NationalGeographicFashion,p.13;‘ApaintedYanomamoposeswithhisson’,inNationalGeographicCreative,<http://www.natgeocreative.com/ngs/photography/search/comp-view/index.jsf>[accessed13June2015]
176
dynamicdialecticwasmobilisedbetweenthetwofigures,whoaredressedinredbody
paintandredloincloth,andthefertile,leafygreensurroundingsthatframethem.This
editorialdecisiondrewattentiontotheredofthedressandtheirpainted,tannedskin,
whichstandsoutclearlyintheforeground,contrastingwiththerecessivegreenofthe
background.
Bothsubjectsarecapturedstraightforwardlyintheframe;themanstares
confidentlyanddirectlyintothecameralens,whilsttheyoungboyaddressesthe
photographerwithanarrestingandinquisitivegaze.Theman’sconfidentand
composedgazedenotescomplicitybetweenthesubjectandthephotographer,
subvertingtheone-directionalpowerrelationsfrequentlyattributedtothe
relationshipbetweenobserversandobserved.ItisusefulheretodrawonMerleau-
Ponty’sobservationthat,inviewingafacethatgazesdirectlyattheviewer,wearenot
simplyawarethatitisaface,butwetakeintoaccountthepositionoftheface;not
onlydowefacethatface,butthisrelationshipisreciprocal,sincewearealsofaced.342
Themanhasadignityandstandsasanactiveagentofhisownappearance,rather
thanasaforlornandpassiveobjectofadistancedvoyeuristicgaze.Hisrightarm
envelopshisyoungson,whosepresenceisalsoundeniablyfeltwithintheimageasa
knowingagent.Theyoungboyisasiteofpotentiality,anin-betweenfigure,who
obscuresthedivisionsbetweenselfandother,presentandpast,youngandold,
observerandobserved.Heappearstobeascaptivatedbythecurioussightofthe
clothedphotographer,andperhapshisdifferentmodeofdress,asthephotographeris
byhim.Thisself-reflexivedynamiccanbeextendedtotheviewer,whoisequally
awareoftheyoungboy’sgaze,whichstaresoutbeyondtheconfinesofthephotobook
342Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,p.294.
177
ontotheirowndressedbodyandevokesaself-consciousnessintheviewer’sgazeonto
theyoungboyandhisfatherassubjects-to-be-looked-at.
Thisparticularsnapshotisanindeterminateandambivalentimage,which
mobilisesacomplexinterplaybetweenthedominantgazethathasbeenplacedupon
theYanomamomanandhisson,centreduponthephysicalappearanceoftheir
dressedbodies,andadefianceofthatexotictouristgaze,whichiscounteractedbythe
inquisitivenessoftheyoungboy’sgaze.Althoughhisclothingbearsnoobvioustraceof
cross-culturalcontactandexchange,hisself-possessedgazesuggestsaninstanceof
reflexivity,whichcharacterisesSantiago’snotionofwritingback,wherebytheactions
ofthedominantculture,herelookingandobserving,aremimicked.HomiBhabhahas
observedthatmimicryis‘thesignofadoublearticulation;acomplexstrategyof
reform,regulationanddiscipline,whichappropriatestheOtherasitvisualizes
power’.343Thelittleboy’sgazehintsatanalternativeandcriticalre-readingofthis
image,whichopensupasiteofpotentialforNationalGeographicFashiontobe
understoodinitsentiretynotmerelyasafashionablegazethatblurredpeoplesand
placesfromacrossworld-timeandworld-spacebutasaproductivespacefornew
subjectivepossibilitiesandrealitiestobecreatedandcontested.Itisapotent
reminderthatjustastheYanomamomanandhissonprovideanexoticspectacleto
theNationalGeographicphotographer,thisdynamicworksinplayfulirony,sincethe
photographerisanequallyexoticspecimentotheYanomamisubjects.
However,thiscriticalrecognitionwasentirelydependentupontheNational
GeographicFashionviewer,toslowdownandcontemplatetheimagesre-framed
withinthelavishphotobook.Thismayhavebeenencouragedbythelargesizeofthe
343HomiBhabha,‘OfMimicryandMan:TheAmbivalenceofColonialDiscourse’inTheLocationofCulture(London:Routledge,1990),pp.85-92(p.85).
178
photobook,whichrequiredadesktobeviewed,asopposedtothemagazine,which
wasanintimateobjectthatcouldbecarriedaround.Consideredinthecontextofthe
fragmentationandchaosgeneratedby9/11,itisperhapslesslikelythatfeelingsof
identificationandintimacyweremobilisedbetweenviewerandsubject,andmore
likelythatNationalGeographicFashionfuelledadesireforculturalsuperiorityonthe
partoftheU.S.viewer,toreinforceNorthAmericandominancebyassertingtheexotic
differenceoftherestoftheworld.344ItwasnotuntiltenyearslaterthatNational
GeographicdocumentedBrazilagainthroughafashionablegaze,onlyonthisoccasion,
ratherthanfocusingonethnicdresswornbyindigenousBrazilianmen,itconcentrated
onWestern-stylehighfashionadoptedbyBrazilianwomenlivinginRiodeJaneiro.
AFashionableGazeonBrazilianWomenin2011
NationalGeographicFashionconstitutedanexceptioninhistoriographyofthe
magazine’sdocumentationoftheworldin2001,oscillatingprecariouslybetween
exoticspectacle,particularlywhentheluxuriouslarge-scalephotobookwasviewedas
344ThiswouldprovideanexplanationastowhyNationalGeographicchosetoleaveoutparticularimagesfromthephotobook,suchasonetakenbyRobertW.MooreandpublishedinthemagazineinMay1939,whichdocumentedagroupofmenandwomenofEuropeandescentdressedinelegantEuropean-stylefashionsastheyqueueforataxioutsidetheluxuryEnglishdepartmentstore,Mappin’,inSaoPaulo.Mappin’openedinSaoPauloin1913andenabledtheaspiringmiddleclassesofanewlyindustrialisedandcapitalistSaoPaulotoconsumeluxurygoodssuchasclothing,accessories,furniture,fabricsandhouseholdapplianceswhichdenoted‘Englishness’.ItdisseminatedfashionableforecaststotheBrazilianeliteand,itspopularityinthe1940s,reflectedaboominSaoPaulo’scommercialandindustrialinfrastructure.ThischoiceofomissiondemonstratedthatNationalGeographicFashionhadanagenda(justasNationalGeographichadanagendaduringWorldWarTwo,whenitchosetodocumentwhiteEuropean-descended,ratherthanindigenous,Brazilians)sincethefashionablegazeitplacedontheworldwasherepalpablyinformedbyanethnographicdesiretocodifydifference,ratherthantopresentviewerswithamoreeasilyrecognisableimageoffashionasaglobaleconomicforcethatpermeatessocialandculturallife.Moore,‘AsSaoPauloGrows’,p.659.FormoreinformationonMappin’seeRitaAndrade,‘MappinStores:AddinganEnglishTouchtotheSãoPauloFashionScene’,inTheLatinAmericanFashionReader,ed.byReginaRoot(NewYork:Berg,2005),pp.176-187.
179
awhole,andcriticalrecognition,potentiallyencouragedwhenindividualimagesof
Brazilwereviewedincontemplativeisolation.Ultimately,itprobablyservedto
establish,ratherthantoerode,alterity.Thisdialecticcanbeexaminedinmoredetail
inanarticlepublishedinNationalGeographicinSeptember2011,entitled‘Machisma:
HowAMixOfFemaleEmpowermentAndSteamySoapOperasHelpedBringDown
Brazil’sFertilityRateandStokeItsVibrantEconomy’,whichmarkedanotherexception
inhistoriographyofNationalGeographic’sdocumentationofBrazil.
Unlikethesnapshotsdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,whereimagerytook
precedenceovertext,andencouragedidentificationwithBraziliansubjects,thisarticle
gaveequalprecedencetotextandimage,justasdidthepre-1988snapshotsexamined
inthefirstchapter.Thetitleofthearticlemadeuseoftheneologism‘Machisma’,
whichNationalGeographicresearcherHeidiSchultzexplainedwasafabricationbythe
author,AmericanjournalistCynthiaGorney:
ItisaplayonthewordMachismousedinBrazilandmanyotherLatinAmericancountries.Machismohasbeenlinkedtoviolenceandphysicalassaultsonwomen.Thiswasaninversionofthatdefinition.Wewereshowingempoweredwomenwhowerefightingback,bytakingtheirfertilityintotheirownhands.345
Gorneyexplainedthatthearticlewaswrittenas‘partofayear-longseriescalled7
Billion’,whichaddressedthe‘world’spopulationreachingthatnumber’.346Asaresult
ofits‘vastlandmass,withenormousregionaldifferencesingeography,raceand
culture’,Brazilwasselectedasanexemplarycasestudy‘toillustratethedropin
fertilitythathadbeennotedinmanydevelopingcountries’,includingRussia,India,
345HeidiSchultz,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(NationalGeographicSocietyArchives,22June2013).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.346CynthiaGorney,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(18-19July2013).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.
180
ChinaandSouthAfrica.347Withinthearticle,shecomparedBrazil’sfallinfertilitywith
thatoftheUnitedStates:
[The]newBrazilianfertilityrateisbelowthelevelatwhichapopulationreplacesitself.Itislowerthanthetwo-children-per-womanfertilityrateintheUnitedStates.ItisthelargestnationinLatinAmerica–a191-million-personcountrywheretheRomanCatholicChurchdominates,abortionisillegal(exceptinrarecases),andnoofficialgovernmentpolicyhaseverpromotedbirthcontrol–familysizehasdroppedsosharplyandsoinsistentlyoverthepastfivedecadesthatthefertilityrategraphlookslikeaplaygroundslide.348
Gorneyacknowledgedthatthistrenddidnotapplyonlyto‘wealthyandprofessional
women’buttoalllevelsofsociety,including‘schoolteachers,trashsorters,architects,
newspaperreporters,shopclerks,cleaningladies,professionalathletes,highschool
girls,andwomenwhohadspenttheiradolescencehomeless’.349Thearticleputthis
trenddowntorapidindustrialisationfollowingtheendofthemilitaryregimein1984,
whichrequiredwomentoworklongerhoursratherthanstayathomewithchildren;
theabilitytoobtainmeansofbirthcontroloverthepharmacycounterwithout
prescription;theintroductionofanationalpension,reducingdependencyinoldage
onalargerfamily;theriseincaesareansectionsasaresultoffinancialincentivesfor
doctors;theincreaseinwomen’sequalityrightsthatstemmedfromtheBrazilian
Women’sMovementofthe1970sand1980s;and,finally,thewidespreadinfluenceof
Braziliantelenovelas,Portuguese-languageeveningsoapoperas,andtheir
propagandisticdisseminationof‘asingular,vivid,aspirationalimageofthemodern
Brazilianfamily:affluent,lightskinned,andsmall’.350Gorney’sfinalcommentwasnot
flippant,butreferredtothecontemporaryrealitythat,whilstBrazilisculturallyand
347Gorney,‘Machisma’,p.102.348Ibid.,p.101.349Ibid.350Ibid.,p.108.
181
raciallydiverse,thishasnot,untilveryrecently,beenreflectedinnationalmedia,
whereAfro-Brazilianshavefrequentlybeenrelegatedtoinvisibleorsecondaryroles.351
Gorneydescribedtheconsequencesofthisdropinfertility:‘multi-class
consumerism’andanexplosioninconsumercredit,‘reachingmiddle-andworking-
classfamiliesthattwodecadesagohadnoaccesstothesekindsofdiscretionary
purchasespaidoffovertime’.352Whilstsheacknowledgedthatitwas‘agross
simplification’todeducethatBrazilianwomenarechoosingtohavefewerchildrenin
ordertospendmoremoney,sheexplainedthat‘questionsaboutmaterialacquisition
–howmucheverythingnowcosts,andhowmucheveryonenowdesires–both
interestedandtroublednearlyeveryBrazilianwomanImet’.353Gorneycautionedthat
economicgrowthandadropinfertilitydidnotstraightforwardlyensurenationwide
familywellbeingunlessaffluencewascarefullymanagedandinvested,theimplication
being,perhaps,thatBrazilianwomenmighthaveatendencytoberatherfrivolous
withtheirnewfoundwealth.So-calledfrivolitywasnotcharacteristic,however,ofall
ofthewomenthatGorneymet.Herarticleconcludedwithadescriptionofhaving
coffeewithagroupofprofessionalwomeninSaoPaulo,wheretheystudied‘eight
differentglossyparentingmagazines’:
Westudiedthefashionphotographsofbeautifultoddlersinknitsandaviatorsunglassesandfakefurs.‘Lookatthesekids,’saidMileneChaves,a33-year-oldjournalist,hervoicehoveringbetweenadmirationanddespair.Sheturnedthepage.‘Anditseemsyouhavetohaveadecoratedroomtoo.Idon’tneedadecoratedroomlikethis.’[…]Thehalfdozenfriendsaroundheragreed,themagazinesstillopenonthetablebeforeus:attractiveobjects,theysaid,butsoexcessive,sodisturbinglytoomuch.354
351SamanthaNogueiraJoyce,BrazilianTelenovelasandtheMythofRacialDemocracy(Lanham:LexingtonBooks,2012).352Gorney,‘Machisma’,p.116.353Ibid.,p.118.354Ibid.,p.119.
182
WhilsttheBrazilianwomenquotedappearedcriticaloftheirpeers’materialisticdesire
for(inthisparticularinstance,children’s)fashionitems,suchas‘knits,aviator
sunglasses,andfakefurs’,whichwereoftenpaidforoncredit,thebackcoverofthe
sameeditionofNationalGeographicfeaturedLeonardoDiCaprio(Fig.4.14),dressedin
anopen-collareddarkgreyshirtandblackjacket,inthelatestTagHeuerwatch
advertisement;thisluxuryfashionitemtemptedtheNationalGeographicviewer,if
nottopurchaseoutright,thensurelytobuyoncredit.355DiCapriomodelledaman’s
watchfromthemid-rangeCarreraseries;theimplicationdeducedbytheNational
GeographicviewerwouldsurelyhavebeenthatitwaspermissibleforU.S.mento
participateinfashionasactiveconsumers,butnotforBrazilianwomen,evenifitwas
inaidoftheirchildrenratherthanalavishpurchaseforthemselves,reinforcinga
powerimbalancebetweenthetwogroups.
Itisimportanttopointoutthatwhilstthearticledidnotfocusonfashion,it
playedakeyroleinconstructingthenewidentityofthe‘empowered’Brazilianwomen
representedbyNationalGeographic.Gorney’sopinionoffashioninBrazil,whichshe
cleverlyworkedintoherreportsothatitappearedactuallytobetheopinionofthe
Brazilianwomenshehadinterviewed,wasretrogressive,andconnectedtotheviewof
fashionpropoundedbytheWomen’sLiberationMovement(WLM)intheUnited
Statesduringthelate1960sand1970s.TheWLMunderstoodfashiontobetrivial,
sincethemovementdeemeditmoreliberatingforwomentobreakoutof
preconceivedideasofcontrolledfemininitywhichconstructedfalseidealsof
women.356YetbyputtingforwardthispointofviewviatheBraziliansubjectsthatshe
interviewed,GorneyconveyedtheoverridingimpressionthatitwasglossyBrazilian
355NationalGeographic,September2011,backcover.356CarolineEvansandMinnaThornton,WomenandFashion:ANewLook(London:Quartet,1989),p.3.
183
magazines,ratherthan,infact,NationalGeographic,whichperpetuatedanout-of-
dateandartificialideologyofBrazilianfemininitythroughitsrepresentationof
contemporaryBrazilianfashion,withitsattemptstotellBrazilianwomenhowthey
should,orrathercould,livetheirlives.RatherthandepictingBrazilianfashionasa
highlyprofitableindustry,whichwouldhavedirectlylinkedittoBrazil’svibrant
economy(towhichby2011itwascontributing3.5percent),asreferredtointhetitle
ofthearticle,NationalGeographicpresentedfashionasamechanismusedina
purportedlysexistmale-dominatedBraziliansocietytocontrolwomenandkeepthem
intheirplace.357Theimplicationwasthat,althoughBrazilmayhavehadalower
fertilityratein2011thantheUnitedStates,itwasfarbehindintermsofattitudesto
genderequality,despiteNationalGeographic’sapparentlycommendableattemptsto
unearthevidenceofitsowninvention,‘Machisma’.
Despitethis,thephotographsofBrazilianfashionthataccompaniedthearticle,
whichwerefarmorecomplexandintermedialimages,communicatedaslightly
differentnarrativetotheviewer.Itisimportanttopointoutthatthetwentyfull-
colourphotographsselectedbyStanmeyertoaccompanythearticleasawholewere
predominantlyacombinationofportraitphotographyanddocumentaryimages.An
exampleoftheformercanbeseeninFig.4.15,adouble-pageviewthatcontrasted
twofamilyportraits:ontheleft,thedarker-skinned,seven-childfamilyofMariado
LivramentoBraz,whoisseatedinthemiddle,andusedasanexemplarycasetoreflect
‘Brazil’soncehighfertilityrate’,andontheright,thelighter-skinnedtwo-childfamily
ofMariaCorrêadeOliviera,alsoseated,whoisareflectionofhow‘thenumberofkids
357Anon.,‘InBrazil,BoomingEconomyBoostsApparelBusiness’,inApparel<http://apparel.edgl.com/news/in-brazil,-booming-economy-boosts-apparel-business75616>[accessed13June2015]
184
perwomanhasplummetedsincethe1960s’.358Anexampleofthedocumentaryimage
isexemplifiedbyFig.4.16,adouble-pagespreadthatcapturedLilianeMineiradaSilva
withherchildren,BeatrizandVitoria,assheproducescrochetfortheCoopa-Rocaarts
cooperative,situatedinRio’slargestfavela,Rocinha.359Yetinterveningwithinthis
overridingvisualnarrativeweretwoambiguousimages,whichhadthepotentialto
dissolvebinarydivisionsandsculptoutaspacein-betweentheconventionsof
documentationanddramatisation.
Snapshot7a:BiancaMarque’sBikinisintheMagazine
Thesecondsnapshotthischapterexamineswaspublishedonadouble-page
spreadattheveryendofthearticleasprintedinthemagazine(Figs.4.17and4.18).It
capturedfashionablydressedwomentalking,eatingandlaughingwithintheplush
interiorofBrazilianfashiondesignerBiancaMarques’boutique.Thecaptioninformed
theviewerthatthiswas‘anupscaleIpanemaboutique’,intheaffluentSouthZoneof
RiodeJaneiro.360Theheightenedsurfaceappearanceoftheimageimmediately
associateditwithfashion:theglintofglasschandeliers,theshineofthesilvermaterial
ofthebikinidisplayed,thelustrousdarkhairofthecentralfemalesubject,the
polishedglasswindows,thesmoothmirrortotherightoftheimageand,lastbutnot
least,thesilkysheenofthemagazinepage.Thisendorsedthedisdainfulimplication
propoundedwithinGorney’stext,thatfashionmagazinesaresuperficial,‘soexcessive,
358Gorney,‘Machisma’,pp.98-99.359Coopa-RocastandsforRochinaSeamstressandCraftworkCooperativeLtd,andwassetupintheearly1980sto‘[train],manageandcoordinatetheworkoffemaleresidentsofRochina,whoproduceartisanalpiecesforfashionanddesignmarkets’.‘AboutUs’,<http://www.coopa-roca.org.br/quem_somosI.asp>[accessed13June2015]360Gorney,‘Machisma’,p.119.
185
sodisturbinglytoomuch’.361Ithadtheappearanceofsocialreportage;itcouldhave
beenasocietypagesinceitdocumented,ratherthanfashionexplicitly,morean
anthropologyofsociallife,andtheanticsofwealthywomeninBrazil,whichcouldbe
interpretedasrathervulgar,andonfirstglancemightbereadasproviding
entertainmentfortheNationalGeographicviewer.Indeed,toconsiderthe
photographasawhole,thefemalesubjectsarepresentedaspassive,unawareofthe
active,observinggazeofStanmeyerandhiscameraastheychat,eatandlaugh
amongstthemselves.
Nevertheless,withintheimagewecandiscernaspectsofSantiago’sspacein-
between.Thegazeofthewomantotheleftofcentreintheimage,whoisalso
reflectedinthemirrorontheright-handsideofthepage,doesnotsuggestpassivity,
butaspecificallyfemininegazethatmatchesStanmeyer’smasculinegazeontothe
women.Itisagazecomparabletothatofthesmallboyexaminedintheprevious
snapshot,but,ratherthancurious,itisconfidentandself-assured.TheBrazilian
subjectisnolongertheobjectofagaze,buttheinstigatorofagaze;sheinhabitsa
spacein-betweenthephotographerandhisfemalesubjects,whereshematches
NationalGeographic’sdominantvisualgazeandplacesitbackontothephotographer
and,throughthemagazine’sdissemination,alsoontotheNationalGeographicviewer.
Thatthereisacameraplacedonthesofanexttoher,directlypointingattheviewer,
reinforcesherpositionasanactiveself-fashioningsubject,butalsoherownawareness
ofherselfasafashionimage.ThefemaleprotagonistencapsulateswhatMerleau-
Pontytermedthe‘splitgaze’,whereby‘externalperceptionandtheperceptionof
one’sownbodyvaryinconjunctionbecausetheyarethetwofacetsofoneandthe
361Ibid.
186
sameact’.362Thewoman’sactivegazeoperatesasapowerfulinversionofNational
Geographic’sfashionablegazeontothewomen,whichrenderstheirprivatesphereof
ashoppingboutiquepublicwithinthepagesofthemagazine.Sheturnsthatgazeback
ontotheviewer,lookingbackwithasteelystare,whichencouragesaheightened
senseoflooking,seeing,being,feelingandwearingwithintheviewerandinvites,
perhaps,criticalself-reflectionandcontemplation,astheviewerbecomesawareof
herownpositionasavoyeur.Thisself-reflexivedynamicisreinforcedbytheeditorial
decisiontosplittheimageintwobytheuseofamirror,whichreflectstheimageback
ontoitself.Thecreaseofthemagazinedouble-pagespreademphasisesthismirroring,
butalsoobscuresthesubject’sreflection,drawingattentiontothefactthatmirrorsdo
notsimplyreflect,butactivelyconstruct,resonatingwithGarrett’simplicit
acknowledgementofthisinthecentennialeditionofNationalGeographic,withinthe
article‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,examinedinthesecondchapter.Thewoman’s
gazeindicatesthatsheisconfidentwithherappearance,whichshehassubjectively
constructedthroughheradoptionoffashionableitemsofclothing.Herfashionedbody
doesnotrenderherapassiveobjectbutisactivelyproducedasasiteforthe
articulationofherownfeminineandsocialidentity.Fashiongiveshertheconfidence
todefineherselfagainstanobjectifyingNationalGeographicgaze,bymimickingthat
gazeinaprocessthatresistsandre-fashionsit.
Aninterestingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithaswimwearshoot
documentedintheNewYorkTimesStyleMagazine(Fig.4.19)fivemonthsearlierin
April2011,entitled‘TheFullBrazilian:frolickingonhernativebeachesinresort’sflirty
newsilhouetteofrompersandshortsisthatnationaltreasure,thegorgeousRaquel
362Merleau-Ponty,PhenomenologyofPerception,p.237.
187
Zimmermann’.363JustasinNationalGeographic,thefashionshootcelebrateda
desirablewhiteBrazilianfemininity,buthereitcapturedthegloballysuccessful
fashionmodelZimmermanonatriptoFernandodeNoronha,anarchipelagointhe
AtlanticOcean,354kmoffshorefromthenortheastcoastofBrazil.Thereisarelative
lackofexoticismandplayingupofasensualBrazilianfemininitythatmightbe
expectedfromaswimwearshootonlocationinBrazil,notleastwithaBrazilianmodel.
InoneofthephotographsapalpableawkwardnesspermeatesZimmerman’spose.
Somewhatdwarfedbyherenvironment,sheisplacedjusttotherightofcentreinthe
frameandgazesdirectlyatthecamera.ShemodelsaMissonibikiniandDianevon
Furstenbergsunglasses–oneexampleoftheAmericanfashionpress’refusalto
acknowledgeBrazilianfashiondesignersproperlyasequalcompetitorsontheglobal
fashionstage.YetitisZimmermann’sbodylanguagethatstandsoutinthisimage:she
sticksoutherstomach,pullsbackhershoulders,allowsherarmstohangstifflybyher
sides,andturnsherfeetslightlyinwards,withonefootcurlingawkwardlyintothe
sandonwhichshestands.Shehastheappearanceofanawkward,passivechildrather
thanagloballysuccessful,activesupermodel.Zimmermanhasafarlessdynamicgaze
thanthecentralsubjectdocumentedinNationalGeographic.Hereyesarecovered
withsunglasses,sothateventhoughtheviewerwatchesher,sheremains
inaccessible;thismightdenoteresistancetothephotographer’sgazebut,duetoher
childlikestancethatrendersherbodyreadilyavailabletotheviewer,seemstosuggest
moreapassivecomplicitytoherdocumentation.
InadditiontoZimmermann’sunorthodoxpose,whatisparticularlyrevealing
aboutthisfashionshootintheNewYorkTimesStyleMagazineisthat,ratherthan
363KevinRaub,‘TheFullBrazilian’,NewYorkTimesTStyleHolidayMagazine,4December2011,pp.160-69.
188
presentanexoticisedBrazilianbeachscene,itistakeninareasonablyhomogenous
environment,whichcouldbeanynumberofisolatednaturespotsthroughoutthe
world.Itthereforehasalackofexoticism,andlessofafocusonsurface,glitzand
glamour,whichmightbeexpectedfromatropicalfashionshootsetinBrazilforaU.S.
readership.364ItisinthisrespectthattheNationalGeographicsnapshot,despite
Stanmeyer’sinsistencethatitwasanexampleofstraightforwardandobjective
reportage,wasambiguous,sincetheemphasisonsuperficialsurface,andthe
multisensoryexperiencetheviewerwasencouragedtohavewiththeimage,mayhave
underminedhercriticalre-readingofitthroughthesubject’sdress,gesture,gazeand
pose.365Thesurfacequalitiesoftheimagesituatedthesubjectwithinafashionas
opposedtodocumentarycontext,buttherewasanambivalentsenseinwhich,even
thoughthesubject’sreturngazesituatedherasactive,andcomplicatedthe
photographer’sstraightforwardcontroloverher,thephotographappeareddirected
andcultivatedbyStanmeyer’sdiscriminatingeye.Thetactilequalitiesoftheimage,
fromtheglisteningchandeliers,glitteringbikini,softvelvetsofa,totheshinyglass
windowandmirror,threatenedtoseducethesensesoftheviewerandpotentially,
encourageastateofhyperesthesiainher,whichenhancedthelikelihoodthather
criticalawarenessofthesubject’sself-fashioningwouldbecomeovershadowed.
364OneexampleofaU.S.fashionshootthatcapitalisedonastereotypicaltropicalBrazilianidentityofsamba,sunandcarnivalis‘VivaBrazil!!StaringGiseleandNewGirls(AndBoys!)FromIpanema’,writtenbyA.A.Gill,andaccompaniedwithphotographsbyMarioTestino,whichappearedinVanityFairinSeptember2007.ItincludedBrazilianmodels,artists,actorsandmusicians,includingGiseleBundchen,AdrianaLimaandBebelGilberto,butonlyeverwearingWesternfashionlabels,asopposedtothoseofsuccessfulBraziliandesigners,whichreinforcedanideaofBrazilasasourceofexoticismtoinvigoratetheWesternfashionsystem,butnotcriticallyacknowledgedasapotentialcompetitortoit.A.A.Gill,‘VivaBrazil!!StaringGiseleandNewGirls(AndBoys!)FromIpanema’,VanityFair,September2007,pp.316-334.365JohnStanmeyer,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(27-30March2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.
189
IfNationalGeographichadtrulywantedtodocumentBrazilianfashionitmight
havepointedout,withinthetextofthearticleorinthecaptiontothissnapshot,the
successoftheBrazilianswimwearindustry,whichhasbeenlinkedtotheoriginalityof
theproduct,representativeofboththeBrazilianlifestyleandtheBrazilianclimatethat
hasnecessitateditsproduction.366ItmayhavementionedthatBrazilianswimwearis
distinctfromothersegmentsoftheBrazilianfashionindustrybecauseithasmoved
beyond,asSilvanoMendesandNickRees-Robertshavearticulated,‘thetraditional
imitationofEuropeanandNorthAmericanlabels’,formerlywidespreadamongst
Brazilianfashiondesignupuntilthelate1990s,‘toapositionofstylisticinfluence’,
whichcanbechartedthroughthecollectionsofwesternfashionbrandssuchasGucci
andLouisVuitton.367NationalGeographicfailedtoacknowledgethesecrucialcross-
culturalaspectsofBrazilianswimwear,thathavepositioneditonthecuspofBraziland
theWest,increativedialoguewiththeWestbutalsoculturallyandstylisticallydistinct
fromtheWest.Byfactoringtheseimportantissuesintotheconstructionofthearticle,
NationalGeographicwouldhavedirectlylinkedthedocumentationofBrazilianfashion
totheBrazilianeconomy,andhighlightedtheparticularlystrategicnatureofthe
Brazilianswimwearindustry,whichnegotiateslocalandglobalsensibilitiesfor
commercialgain.Instead,themagazinepresentedaverynarrowviewofBrazilian
fashionastheelitedomainofwealthy,white,European-descendedwomen,oscillating
precariouslybetweenacknowledgingtheself-fashioningofBraziliansubjects,and
over-emphasisingthetactilestimulationsthatitsrepresentationprovided,which
contributedtoanideaoffashionasasuperficial,femininepreoccupation.Thesecond
366MalcolmNewbery,‘TheBrazilianSwimwearIndustry’,inGlobalMarketReviewofSwimwearandBeachwear–Forecaststo2013(Bromsgrove,UK:Aroq,2007),pp.71-80.367SilvanoMendesandNickRees-Roberts,‘BrandingBrazilianFashion:GlobalVisibilityandInterculturalPerspectives’,inFashionCulturesRevisited:Theories,ExplorationsandAnalysis,ed.byStellaBruzziandPamelaChurchGibson(London:Routledge,2013),pp.31-42(p.31).
190
partofthissnapshotextendstheseargumentstoconsiderhowasimilarfashion-
focused,andequallyambiguous,imagefromthesamearticlewasre-framedandre-
contextualisedonlineforthedigitaleditionofNationalGeographic,andhowthismay
haveencouragedviewerstore-interpretself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.
Snapshot7bVictorDzenk’sDressesontheWebsite
ThelayoutofimagesontheNationalGeographicwebsiterequiredtheviewer
toadoptamoreactiveanddecisiverolethanpreviouslyencouragedbythemagazine.
Thisisbecauseimagesre-framedonthewebsitewerepresentedasaseriesof
cropped,close-upthumbnailphotographs,whichneededtobeselectedbytheviewer,
usingthemouseortouch-pad,inordertoviewthefull-scaleimagesinenlarged
isolation(Figs.4.20and4.21).Theenlargedimageswerealwayspresentedonaplain
whitebackground,divorcedfromthetext,withtheexceptionofacaption,andfrom
theremainingphotographsoftheaccompanyingarticle.Thiseditorialdecision
constructedeachimageasafinishedcompositioninandofitself,fixedinmotionlikea
filmstill,butitalsogavetheviewerachoiceastowhichimagestoview,andinwhich
ordertoviewthem.Itispossiblethattheperceptiveviewerwasencouragedtofillin
thenarrativein-betweenimagesre-framedonthedigitalscreen,andtoconstructtheir
ownstorylinethatwaslessdictatedbyNationalGeographic,asthelinearnatureof
readingthemagazinemayhaveencouraged,andmoresubjecttotheirown,individual
whims.368
368ThiscorrespondedwithNationalGeographic’sacknowledgementina2013pressreleasethatwithitsexpansionintodigitalmediathemagazineiscontinuingtoexpand‘thescopeofitsvisualstorytelling,experimentingwithdigitalexperiencestofindnewwaysofdocumentingtheworldandofallowing
191
LucasD.IntronaandFernandoM.Ilharco’shaveacknowledgedthatdigital
screens
presentanalreadyscreenedworldtouswhichisalreadyconsistentwithourongoinginvolvementinthatworld.Hence,foremostandprimarilywhatscreensshowisnotthecontentthatappearsonthescreen,butsimultaneously,andperhapsmorefundamentally,awayofbeinginthatworld.Asscreenswelookatthembutalsosimultaneously,immediately,andmorefundamentally,welookthroughthemtoencounterourwayofbeingintheworld.369
IntronaandIlharcoattributeaheightenedsenseofembodimenttotheviewer’s
experienceofthescreen,whichmobilisesadynamicinterplaybetweenviewerand
subject,andcanbeextendedtothelevelofself-projectiononthepartoftheNational
Geographicviewerthatthesmooth,reflectivesurfaceofthedigitalscreen
engendered.Inherdiscussionofself-reflexivityandfashionblogs,AgnesRocamora
haspointedoutthatthedigitalscreen,comparabletoamirror,‘allow[s]onetolookat
oneself’,aswellastolookatwhatispresentedonthescreen.370Myownanalysisof
thisparticularimage,asitwasre-framedonthewebsite,wasconductedona
MacBookpro,whoseflatscreenthinlyborderedinsilverandplacedperpendicularto
thekeyboard,hastheappearanceofadressingtablemirror,particularlywhenplaced
onmydesk,notleastwhenIcatchsightofmyownreflectionprojectedontothe
screen,whichbecomesapalimpsestplacedoverthetopoftherepresented
subjects.371Thissimultaneoussensationoflooking,butalsobeinglookedbackat,
counteractsclaimsthatallphotographsviewedonscreens,whetheroncomputers,
readerstointeractwithcontent’.Anon.,‘NationalGeographicMagazine’,<http://press.nationalgeographic.com/files/2014/05/NGM-overview-5-14.pdf>[accessed15April2013]369LucasD.IntronaandFernandoM.Ilharco,‘OntheMeaningofScreens:TowardsaPhenomenologicalAccountofScreenness’,HumanStudies,29(2006),57-76(p.66).370AgnesRocamora,‘PersonalFashionBlogs:ScreensandMirrorsinDigitalSelf-Portraits’inFashionCulturesRevisited,ed.byStellaBruzziandPamelaChurchGibson(London:Routledge,2013),pp.112-127(p.119).371Rocamoramakesasimilarpointbutsheassertsthatherreflectioncanbeseenonlywhenthescreenisturnedoff.Iwouldextendthistosuggestthatthescreenactsasareflectivemirrorwhenturnedonaswell.Rocamora,‘PersonalFashionBlogs’,p.121.
192
mobilephonesoriPads,havedisembodiedtheviewerandrenderedhereffectively
immobilewhilstthescreenmoves.372Onceselected,aphotographontheNational
Geographicwebsitecouldnotbezoomedinandoutofviathemouseortouchpad;for
theviewertoobservetheimageincloserdetail,shehadtophysicallymoveherbody
intowardsthescreen.Thescreenthushadthepotentialtopromptanintensely
chargedencounterbetweentheNationalGeographicviewerandBraziliansubjects,
capableoferodingthephysicaland,byextension,emotionaldistancebetweenthe
observerandtheimage.Thisencounterwasgivenaheightenedimportanceinthe
finalimagethischapteranalyses,asaresultofthecomplexgazesactedoutbythe
threesubjectsrepresentedonthescreen.
Theimage(Fig.4.20)wasphotographedinBrazilianfashiondesignerVictor
Dzenk’sboutiqueinRiodeJaneiro.Apairofhigh-heeledshoescanbeseenonthefeet
ofthecentralfemalesubjectinStanmeyer’sphotograph,asshesashaysdowna
corridoradornedwithmirrors,inside,asthecaptiongenericallyinformedtheviewer,
‘afashionboutiqueinIpanema’.373Intheimage,Stanmeyercapturedthecentral
subject’swholebodywithinthecentreoftheframe,whichencouragedtheviewer’s
gazetomoveupwards,ordownwards,takinginhernude-colouredhighheels,her
slim,tannedlegs,turquoisemini-dresswithasheercut-outsectionandpuffsleeves,
goldnecklace,made-upfaceandblow-driedhair.Althoughthismasculinegaze
subjectedthefemalesubjecttoscrutinyfromtheNationalGeographicviewer,there
areanumberoffemininegazeswithintheimagewhichcounteractthevisualmastery
372TheseclaimshavebeenmadebyLevManovichandJoannaSassoon.RefertoManovich,‘TheParadoxesofDigitalPhotography’,inPhotographyAfterPhotography:MemoryandRepresentationintheDigitalAge,pp.57-66;JoannaSassoon,‘PhotographicMaterialityintheAgeofDigitalReproduction’,inPhotographs,Objects,Histories:OntheMaterialityofImages,ed.byElizabethEdwards(London:Routledge,2004),pp.186-202.373Gorney,‘Machisma’,<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/09/girl-power/stanmeyer-photography#/08-fashion-boutique-670.jpg>[accessed15April2013]
193
ofStanmeyer’sgaze,andinsteaddirecttheviewer’seyetomoveconstantlyaround
theframeinatriangularshapeandgraspitschargednarrative,ratherthanbecentred
onthefetishisationofthisonesubject.Eachofthewomen’sidentitiesisconstructed
throughthisin-betweenmovement,whichcontributestoanideaofthemasactorsin
atelenovela,albeitoneinwhichthereisanunmistakableimbalanceoffeminine
powerdramatised.Throughthesegazes,thereisansensethatBrazilianidentityisan
interconnectedprocessoffluid‘becoming’,ratherthanafixed‘being’.Thefirstgaze
belongstothecentrallight-skinnedsubject,whoglancesatawomanwithlongdark
hair,whoiscapturedtoherleftbuttotherightofthephotographframe.Thesecond
gazebelongstothislight-skinnedsubject,whowearsawhitelacedressandglancesto
herright,leadingtheviewer’seyetoadarker-skinnedshopassistant.Pushedintothe
left-handcornerofthephotographagainstaclothesrailladenwithcolourfuldresses,
andframedagainstaheavilypatternedpsychedelicbackground,thethirdgazebelongs
tothissubject,whoappearstobeofindigenousdescentandisdressedinaplainblack
uniform.Sheclutchesacollectionofwoodencoathangersthatsupportbrightly
colouredandpatterneddresses,whichcontrastdramaticallywithheraustere
ensemble.Herdowncastgazeasshefocusesuponthetaskinhandismatchedbythat
ofthemotherworkingfromhomeforCoopaRoca,whowasdocumentedby
StanmeyerandseeninFig.4.16.Thereisanunmistakeablevisualconflict,notonly
withinthisimage,butalsowithinthephotographspublishedelsewhereinthearticle,
betweenwomenwhoareemployeesoftheBrazilianfashionindustryandplacedin
correspondinglystaticrolesandthewealthierwomenwhomtheyserveandwho
consumefashion,whoarepresentedinequivalentactiveroles.Thedistinction
betweenpassivityandactivityisemphasisedherethroughthecontrastingskintones
ofthedarker-skinned,uniformedemployeeandthelighter-skinned,dressed-up
194
consumers.Thecaptionguidedtheviewer’sattentiontofocusonthisimbalanceof
powerintheabilityforfeminineself-fashioning:‘ConsumerCulture:Despitethe
boomingeconomy,noteveryBraziliancanindulgeinexpensivefashionslikethese.’374
Thisisovertlyconveyedtotheviewerthroughthepose,gesture,dressandgazeofthe
white-skinnedBrazilianwomen,who‘writeback’atavoyeuristicmalegazebytaking
theirrepresentationintotheirownhands.TheimplicationwasthatfashioninBrazil
enabledwealthylight-skinnedwomentoconstructtheirownsubjectiveidentitiesin-
betweenBrazilandtheWestasactiveconsumers,andtherebyparticipateintheir
visualrepresentationbyNationalGeographic,butthatitdidnotsoenablelesswealthy
dark-skinnedwomen,whoarecondemnedtoplaythepartofpassiveoperatorswithin
theBrazilianfashionindustry.
Thisimage,ratherlikethepreviousone,isnotafashionphotographbutrather
adramatisedanthropologyofBraziliansociallife.Itusesfashionabledetails,suchas
theemphasisontactilesensations,fromthesoftcarpet,crispcottonlaceofthewhite
dress,shinyglassmirror,tothewomen’sglitteringjewellery,notleastthesmooth,
tactilesurfaceofthedigitalscreen,nowoftenthefirstpointofcontactfor
experiencinghigh-endfashioncultureintheWest,todrawtheNationalGeographic
viewerin,soastonarratethepresumedrealityofracerelationswithinBrazil,through
thewaysinwhichfashionisproducedandconsumedbyEuropean-descendedwhite
Brazilianwomen.Yettheemphasisonsurfacetextureandtactilitymayhaveresulted
inadiminishedcriticalawarenessonthepartoftheviewer,whoseintellectual
interpretationofthephotographwasunderminedbyitsdependenceuponthesensory
hapticandopticexperiencesproducedbyfashion,whichoperatedasasubstitutefor
touchbutalso,potentially,fordepth.374Ibid.
195
Thetwoimagesexaminedinthissnapshotwereambiguousandoscillated
betweenfashioningBrazilianwomenasapassivespectacle,emphasisedbythe
aestheticisedsensoryoverloadoftactilesurfacetextureswithinthephotographto
exciteandtantalisetheviewer,andcriticallyacknowledgingtheirindividualpractices
ofself-fashioning,highlightedthroughthevariousdynamicgazestheyperform.This
visualambiguityresonatedwithStanmeyer’sown,contradictorydescriptionsofhis
photographicpractice,whicherodedthecleardivisionbetweenobjective
documentationandsubjectivedramatisation.Ontheonehand,heasserted:‘Idonot
directthesubjectsinmyphotographsorcollaborateinanyway.Thisisreportage
photography.Itisnaturallyhappening–noposesorstylingdone.’375Yethealso
acknowledged:‘Isimplyseewhathasafeeling,purposeoremotiontothestory.Not
everyphotographworks.Other[s]do.It’slikeworkingapotterywheel,constantly
moldingtheclayuntilthenarrativetakesshapeandform.’376Ifthesephotographsare
understoodasanequalcollaborationbetweensubjectsandphotographer,then
narrativeconstructioncouldbeatoolusedtocommunicateindividualsubjects’self-
fashioningandself-presentationthroughaheightenedsenseofdrama,emotionand
suspense.Inthisscenario,Stanmeyer’srolewouldbetosimplydocumenttheir
performance,allowingthesubjectstoperformtheirownfashionableidentities.
Indeed,thereisanoverridingsensethat,evenwhentheimageswerere-presented
onlineandviewersweregivenamoreactivecriticalinterpretativerole,that
Stanmeyerunderstoodhispositionasanorchestrator,inwhichheisthecreative
artisanshapingandgivingformtothenarrative,choreographinghisactorslikea
director.
375Stanmeyer,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.376Ibid.
196
ThischapterhasidentifiedtwoinstancesinthehistoryofNational
Geographic’srepresentationofBrazilsince2001whenthemagazinehasengagedwith
fashion.Inthefirstsnapshot,NationalGeographicclearlystatedthisandfashionwas
representedwithinaverybroadethnographicframework,informedbycontemporary
scholarshipbutwithanexplicitcommercialimperative,whichpresentedBrazilian
fashionasethnic,indigenousandmasculine.Fashionprovidedagenericlensthrough
whichtoviewtheworldatlarge,anddiversesubjectswererenderedunequivocally
peculiarwhenviewedthroughit.Inthesecondsnapshot,fashionwasasubtextwithin
anarticlethatconcernedBrazilianwomen,anditwasusedtodemonstratehow
wealthy,white-skinnedwomenconsumeandconstructtheiridentitiesthrough
Brazilianfashion.Fashionwaspresentedwithinananthropologicalframework,but
dismissedassuperficialanddistinctivelyfeminine.Overthecourseoftenyears,
NationalGeographicdepartedfromamasculine,ethnicunderstandingofBrazilian
fashion,whichassertedthatdifferencewaspermissibleassumingthatwithinthat
notionofdifferencetherewasarecognisableWesternidealofbeauty,andmoved
towardspresentinganovertlywhite,WesternisedimageofBrazilianfashion.Inboth
ofthesesnapshots,NationalGeographicignoredthemultidimensionalnatureof
Brazilianfashion,andpresentedtwoverynarrowideasofwhatfashioninBrazil
constituted,neitherofwhichencapsulatedtheexperienceoffashionasasiteof
articulationandidentityformationwithinthecontextofaglobaleconomy.
Inboth2001and2011,thegazesofself-fashioningBraziliansubjectshave
characterisedanin-betweennessthathasconstitutedaresistancetoNational
Geographic’sfashionablegaze.Itisinterestingtonotethat‘writingback’hasnotbeen
communicatedthroughdress,somuchasviatheactivegazesthatsubjectshave
197
displayedinresponsetoNationalGeographic.Inthefirstsnapshot,thelittleboy’s
curiousgazeatthephotographerwasanintriguedreactiontothepresenceofthe
camera,butalsotothephotographer’speculiarmodeofdress.Inthesecond
snapshot,theBrazilianwoman’sactiveandself-possessedgaze,intheformofa
sustainedlookatthecameraandthephotographer,seemedtoaffirmashared
recognitionofherselfasfashionableimage,drawingattentiontothefactthatthe
photographwasjustthat–arepresentation.Inthefinalimageanalysed,thewomen’s
gazesatoneanotherwithintheboutiquecounteractedthevisualmasteryof
Stanmeyer’sgaze,andhighlightedthecomplexityofthesnapshot,andthehierarchies
thatexistinBrazilamongstdifferentsocial,ethnicandracialgroups.
WhilstthesereturngazeshavecomplicatedNationalGeographic’s
straightforwardcontroloveritssubjects,themagazine’sfashionableattentiontothe
hapticvisualqualitiesoftheimageshasthreatenedtooverridetheinteractivenature
oftheexchangebetweenviewerandsubject.Inthefirstsnapshot,thiswasaresultof
theluxuriousqualitiesofthephotobookasamaterialobject,itshaphazard
arrangementofimages,andthetactilesheenofitspages.Inthesecondsnapshot,this
waslesstodowiththematerialobjectofthemagazineordigitalscreen,beyondits
glossysheen,somuchastherangeofsurfacetextureswithintheimage,which
encouragedtheviewer’sgazetorestontheexteriorofthephotograph,ratherthanto
exploreitsdepthandmeaning.Thesynaestheticoverloadofthesetwosnapshots,
whichhasbeenevidentinallthreemediaexaminedbythischapter–book,magazine,
andscreen–demonstratesNationalGeographic’scommodificationofthesetactile
sensations,whichincreasinglycametoovershadowviewers’criticalawarenessofself-
fashioningBraziliansubjects.ItispossiblethatthiswasaresultofNational
198
Geographic’sreluctancetoengageinasustainedwaywithfashiononanintellectual
level,sinceitunderstooditselftobeaneducationalandscientificjournal,anddidnot
includefashionwithinthatdefinition.Thesetwosnapshotsprovetheexceptiontothe
hypothesisthat,since1988,NationalGeographichasencouragedreaderstohavean
increasinglymultisensoryandmoreintimateengagementwithBraziliansubjects.
199
PartTwo:HoldingupaMirrortoNationalGeographic
ThefirstpartofthisthesisexaminedtherepresentationofBraziliandressandfashion
inNationalGeographicsince1906,whenthemagazinefirstmadecontactwithBrazil.
Itunderstoodcontactasanembodied,emotionalandmultisensoryexperience,which
extendedbeyonddistanced,disembodiedviewing,andwasintricatelyconnectedto
thedressedbodiesofboththeBraziliansubjectandtheNationalGeographicviewer.
Inallsevensnapshotsexamined,thephotographicrepresentationofdressandfashion
drewvariouslyontheconventionsofethnography,portraiture,documentary,fashion
andcinematography,whichmobilisedanambivalentfrictionbetweenviewerand
subjectthatoscillatedbetweenidentificationanddifference.Intheperiodpriorto
1988,thisdynamictendedtowardsencouragingthedifferenceofBraziliansubjects,
eventhoughdresscomplicatedastraightforwardreadingofimagespublishedwithin
themagazine.Intheperiodsubsequentto1988,dressencouragedidentificationwith
Braziliansubjects,throughthehapticvisualqualitiesoftheimages,whichtook
precedenceoverthetextualnarrativeofarticles.TherepresentationofBrazilian
fashionprovidedtheexceptiontothisparadigmshiftsince1988;itshiftedonestep
toofar,andencouragedviewerstoappreciatethehapticvisualqualitiesofimagesto
theextentthatsuperficialsurfacetookprecedenceoveranalyticaldepth,distracting
viewers’criticalfacultiesinahyper-synaestheticoverload.Asopposedtoencouraging
thecriticalrecognitionofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects,themediumoffashion
promptedviewerstotreatthemasexoticorfetishisedfemininespecimens.
200
Thesecondpartofthisthesisprovidesacrucialcounterpointtothefirstpart,
andexaminestherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil.377It
coversashortertimeperiodthanthefirstthreechapters,butexamineshowthere-
presentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilholdsupamirrorto,and
therebycastsalightupon,therepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographic.This
thesisisstructuredasacontactzone,sinceitbringsNationalGeographicintodirect
dialogueandcritiquewithNationalGeographicBrasil.Thatthefirstpartislargerand
comprisedofthreechapters,whereasthesecondpartissmallerandencompasses
onlytwochapters,isanintentionaltooldeployedtohighlightstructurallythe
asymmetricalrelationsofpowerprevalentwithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontact
zone.NationalGeographicBrasilneedstobetheorisedasanexemplaryformofauto-
ethnographicexpression,aphenomenonthatwasexaminedinthepreviousthree
chaptersthroughtheconceptsofanthropophagy,anaestheticsofgarbageandthe
spacein-between.Torecapitulate,whereasPrattdefinedethnographictextsas‘those
inwhichEuropeanmetropolitansubjectsrepresenttothemselvestheirothers’,auto-
ethnographicexpressionsare‘representationsthatso-definedothersconstructin
responsetoorindialoguewiththosetexts’.378Sheusedthetermtodescribehow
subordinatesubjects,apositionembodiedherebyNationalGeographicBrasil,
undertaketore-presenttheirowncultureinwaysthatengagewiththeir
representationbyadominantculture,exemplifiedinthisinstancebyNational
Geographic.NationalGeographicBrasilarrivedinBrazilinMay2000,whenBrazilian
377NationalGeographicBrasilwasthetentheditionofNationalGeographicreproducedinalocallanguage,followingtheJapaneseedition(April1995),EuropeanSpanishedition(October1997),LatinAmericanSpanishedition(November1997),Italianedition(February1998),Hebrewedition(June1998),Greekedition(October1998),Polishedition(October1999),Germanedition(October1999)andFrenchedition(October1999).378Pratt,‘ArtsoftheContactZone’inWaysofReading:AnAnthologyforWriters,5thedn,ed.byDavidBartholomaeandAnthonyPetroksky(NewYork:Bedford/StMartins,1999),pp.582-96(p.589).
201
mediaconglomerate,EditoraAbril,thelargestpublishingandprintingcompanyin
LatinAmerica,distributed20,000copiesofthePortuguese-languageeditionto
newsstandsnationwide.ThiswasaccompaniedwiththelaunchoftheNational
GeographicBrasilwebsite(www.ngbrasil.com.br),whichadvertisedsubscription
servicestothemagazine.379PermissionwasonlygrantedtoEditoraAbriltoreproduce
NationalGeographicBrasilforprofitafterWilliamL.Allen,thetheneditor-in-chiefof
NationalGeographic(1999-2005),hadsatisfiedhimselfthatthemagazine’shigh-
qualityprintingandpublishingtechniquescouldbemaintainedinBrazil,
demonstratingtheimportancetoAllenofthematerialityoftheglobaloutreachofthe
magazine.380Thesecondpartofthisthesistakesthismaterialityintoequalaccountas
thefirstpart,consideringhowtheBrazilianviewerwasencouragedtoengagewith
foursnapshotsofBraziliandressre-presentedinthemagazine.Thesesnapshotsare
organisedchronologicallytohighlightthedevelopmentofNationalGeographicBrasil
fromMay2000to2015.
379Foundedin1950,EditoraAbrilwasthefirstpublisherofWaltDisneycomicsinBrazil.Ithassincegrownexponentiallyandnowpublishesbooks,videos,travelguides,textbooks,music,maps,andmagazines.Througharangeoftitles,whichincludeBrazilianweeklynewsmagazineVeja,Playboy(Brazilianedition),Men’sHealth(Brazilianedition),Nova(BrazilianeditionofCosmopolitan),EstilodeVida(BrazilianeditionofInStyle)andRunner’sWorld(Brazilianedition),EditoraAbrilhassoughttocapitalisefrompotentialreadersfromadiverserangeofagesandsocialclasses.380NationalGeographicBrasil,aspartofthefor-profitmediaconglomerateEditoraAbril,hadanexplicitcommercialimperative,unlikeNationalGeographic,whichsinceitsestablishmenthasformedpartofthetax-exemptnot-for-profitNationalGeographicSociety.Thelatterwascomplicatedin1994withtheestablishmentofthefor-profit,tax-payingdivisionoftheNationalGeographicSociety,NationalGeographicVentures,whichincludedthewebsite,televisionprogrammes,booksandcompletedigitalisededitionsofthemagazinepublishedonCD-ROM.ConstanceL.Hays,‘SeeingGreeninaYellowBorder:QuestsforProfitsisShakingaQuietRealm’,NewYorkTimes,3August1997,pp.12-13.
202
Chapter4.MisplacedIdeas:BraziliandressasreflectedinthefirsttenyearsofNationalGeographicBrasil
• Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth,July2000• Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion,
February2001• Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta,
June2008
Inhis1986essay,‘BrazilianCulture:NationalismbyElimination’,Austrian-born
BrazilianliteraryandculturalcriticRobertoSchwarzexaminedtheexistential
circumstancesofbeingthesubordinateandperipheralsubjectoftheasymmetrical
relationsofpowerprevalentwithintheUnitedStates-LatinAmericancontactzone:
WeBraziliansandotherLatinAmericansconstantlyexperiencetheartificial,inauthenticandimitativenatureofourculturallife.Anessentialelementinourcriticalthoughtsinceindependence,ithasbeenvariouslyinterpretedfromromantic,naturalist,modernist,right-wing,left-wing,cosmopolitanandnationalistpointsofview,sowemaysupposethattheproblemisenduringanddeeplyrooted.Beforeattemptinganotherexplanation,letusassumethatthismalaiseisafact.Itseverydaymanifestationsrangefromtheinoffensivetothehorrifying.ExamplesofinappropriatenessincludeFatherChristmassportinganEskimooutfitinatropicalclimateand,fortraditionalists,theelectricguitarinthelandofsamba.381
SchwarzidentifiedaperpetualproblemfacedbyBrazilians,whohaverepeatedly
appropriatedintellectualparadigms,culturalformsandfashionabletrendsfromthe
UnitedStatesandEurope,regardlessoftheirrelevancetolocalcircumstancesand
nationalneeds.Thistendencytoimportforeignideologiesandinstitutionshas
ultimatelydefinedBrazilintermsoffragmentationandlackoffulfilment,reflectedin
thedevelopmentandcurrentstateofBrazilianculture.Thesearethekeythemesof
Schwarz’smorepessimisticview,certainlyincomparisonwiththepositivestancesof
381Thisessaywasfirstpublishedas‘Nacionalporsubtração’intheBraziliannewspaperFolhadeSaoPaulo,7June1986.ThefirstEnglishtranslationbyLindaBriggswaspublishedinNewLeftReview,167(1988),77-90.IreferthroughoutthischaptertotheEnglishtranslationofSchwarz’scollectionofessays,MisplacedIdeas:EssaysonBrazilianCulture,trans.byJohnGledson(London:Verso,1992).
203
thethreescholarsexaminedinthefirstpartofthisthesis,ofLatinAmerican
dependencyuponderivativeintellectualthoughtandculturalformsfromEuropean
andNorthAmericancapitalistsystems.Schwarzcriticisedthefactthatideasfromthe
so-calledcentrehavearrivedinBrazilinquicksuccession,leavinglittletimeforthem
toberefashionedandre-interpretedforadomesticaudience,beforethenext
innovationarrives.Heunderstoodthispacingtobeadynamicofpowerthathas
deprivedBrazilofthechancetocreateformsofself-understandingrelatedtoitsown
realityandhistory;rather,ideasprojectedfromthecentrehavearrivedontheso-
calledperipheryanddemandedanimposedreceptivityfromaBrazilianaudience.
Schwarztracedthehistoricalandculturalcomplexitiesoftheseinadequaciestopost-
independencein1822,whenBrazilremainedaslave-holdingsocietybutemployedthe
dominantliberalideologiesoffreedomandmodernindividualitythatwereprojected
fromEurope.382Theadoptionofmoderndemocraticidealsofautonomyandpersonal
agency,developedinresponsetoanaliensocio-culturalsetofcircumstances,could
notbeimplementedauthenticallyinBrazil,acountrywhoseeconomicinfrastructure
wasdependentuponslavery,butneithercouldtheyberefused.Thesartorialexample
ofafur-trimmedFatherChristmassuitwornintropicalBrazilisonlyamorerecentand
trivialexampleofthesamephenomenon(seeFig.5.0.,aphotographpostedon
Facebookon14December2014,byBrazilianFashionBuyerDeborahReis,dressedin
shortsandsandals).383
In2001FrancineMasielloprovidedaproductivemetaphor,andonewhich
wasappropriategiventheincreasedglobalexportationsincetheearly1990s,
382Schwarz,MisplacedIdeas,p.14.383Anevenmoreinappropriateexamplemightbetheadoptionoffoxandminxfurs,influencedbyHollywoodmovies,byupper-classBrazilianwomenthroughoutthe1930s,whowererequiredtopayacostlymonthlyfeetokeepthegarmentsrefrigeratedinthetropicalclimate.ValentimandBrandao,‘ThePositionofBrazilianFashioninaBorderlessPlace’,(para3of5).
204
facilitatedbyeconomicliberalisation,ofsurplus,secondhandclothingfromthe
NorthernhemispheretoLatinAmerica,AfricaandAsia,toreassesstheproblematic
developmentofideasinBrazilianhistorythatismanifestedinSchwarz’s‘misplaced
ideas’:
DespitethefactthatLatinAmericanintellectualsinsistontheruleofthecopyinrelationtoaEuropean‘original,’thefitisalwaysinadequate;likeasetofborrowedclothing,theoriginalisoftenseveralsizestoolarge.384
Masiellopessimisticallyoverruledthesubversiveandpositivequalitiesofthe‘copy’
thathavebeencelebratedinmuchLatinAmericanacademicdiscourse.Instead,she
conflatedmisplacedideaswithinappropriateandill-fitting,cast-offclothingand
ignoreditspotentialtobetransformedorcustomisedonarrivalinLatinAmerica.In
agreementwithSchwarz,Masiellorejectedthepostmodernnotionthatthecopy
mightconstituteapositivemeansofcreativere-presentation,whichheldthepotential
toundermineanduprootthesupposeddominanceoftheEuropeanorNorth
Americanoriginal.FromtheperspectiveofferedbySchwarzandMasiello,the
importationofforeignthoughtandculturalproductsasmisplacedideas,orasetofill-
fittingborrowedclothing,iscentraltounderstandingthecultural,social,political,
economicandsartorialhistoryofBrazil.385
Onfirstassessment,thearrivalinBrazilinMay2000ofNationalGeographic
Brasilmightbemisunderstoodasastrikingcontemporaryexampleofmisplacedideas,
ademonstrationoftheprocessofculturalglobalisationbywhichapopularmagazine
establishedanddevelopedwithintheUnitedStateshasbeenmadeappealingand
accessibletonewaudiencesinso-calledperipheralcountriessuchasBrazil.Unlike
384FrancineMasiello,TheArtofTransition:LatinAmericanCultureandNeoliberalCrisis(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2001),p.60;B.LynneMilgram,‘RefashioningCommodities:WomenandtheSourcingofSecondhandClothinginthePhilippines’,Anthropologica46.2(2006),189-202(p.193).385Schwarz,MisplacedIdeas,p.30;Masiello,TheArtofTransition,p.60.
205
Andrade,StamandSantiago,Schwarzoutlinedthepainfulexistentialconditionsthata
diffusionistconceptionofmodernity,asaone-directionalflowthattravelsfromthe
centretotheperiphery,orintheinstanceofNationalGeographic,fromWashington
DCtoSaoPaulo,hascreatedforBrazilians.Thispessimisticstanceignoredthefactthat
nocultureisstatic,sinceideasarealwaysdepartingfromonecontext,andbeing
appropriatedandapplieddifferently,ofteninalternativeandunpredictabledirections,
ontheirarrivalinanewone.AcloserlookatNationalGeographicBrasilrevealsthat
themagazine’swide-rangingandsophisticatedproductionoflocalmaterialhasoften
complemented,andsometimesevenchallenged,ideasaboutBrazilproducedby
NationalGeographic.
AstatementmadebyMatthewShirts,thetheneditor-in-chiefofNational
GeographicBrasil(May2000-May2013),aUS-bornjournalistwhohaslivedand
workedinBrazilforoverthirty-fiveyears,enablesthedevelopmentofthemagazineto
beunderstoodnotmerelyasaprocessofgrowingintoaborrowedsetofclothescast
offbyNationalGeographic,butasapotentialmeansoffashioninganew,distinctively
Brazilianensemble.Shirtsarticulatedthenegotiationsandre-negotiationsthattook
placewithNationalGeographicduringthenewmagazine’sfirstthirteenyearsof
publication:
Ourrelationshipchangeddramaticallybetween1999,whenIwasfirst‘trained’byNGM-USA[NationalGeographic]and2013,whenIleftthepositionofEditor-in-chiefofNGM-B[NationalGeographicBrasil].Inthebeginningtheytriedtohaveasmuchcontrolaspossibleoftheeditorialprocess.Itwaslikenightandday.By2005orsowewerefriendsworkingtogetherasateam.Theychangeddramatically,looseningup,butbythenwehadabsorbedtheirmethodsandgottenbetterthanthematdoingwhatNationalGeographicdoes(andonaBrazilianbudget)[myitalics].386
386MatthewShirts,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(8May–2June2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.
206
AsShirtsoutlined,priorto2005localmaterialproducedindependentlybyNational
GeographicBrasilwasrigorouslycheckedbeforepublicationbyAmyKolczak,Headof
InternationalMaterialatNationalGeographic,inWashingtonDC.387Hisdescriptionof
thisrelationshipas‘likenightandday’canbeunderstoodasametaphorforthe
contactzone,inwhichtheoppositepolesoftheUnitedStatesandBrazilareposited
againstoneanother,andbattleitoutinadynamiccharacterisedbyasymmetrical
relationsofpower.388However,afterfiveyearsofpublication,thisrelationship
progressedtobecomemorecollaborative,‘friendsworkingtogetherasateam’.389
ShirtsdescribedtheprocessbywhichNationalGeographicBrasilestablisheditself
duringitsfirstdecadeofpublicationasoneinwhichNationalGeographic’smethods
wereabsorbedandrealised,throughavarietyofcreativeappropriations,totheextent
thatitemerged‘betterthanthematdoingwhatNationalGeographicdoes’.390The
implicationhereisthatNationalGeographicBrasil’slackoffinancialadvantagesforced
ittobecreativeandtoimprovise,whichanimatedlocalmodesofre-presentation,and
complicatedone-dimensionalunderstandingsofthemagazineasheavilyindebtedto
NationalGeographic.
ShirtsexplainedhowNationalGeographicBrasilselectivelyadoptedaspects
ofNationalGeographicthatwereofmostinteresttoBrazilianviewers,transforming
themagazinetomeetlocalrequirements:
Thenextstepwastheproductionofeditorialmaterialofourown:journalisminthestyleofNGM…It’salwaysnecessarytoadaptamagazinetolocaltaste.ButthiswasharderforusthanitwasfortheAmericans.Firstly,theyhadtakenaveryuniversalthemetointerpretgeographyas‘theworldandallthereisinit’[sic].Secondly,becausetheyareabletoinvesthundredsofthousandsofdollarsintotheproductionofasinglearticle…Wedecidedweneededtobring
387Ibid.388Ibid.389Ibid.390Ibid.
207
NGBclosertoitsBrazilianreaders,essentiallyprovidethenationaltothe‘nationalgeographic’.SomeofthereportsfromtheAmericaneditionareofmoreinteresttosomereaders,lessinterestingtootherreaders.WewantedtoconnecttotheBrazilianreader[myitalics].391
Shirts’statementcontainedanacceptancethattherearedifferentworld-views.It
correspondedwithAppadurai’sassertionthattheworldisnotasingularlydominated
andhomogenousstructurecontrolledbytheUnitedStates,butanintertwinedand
interactiveglobalsystemfabricatedfrom‘multipleworlds’,eachofwhichis
‘constitutedbyhistoricallysituatedimaginationsofpersonsandgroupsspreadaround
theglobe’.392WhereasNationalGeographicwasconcernedwithencapsulating‘the
worldandallthatisinit’,toquoteAlexanderGrahamBell’soft-repeatedcatchphrase,
NationalGeographicBrasilsoughttodocumentwhatlaywithin,ratherthanbeyond,
nationalborders.393ThiswasopenlyacknowledgedbyNationalGeographicBrasil
Editor(May2000-)RonaldoRibeiro,whoexplainedthemagazine’sethos:‘Weare
tryingtokeepthediversityofsubjectsthatfeatureinNGAmerican,byfindingthat
diversityinBraziliansubjectsthatfeatureinNGBrasil’.394Thischapterusesthe
analysisdevelopedinthepreviousthreechapterstobuilduponSchwarz’suseful
metaphor,sothatitcanbeusedtoencapsulatemoreadequatelytheshifting
perceptionsandincreasedsignificanceofglobalisationinthepost-ColdWarera,asit
hasunfoldedacrossworld-timeandworld-space,andestablishednewhierarchiesand
inequalities.
Schwarz’sargumentwillbere-fashionedinamorepositivelight,to
demonstratehowforeignculturalideashavebeenselectivelyreworkedand
391Ibid.392Appadurai,ModernityatLarge,p.33.393AlexanderGrahamBellquotedinPauly,'TheWorldandAllThatisInIt’,p.523.394RonaldoRibeiroandRobertoSakai,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(AbrilHeadquarters,SaoPaulo,Brazil,8May2014).RefertoAppendix5:Interviews.
208
refashionedinatransformativeprocessthatissensitivetotheparticularitiesand
peculiaritiesofBrazilianculture.Thisenablestheintricaciesandnuancesofthe
processesofculturalexchangethathaveexistedbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,
andBrazilanddifferentculturesthatrestwithinitsborders,tobeunpickedand
analysed.ItisusefulheretodrawonCubananthropologistFernandoOrtiz’s
understandingthatforeignculturalideasarenotautomaticallyandinevitably
misplacedonarrivalinLatinAmerica,butmustservesomepurposeiftheycan
circulatewithinagivenenvironment,howeverdifferent.395Ortizengagedwiththe
issueoftheperipheralnatureofBrazilianculturebydrawingattentiontothe
particularandcomplexprocessesofculturaltransferencebywhichsubordinated
groupsselectedandinventedfrommaterialsimposeduponthembyadominant
culture.Ratherthanreverttobinaryandessentialistviewsof‘centres’and
‘peripheries’,Ortizcoinedtheneologism‘transculturation’torefertothehighlyvaried
phenomenathathewitnessedinmanyaspectsofLatinAmericanlife,economic,
institutional,artistic,ethicalandreligious,whichhademergedasaresultofintricate
culturaltransmutationsthroughoutthehistoryofLatinAmerica.396Heselected
‘transculturation’toreplacesuchtermsas‘acculturation’and‘deculturation’,which
replicatedthelogicofcolonialismsincetheyexplainedculturalcontactfromthe
perspectiveoftheNorthAmericanandEuropeancentre,andhedefineditasthat
which
betterexpressesthedifferentphasesofthetransitionfromoneculturetoanotherbecausethisdoesnotconsistmerelyinacquiringanotherculture[…]buttheprocessalsonecessarilyinvolvesthelossoruprootingofaprevious
395FernandoOrtiz,CubanCounterpoint:TobaccoandSugar(DurhamandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,1995),pp.102-03.396Ibid.
209
culture[…]inadditionitcarriestheideaoftheconsequentcreationofnewculturalphenomena.397
Ortizusedthetermtodenominatethetransformativeprocessesundergonebya
societyintheacquisitionofforeignculturalmaterial.Thisentailedboththe
diminishingofasociety’snativecultureduetotheimpositionofforeignmaterial,and
thesynthesisoftheindigenousandtheforeigntocreateanew,originalcultural
product.ReformulatedthroughthelensofOrtiz,foreignculturalproductshavethe
potentialtobedefinednotsolelyintermsofloss,asmisplacedideas,butalsointerms
ofmovementandrelocation,asdisplacedideas,ripewiththepotentialtosupersede
oroverridethoseideasthatexistedpreviously.Myuseofthetermdisplacedideas
revisesSchwarz’soriginalconceptandredefinesforeignideasintermsoftheir
movementthroughouttimeandspace,inwhichtheyarenotstableandfixed
homogenousentities,buthistoricallychangeableandrelativeatanygivenmoment.
Beforeaddressingthefirstsnapshotthischapterexamines,itisusefulto
outlinewhocameintocontactwithNationalGeographicBrasil.WhereasNational
Geographichadaverybroadreadership,NationalGeographicBrasilhadafar
narrowercirculation.Althoughitisdifficulttoascertainexactfigures,sincereaders
mayhavesharedthemagazinewithfamilyandfriends,theaveragereaderwas
presumedtobemale,agedbetweentwenty-fourandthirty-four,andtoliveinthe
Southeast,theeconomicheartlandofthecountrythatencompassesRiodeJaneiro
andSaoPaulo.398TheywereclassifiedassocialclassB,usuallycomprisedofindividuals
whohavecompletedhighereducationandareprofessionallyqualified.399Theimplicit
normofthisaudienceisthattheywereEuropean-descendedandpredominantly397Ibid.398RibeiroandSakai,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.399Ibid.
210
white-skinned.Thiswasreinforcedbytheadvertisementsthatfeaturedwithinthe
magazine.AnexamplecanbeseenintheJuly2000edition,whichpromotedthe
importationofWesternEuropeanandNorthAmericanlifestylesandgoodstoBrazil,
throughproductssuchascars(Fig.5.1),Timberlandboots(Fig.5.2)andNescafecoffee
(Fig.5.3).400Theseadvertisementstendedtofeaturewhite-skinnedmaleBrazilians,as
opposedtothoseofpredominantlyindigenousorAfricandescent.Theyprovidea
tangiblereminderthat,justastherewasaconsiderablegeographicaldistance
betweentheNationalGeographicviewerandBraziliansubjectsrepresentedinthe
magazine,sotherewasalsooftenasignificantgulfbetweentheNationalGeographic
BrasilviewerandrepresentedBraziliansubjects.
TheRepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasilOverADecade
FromMay2000toApril2010,NationalGeographicBrasilpublishedone
hundredandtwelvearticlesonBrazil,initiatedandexecutedbyasmallteaminSao
Paulowiththeassistanceofaselectnumberofcontractedfreelancejournalists,
editors,designers,photographersandwriters.401Oftheonehundredandtwelve
articles,sevenwereshortenedandparaphrasedversionsofmaterialthathad
originallyappearedinNationalGeographicduringitsfirsthundredyearsof
publication,synthesisedandre-presentedindifferentconfigurationsandsizesonthe
NationalGeographicBrasilpage.Eightweredirecttranslationsofmaterialthat
focusedonBrazilandwaspublishedsimultaneouslyinNationalGeographic.This
chapterpredominantlyfocusesontheninety-sevenarticlesproducedindependently
400NationalGeographicBrasil,June2000.401RefertoAppendix3:TherepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasil(May2000-April2010).
211
byNationalGeographicBrasil,whichcommencedinDecember2000andcontinued
(almost)everymonthuntilMay2010,whenthemagazinecelebrateditstenth
birthday.Viewedintheirentirety,thesearticlesemphasisedthevastsizeofBraziland
itsheterogeneoussocial,racialandethniccomposition,spanningabroadrangeof
spacesandplacesthroughoutthecountry.402
ThischapterextendsSchwarz’sconceptofmisplacedideastoexaminethe
intricaciesofglobalculturalexchange,betweenboththeUnitedStatesandBrazil,and
betweenBrazilanditself,whichwerevisibleintherepresentationofBraziliandressin
NationalGeographicBrasilfromMay2000toApril2010.Itexaminesthreesnapshots
organisedoveraperiodofsevenyears,usingthemtodrawpointsofcomparisonand
distinctionwithNationalGeographic.ThefirstsnapshotwaswrittenbyBrazilian
journalistMarinaMoraesandpublishedinNationalGeographicBrasilinJuly2000.403It
re-presentedanarticleexaminedinthefirstchapterofthisthesis,whichwaswritten
andphotographedbyAlbertW.StevensandpublishedinNationalGeographicinApril
1926,andconsidersthenewinterpretativepotentialprovidedbyitsdiscursivere-
framingseventy-sixyearslater.404ThesecondsnapshotconcernedAngolanimmigrants
livinginRiodeJaneiroandwaswrittenandphotographedbyBrazilianphotojournalist
RicardoBelielandpublishedinNationalGeographicBrasilinFebruary2003.405The
402RefertoAppendix3foramapdetailinggeographicallocationsof112articlesthatfeaturedBrazilandwerepublishedinNationalGeographicBrasil,May2000-April2010.403MarinaMoraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde.Formigasgigantes,onçasàespreita,piranhas,corredeiras,mosquitos,malaria.AsdescobertaseossustosdeumaexoediçãodehidroaviãoàAmazônicaem1924’,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2000,pp.154-61.404AlbertW.Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.353-420.405RicardoBeliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio.FugitivosdaGuerraemseupais,imigrantesdeAngolavivemhojeemcounidadenocentrovelhodoRiodeJaneiro–onde,háumsécolo,influênciasafricanasgerminaramosambacarioca’,NationalGeographicBrasil,February2003,pp.114-23.BelielisProfessorattheEscolaSuperiordePropagandaeMarketinginSaoPaulo,andacontributortonumerousBraziliannewspapersandmagazinessuchasOGlobo,JornaldoBrasil,OEstadodeSaoPaulo,Manchete,PlacarandVeja,inadditiontotheEuropeanandNorthAmericanpublicationsTime,ChristianScienceMonitor,BildZeitung,MarieClaireandDiscoveryMagazine.
212
thirdsnapshotexaminedJapaneseimmigrantslivinginSaoPauloandwaswrittenand
photographedbyBrazilianportraitphotographerMarcioScavoneandpublishedin
June2008.406Thischapterusesdisplacedideasasacriticallensthroughwhichto
examinehowculturalideasfromNationalGeographichavebeenre-framedandre-
contextualisedinNationalGeographicBrasilsinceMay2000.Itknitstogetheraseries
ofconclusionstothefollowingquestions:howhasNationalGeographicBrasilused
dresstofashionanideaofBrazilthroughtherepresentationofBraziliandress?Hasthe
magazinesubmissivelyrepeatedideasaboutBrazilthatwereoriginallydisseminated
byNationalGeographic,orhasitadaptedandre-presentedtheseideastoaddress
localconcerns?TowhatextentcanBraziliansubjectsbeseentohaveself-fashioned,
andtowhatextenthavetheybeenfashionedbyNationalGeographicBrasil?Hasa
dynamicreconfigurationofrelationsandconsciousnessbetweentheUnitedStates
andBrazil,andBrazilanditself,beenmobilisedbyNationalGeographicBrasil?
ABrazilianGazeonNationalGeographicin2000
ThefirstsnapshotthischapterdiscusseswaspublishedinNational
GeographicBrasilinJuly2000,withinaneight-pagearticleproducedbyMoraes,
entitled‘MajorReports:theearthisgreen.Giantants,lurkingjaguars,piranhas,
rapids,mosquitoes,malaria.Thefindingsandscaresofanexpeditionbyhydroplaneto
theAmazonin1924’.407Thearticlere-contextualisedelevenblack-and-white
406MarcioScavone,‘OrientePróximo:NoBairrodaLiberdadeemSãoPaulo,resideoespiritodes100anosdaimigraçãojaponesanoBrasil’NationalGeographicBrasil,June2008,pp.32-47.ScavonestudiedProfessionalPhotographyatEalingCollegeinLondon(1974-6)andistheauthorofanumberofphotobooks,whichincludeEentreasombraealuz(SaoPaulo:DBA,1997),aseriesofphotographstakeninSaoPaulo,RiodeJaneiro,Paris,LondonandLisbon,andLuzInvisivel(SaoPaulo:DBA,2002),acollectionofphotographstakenofBraziliancelebrities,includingfootballerPeleandarchitectOscarNiemeyer,inadditiontoordinaryBrazilians.407Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’.
213
photographs,carefullyselectedfromtheeight-sixoriginalsthathadbeentakenby
AlbertW.Stevensandpublishedinthesixty-eight-pageinitialversionofthearticle,
whichappearedinNationalGeographicinApril1926.Iexaminedthisarticleto
contextualisethefirstsnapshotanalysedinChapterOneofthisthesis.408Animage
thatwasinitiallypublishedinNationalGeographic(Fig.5.4),butsubsequentlyre-used
seventy-fouryearslaterbyNationalGeographicBrasil(Fig.5.5),enablesSchwarz’s
pessimisticviewoftherelationbetweenthecopyandtheoriginaltobere-
conceptualisedasdisplacedratherthanmisplacedideas.
PrintedinNationalGeographicinApril1926,theimagewasoriginally
publishedontheleft-handsideofasingle-pagespread(Fig.5.6).Itdocumenteda
malememberoftheMayongongpopulation(indigenoustothestateofRoraimain
NorthernBrazil,closetotheVenezuelanborder).409Thebackgroundisagreyand
whiteblurthatfocusestheviewers’attentionontheman’sclothedbody,whichis
placedasanobjectofcuriosity.Thesubjecthasbobbeddarkhairandwearsacotton
genitalcoveringarrangedunderthecrotchandaroundthehipsintheshapeofaT.He
carriesaleatherbagacrosshisshoulder,andthetopsofhisarmsaretiedtightlywith
scrapsofcolouredmaterial.Positionedjustoff-centreintheframe,andgazingdirectly
tohisright,engrossedinsomethingorsomeonebeyondthephotographicframe,his
armsarecrosseddefensivelyagainsthisbarechest.Thisself-possessedgesturemight
bereadasoneofsubtlesubversiontotheethnographicgazethatsurveyshim.This
imagehadtobeturnedclockwisebytheviewer,inordertobeperceivedinitscorrect
408AlbertW.Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,NationalGeographic,April1926,pp.353-420.409JamesStuartOlson,TheIndiansofCentralandSouthAmerica:AnEthnohistoricalDictionary(Westport,Greenwood,1991),p.236.
214
portraitdimension(Fig.5.7).410Thisembodiedactionbroughtthephotographinto
uninterrupteddialoguewithanimageofawoman,printedinexactlythesameportrait
dimensionsontheleft-handsideofthepage,andafull-pagelandscapephotographof
awomanandchildsleepinginahammockthatwaspublishedontheoppositepage.It
renderedtheimageanactiveasopposedtopassiveobject,whichgainedmeaning
specificallywhennavigatedbyaphysicalmovementoftheviewer’shands,whohadto
simultaneouslypullthetextured,mattepagesofthemagazineapartattheseamsin
ordertoviewthemaninhisentirety,andtoreadtheaccompanyingcaption.
Thecaptiontotheimageread:‘YOUNGMEDICINEMANOFTHE
MAYONGONGTRIBE:Hisrawhidebagcontainspebbles,rootsandamiscellaneous
collectionofrubbishwithwhichheworkshishealingmagicuponthecredulous[my
italics].’411Thecontradictorycaptionwasbothapervasivereinforcementofthe
subject’stitillatingobjectificationforthebenefitofthedistancedNationalGeographic
viewer,whichrefusedtounderstandthepracticesandlivedexperiencesofthe
MayongongpopulationwithintheboundariesofWesterncivilisation,andasubversive
illuminationofthesymbolicmeaningofthePortuguesewordgambiarra.Thisterm
carriesastrongculturalandconceptualweightinBrazil,andwasintroducedinthe
analysisofthefirstsnapshot(Fig.5.8)thisthesisexamined.Torecapitulate,whilst
gambiarrahasnoEnglishtranslation,asRicardoRosashassuccinctlyarticulated,itis
‘akintotheEnglishtermmakeshift,referringtoanyimprovisationofanexpedient
substitutewhenothermeansfailorarenotavailable.Inotherwords,“makingdo.”’412
WithinthecontextofNationalGeographic,gambiarrawasexemplifiedbythe
subject’smakeshiftadaptationandimprovisedrecyclingof‘amiscellaneouscollection
410Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,pp.398-99.411Ibid.,p.398.412Rosas,‘TheGambiarra’,pp.343-44.
215
ofrubbish’inordertoassembleasetoftoolsfromwhateverisathand,which
ultimatelyservedadifferentpurposethroughtheirmodification,andenabledhimto
work‘hishealingmagicuponthecredulous’.413Thecaptionbothrepresentedthe
subjectasfarcicalandde-constructedhisreductiveobjectificationbyhighlightingthe
sustainabilityandinventivenessofhiscreativeandpracticalendeavour.Itisinthis
respectthatgambiarracanbelikenedtoLévi-Strauss’conceptof‘bricolage’,wherein
the‘bricoleur’performshistaskswithfragmentary,ready-madematerialsandtools
thatarecloseathand,anddespitetheabsenceofapreconceivedplan,through
instrumentalassemblageexceedstheboundariesimposeduponhim,inthisparticular
example,byNationalGeographic’sethnographicgaze.414
Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth
Theredemptivequalityinherentinthere-framingofthisimageseventy-four
yearslaterbyNationalGeographicBrasilinJuly2000mustbeunderstoodinitselfas
anactofbricolage,whichbuiltupon,butalsocamouflaged,thecharacteristicsof
assemblageevidentwithintheconfinesoftheimage.Brazil’shistoricalpast,previously
buriedinNationalGeographic’sphotographicarchiveandNationalGeographic
viewers’personalmagazinecollections,wasre-inscribedinthecontemporaryBrazilian
present,whereitwasretrospectivelyinvestedwithprospectivenewmeanings.The
imagewasenlarged,croppedalongitsleft-handside,andre-framedtoplacethe
subjectinthecentreoftheimage,surroundedbyathinblackborderandpositionedin
thecentreofthewhitemagazinepage.415Thisre-presentationfocusedtheattention
413Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,p.398.414ClaudeLévi-Strauss,TheSavageMind(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1962).415Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’,p.157.
216
ofthevieweronthesubject,andencouragedhertoexperiencetheimage
meditativelywithintheconventionsofportraiture,whichincapturingalikeness
probestheinneressenceofanindividual,asopposedtoethnography.Thesoftly
layeredtexturesandvaryingtonesoflightanddarkwithintheimagefurther
encouragedtheviewertotakeintoconsiderationthesubject’spointofview,his
expressions,feelings,sensationsandgesturesbeinggivenaheightenedimportance
thatworkedtostrikeanemotionalchord.Thecolourtoneoftheimagewasadjusted
togiveitasepiatint,whichconsciouslyinvestedromanticisingovertonesandgavethe
subjectanairofwisdom.Thiseditorialdecisionenhancedthearchivalqualitiesofthe
imageasareflectionofatimethathadpassed;italsoreiterated,totheastuteviewer,
thatthiswasacolonialdocumentdiscursivelyre-framedwithinthepostcolonial
present.ThereisanoverridingsensethatNationalGeographicBrasilsoughttoreclaim
NationalGeographic’sdistanced,ethnographicgazeandreplaceitwithamore
intimateBraziliangaze,whichcatalysedremembrancebyre-claimingBrazilianhistory
onitsowntermsandmemorialisedthesubjectasanidealisedNobleSavage.
However,asthephotographwasplacedonthepageinportraitdimensions,
theNationalGeographicBrasilviewerdidnotneedtoturnthemagazinepage
clockwise,butcouldstraightforwardlyobservetheimageasitwas.Theimageasre-
presentedintheglossypagesofNationalGeographicBrasilthereforedemandedaless
bodilyengagedmodeofviewingthanithaddoneinNationalGeographicand,
potentially,encouragedamoredistancedrelationtothesubject.Distancewas
reinforcedbythecaptionthataccompaniedthisimageinNationalGeographicBrasil
which,ratherthanemphasisingandbuildinguponthesubject’screative
demonstrationofgambiarra,blindlyquestioned:‘Whydoeshetiehisarmssotight?
217
Manyquestionsremainunanswered.ResearchersdescribedtheIndiansassurprisingly
clean,andcarefreeindifferentiatingmenandwomenindressorhaircut.’416The
captionscrutinisedthesubjectwithacomparablecuriositytothatofNational
Geographic’svisualethnographicgaze,andhighlightedtheBrazilianviewer’s
estrangementfromthesubject’slivedexperience.Dressherebecamethefocusof
difference,whichsmoothedoverthesubtletiesthatdistinguishedmaleandfemale
dresspracticesamongsttheMayongong.Thecaptioncamouflagedthecomplexitiesof
Mayongongsocietyand,ratherthanattemptingtoprovidearicherunderstandingof
theirmaterialcultureusingcontemporaryethnographicresearch,emphasisedinstead
whatwasstillnotknownaboutthem.Inthisrespect,thetextualaccompanimentto
theimagecorrespondedwithcontemporarygovernmentpolicy,implementedin1997
byBrazilianpresidentFernandoHenriqueCardoso(1January1995–1January2003),
whichignoredindigenousconcernsandenabledtheprivateinterestsofland
developers,minersandloggerstostakeaclaimtooverfiftypercentofallindigenous
landinBrazil,frequentlywithdestructiveconsequencesfortheecologyandlivelihood
ofindigenouspeoples.417
WhilstNationalGeographicBrasilre-framedthisimageinostensiblymore
intimatevisualtermsthanNationalGeographic,itscaptionignoredacrucialaspectof
theinterpretationoftheman’screativeandpracticalpracticeofgambiarra,whichis
likelytohavebeenrecognisabletotheBrazilianviewer.Indoingso,itwasexemplary
ofdisplacedasopposedtomisplacedideas,sinceitintentionally,asopposedto
inevitably,asSchwarzmayhavepessimisticallyconcluded,relinquishedtheimage’s
416Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’,p.157;SeeAppendix8forafullEnglishtranslationofthisarticle.417IntroductiontoPoliticsoftheDevelopingWorld,ed.byMarkKesselman(Boston,MA:HoughtonMifflin,2004),p.247.
218
ostensiblydistancedvisualethnographicsignifications,butusedtexttoreplacethem.
Thisactionestablishedanewasymmetricaldynamicofpower,nolongerbetweenthe
UnitedStatesandBrazil,butbetweenBrazilanditself,whichworkedtocamouflage
thesubject’sperformanceofgambiarra,andaccentuatedinsteadthedifferences
betweenthe‘civilised’Brazilianviewer,andthegood-naturedbutpurportedly
‘uncivilised’indigenoussubject.There-framedphotographbecameasentimentalised
andprosaicimageoftheNobleSavage,whichreclaimedtheindigenoussubjectin
morefamiliarandsentimentaltermsthanNationalGeographic,butalsore-fashioned
himtextuallyasapassiveasopposedtoactiveconstruct,whosesartorialpracticesstill
remainedaninsignificantmysterytomosturbanmaleBrazilians.
ADocumentaryGazeonAngolanBraziliansin2003
ThesecondsnapshotthischapterdiscusseswaspublishedinNational
GeographicBrasilinFebruary2003,withinanarticleentitled‘LittleAfrica:Livingina
communityinRiodeJaneiro,peoplefromAngolarecreatetheenvironmentwhere
sambaandcarnivalwereborn’.418Unlikethefirstsnapshotexamined,ratherthan
beingare-presentationofmaterialthathadoriginallybeenpublishedinNational
Geographic,itwasproducedindependentlybyNationalGeographicBrasil,butwasstill
checkedpriortopublicationbyNationalGeographic.Thetwenty-pagearticle
documentedAngolanimmigrantslivinginanareaofRiodeJaneiroidentifiedas‘Little
Africa’becauseofitshighconcentrationofAfro-Brazilians,whointhelatenineteenth
centuryhadbeguntoinhabitthezoneinDowntownRiodeJaneirobetweenthePort
418Beliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio’.
219
andPraçaOnze.419BelielfabricatedapalimpsesticconnectionbetweenLittleAfrica’s
pan-Africanpast,anditsdiverseAngolanpresent,andsoughttoexaminehownew
culturalpracticeswitnessedintheareawereenrichingandre-inscribingmore
establishedAfro-Brazilianculturalexpressions.Heexplainedhisintentionsforthe
article:
InthelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturytheareabetweenthedocksandtheneighborhoodsofHealth,SantoCristo,Gamboa,andNewTownPlazaXIwasinhabitedbyslavesanddescendantsofslavesandanAfricanculturedevelopedtherewithsamba,capoeira,andcandomblé.AtthattimetheareawasknownasLittleAfrica.ManyAfricanimmigrantslivinginthisareatodaydonotevenknowthehistoricalcoincidencethattheyaresharingthesamegeographicspacethatotherAfricanshadinhabitedacenturypast.Imadethedecisiontogiveadirectapproach,andmakeacultural,historical,socialandpoliticalcomparisonbetweennineteenthcenturyAfricaandtheAngolanslivingthereinthepresent.420
Belielwasclearlysensitivetothedepthandcomplexitiesoflivedexperiencesin
Angola,whichreceivedindependencefromPortuguesecolonialrulein1975,overone
hundredandfiftyyearssubsequenttoBrazilianindependencein1822,butdescended
intoaturbulentCivilWarthatcontinued,interspersedwithfragmentedperiodsof
peace,until2002.421Asheexplained:
InthecaseofAngolaIhaveknownthecountryalongtime.Iwenttherethefirsttimecoveringthewarin1996andthenreturned,oftenreportingonculturalandsocialissues.InRio,atthetimeIwrotethismaterialforNational
419Thename‘LittleAfrica’isattributedtoBraziliancomposerandpainterHeitordosPrazeres(1898-1966),wholivednearPraçaOnze.BrunoCarvalhoprovidesaninterestinganalysisoftheareaduringthefirstdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,when‘LittleAfrica’constitutedtheuncivilisedOtherareaofRiodeJaneiro,apointofcontrasttothebeautiful,modernisingSouthZone.See‘BeyondtheBelleEpoque:OntheBorderofa“DividedCity”,PorousCity:ACulturalHistoryofRiodeJaneiro(Liverpool:UniversityPress,2013),pp.74-103.420RicardoBeliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(11April–12May2014).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.421AlthoughtheAngolanCivilWarwasfuelledbymilitaryrivalrybetweenthePopularMovementfortheLiberationofAngola(MPLA)andtheNationalUnionfortheTotalIndependenceofAngola(UNITA),twoformerliberationmovementswhowereinconflictfollowingthedecolonisationofAngola,fightingwaspropelledbyinternalandexternalcircumstancesthatstemmedfromColdWardynamicsbetweentheUSAandUSSR.WhilsttheconditionsoftheAngolanCivilWararestillsubjecttodebateandreflection,acomprehensiveintroductionthataddressesthecomplexitiesofLusophoneAfricawithinthepostcolonial,globaleracanbefoundinFernandoArena,LusophoneAfrica:BeyondIndependence(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2011).
220
GeographicBrasil,IknewverywellseveralAngolanimmigrantsorstudentslivinginBrazil.WhenIthoughtaboutdoingthisjobitwasbecauseIhadalotofinformationandaccesstotheenvironmentofthiscommunity.422
DespiteBeliel’sawarenessoftheproblemsthathadbeenencouragingAngolan
refugeestoemigratetoBrazilsince1975,aproblematicinterweavingofpastand
presentpermeatedhisarticle,throughrepeatedallusionstoacollectiveAfricanpast
allegedlyinscribedintheactivitiesofpresent-dayAngolans,andtheenvironmentin
whichtheylived.HeobservedthatAngolans‘haveintheirbloodtheheritageofa
continentwhichtheyknowonlytobeontheothersideoftheocean’.423Such
ambiguouscommentscontributedtoanimaginaryideaofasingularandculturally
monolithicentitytermedAfrica,towhichAngolansareintimatelyconnectedbyvirtue
ofhavingbeenborninthesamelandmass,whichoversimplifiedthecontinent’s
diversepeoples,culturesandhistories.Belielnotedthat‘preservingtheircultureisa
lawamongimmigrants’who‘recreatetheenvironmentwheresambaandcarnival
wereborn’.424SimilarobservationswovenintothefabricofthearticleplacedAngolan
subjectswithinafixedandtraditionalpast,concernedonlywithsafeguarding
stereotypicalAfro-Brazilianculturalexpressions,anddisregardedtheirabilityto
exercisechoiceanddiscretioninincorporatingnewideasfromcontemporaryglobal
culture.
Nevertheless,interlacedwithinthisdominanttextualnarrative,wasarevealing
subtext(manifestinthetextandimagery),whichfocusedonyoungmaleAngolans,
whore-elaboratedandre-negotiatedglobalhip-hopculturethroughclothing,style,
bodylanguageandgesture.Thissubnarrativemovedbeyondthepotentially
422Beliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.423Beliel,‘MaisBrasil:AngolanosnoRio’,p.116.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles.424Ibid.,p.114.
221
objectifyingandmystifyingtextualdescriptionsthatconflatedAngolawiththeAfrican
continentinitsentiretyandblurreddistinctionsbetweenthecolonialpastand
postcolonialpresent.Instead,Belielusedhip-hoptohighlightthemultidirectional
flowsofglobalisationthathaveenabledyoungAngolanrapperstoself-fashiontheir
diasporicidentitiesin-betweentheU.S.,BrazilandAngola.Heoutlinedthesartorial
subtletiesofAngolanidentificationwithhip-hopinBrazil,whichhasadapted
ubiquitousglobalclothing(sneakers)tolocaltastes(intermsofcolour):
ItisnothardtorealisetheAngolanpresenceamongthecrowdinLapaneighbourhood.Stylemakesthedifference.Ignoringalleconomicissues,theimmigrantswearacombinationofforeignlabelswithanAfricantouch.Forthemtobewell‘labeled’,astheycallit,theywillspend500RSinshiningsneakersinAngolancolours–redandblack.425
BelielcarefullyexplainedtheoppressionthatAngolanshadencounteredinAngola,but
alsothemarginalisationandsubordinationtheyhavebeensubjecttosincetheirarrival
inBrazil,wherethehistoryofcolonialrepressionreverberatedincontemporaryAfro-
Brazilianexperiences.HequotedanAngolanrappernamedBigMani,wholeftAngola
toescapeenforcedmilitaryconscription,reintroducedbytheAngolangovernmentin
1993:‘”Herethere’salotofprejudicetowardsAfricans.Theystillthinkweareslaves
andI’vebeenaskedifIcametoBrazilwhileridingahorse”’.426Thisimportant
contextualbackgroundenabledAngolanimmigrants’engagementswithhip-hoptobe
seen,notasderivativeandtrivialinrelationtoU.S.hip-hop,butasameansof
individualself-expressiontofashionandperformpoliticalviewsagainsttherepressive
measuresoftheAngolangovernment,butalsoagainstaraciallyintolerantBrazilian
society.Ratherthantheadoptionofhip-hopinBrazilbeingexemplaryofmisplaced
ideas,itsappropriationandre-definitionbyyoungAngolanmentoaddress
contemporarydiasporicstruggleswasatangibledemonstrationofdisplacedideas.425Ibid.,p.122.426Ibid.,p.123.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles
222
Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion
Oftheninebrightlycolouredphotographsthataccompaniedthearticle,one
particularsnapshotstoodoutforitsmultilayeredqualitiesandstartlingabilityto
provideadynamicspaceofagencyforthemalesubjecttofashionhisglobalhip-hop
identitythroughdressandgesture.Itwasaportraitofanathleticandmuscularyoung
blackrappernamedLourençoLoy(Fig.5.9).427Heiscapturedposingontheright-hand
sideofasingle-pagespread,oppositeahalf-pageblockoftextthatrestsabovea
candidhalf-pagephotographoftwoolderAngolanleaders,MuadaFelizandMaitre
Boa,wholeadaceremonyinaKibanguistaChurchinRiodeJaneiro,nativetothe
Bakongocommunity.Thereisanimmediatevisualdistinctionbetweenthebright
contrastsandcolourfuljuxtapositionsofred,yellowandgreenthatframeLourenço
Loyoutsideinthephotographontheright,andthemoresombrepaleyellowsand
whitethatframethetwofiguresinsideontheleft.Thisdistinctionisreinforced
throughtheclothingchoicesofrepresentedsubjects;unlikethephotographonthe
left,dressdominatestheimageofLourençoLoy,whoappearscomfortablewiththe
prospectofbeingseen.
Thecaptiondirectedtheviewer’sattentiontowardsdressasthecentralpoint
ofreferenceforaninterpretationoftheimage:‘TheclothingofLourençoLoy,a
rapper,showsthevanityofAngolanyouth.’428Whilstvanityisaderogatorychoiceof
word,suggestingthesubjecthasanarcissisticpreoccupationwithhisownmirror
image,italsopointedoutthatitisaconsciousdecisionofthesubjecttodresslikethis,
thesubjecthavingcarefullychosenthetermsonwhichhepresentshimselftothe
photographer’sgaze.Inhighlightingthatthis‘vanity’isprevalentamongstAngolan
427Ibid.,p.117.428Ibid.
223
youth,thecaptionalsoarticulatedanoppositiontotheoldermenontheleft-hand
sideofthedouble-pageview,whomayhavebeenassociatedwithmoreconventional
Angolancultureandcapturedseeminglyunawareoftheirownactions,and
foregroundsinsteadasenseofbecomingthroughyouthfashionsandself-
presentation.Thesubjectwearsoversizedbaggygreytrousers,aredandwhiteprinted
bandanathatpushesbackhisbraidedhair,awhiteNikesweatbandonhisrightwrist,
shinytintedsunglasses,silverrings,adiamantestudinhisrightear,alargewatchand
aheavygoldchain.Thechainoccupiesthecentreoftheframeandhasapendanthung
ontheendthatreads‘DeathRowRecords’.Thependanthastheemblemofthe
Americanrecordcompany‘DeathRowRecords’thatwasfoundedin1991andwas
famousforsigningnumerousWestCoasthip-hopartistssuchasAfrican-American
rapperTupacShakur,whoworeasolidgold,diamond-encrustedversion.429Lourenço
Loy’sclothingshowsthatheisinfluencedbythemalebravadoofU.S.hip-hopstyle,
andheemulatesthepopulargestures.Croucheddownlow,thecreasesandfoldsof
hisbaggydenimjeansareemphasised.Hisbodylanguageisconfidentandheglances
askance,lookingupandoutsideoftheframewithasenseofself-possession.Hewears
noshirtandtheupperpartsofhisarmsarehighlightedtoexaggeratehismuscular
physique.Shotfromalowangle,thesubjectconveysstrength.Hiscarefullypositioned
handgestures,withthewristsbentslightlyforward,renderthehandslargerandmore
expressivetothecamera.Theygiveasenseofthesubjectasanexhibitorofhisown
actionsthroughdressandbodylanguage.
WhilsthisdressandbodylanguageidentifyhimwithAfrican-Americanpopular
culture,therearevisualandtextualcueswithintheimagethatreferencelocal
429RoninRo,HaveGunWillTravel:TheSpectacularRiseandViolentFallofDeathRowRecords(NewYork:Doubleday,1998).
224
BrazilianandAngolanculturalmarkers,andsuggestthathisstyleisnotsimplyan
inferiorandmisplacedimitationofAfrican-Americanhip-hop.Ratherthanbeing
placedinahomogenousandunidentifiableenvironment,LourençoLoyis
photographedsittingonstonestepsthatleaduptothebrightexteriorfaçadeofa
yellow,green,blackandredcolonial-stylehousebuiltbythePortuguese.Thehouseis
decoratedinblocksofPan-Africancoloursthatalsomakeupthecoloursofthe
AngolannationalflaganditsBraziliancounterpart.Thesecontextualdetailsfirmly
situatehisprocessesofself-fashioningwithinBrazilianandAngolan,asopposedto
U.S.,interests,anddemonstratehowfashionhasbeenadaptedtolocalconcerns.As
CarolM.RotleyandGeraldineRosaHendersonhavepointedout,whilstmany‘global
hip-hopsubsegmentstakecuesfromAfrican-Americanhip-hop,theyalsoimbueit
withaninventivenessandcreativitysothatitbecomesuniquelytheirs,andrepresents
theirpains,strugglesandpoliticalissues’.430
Yetthelayoutofthisbrightlycolouredimageonthedouble-pagemagazine
spreadcomplicatedthepoliticalmessagesthatwereencodedwithinthesubject’s
performanceofhip-hopthroughdressandgesture.Itriskedplacingthesubjectasa
hyperbolicexpressionofblackOtherness,advertisedforaestheticappropriationbya
distanced,white-skinnedNationalGeographicBrasilviewer.Presented
straightforwardlyonthepage,asthoughonastageorscreen,Loyisthemale
protagonistofadramabeingnarrated,andviewerswatchhimperformhisstarring
role,whereheisgivenspaceforself-presentationandself-expression.Theextreme430CarolM.MotleyandGeraldineRosaHenderson,‘TheGlobalHip-HopDiaspora:UnderstandingtheCulture’,JournalofBusinessResearch,61(2008),243-53(p.246).AlthoughnotreferringexplicitlytoAngolanimmigrants’identificationwithhip-hop,DerekPardueprovidesaninformativeethnographicstudyofBrazilianhip-hop,predominantlyasithasemergedanddevelopedontheperipheryofSaoPauloinrecentyears.HehaspointedouthowBrazilianhip-hoppers‘borrowandrecasthip-hopsignstheyassociatedwiththeU.S.’throughaprocessofculturalappropriationandnegotiation.DerekPardue,IdeologiesofMarginalityinBrazilianHip-Hop:RetellingMarginalitythroughMusic(London:PalgraveMacMillan,2008),p.6.
225
close-upanddominantpositionofLourençoLoyonthemagazinepageplacedhimtoo
closefortheviewernottoexperienceanintimateengagementwithhim,yettheterms
ofthatinvolvementwerecontradictoryandambiguous.Inherdiscussionoffilm,
whichisusefulwhenanalysingphotographyanditssequentiallayoutinmagazines,
JenniferM.Barkerhaswrittenofhow‘thissenseoffleshy,muscular,visceralcontact
seriouslyunderminestheoppositionbetweentheviewerandthefilm,invitingusto
thinkofthemasintimatelyrelatedbutnotidentical,caughtupinarelationshipof
intersubjectivityandco-constitution,ratherthanassubjectandobjectpositedon
oppositesidesofthescreen.’431Inthisphotographicexample,however,thesubject
looksbeyondthephotographframe,andrefusestoengagewithhisaudience,which
engendersanuneasiness,andfrustratesaphysicaloremotionalintersubjectivity
betweenviewerandsubjectthroughthepagesofthemagazine.Thereisanarrayof
texturescentredondressandthebodywithintheimage,fromroughdenimjeans,
smoothskin,gleamingplasticsunglasses,softcottonbandana,toshinygoldmedallion,
allofwhichemphasisesurfaceoverdepth.Whiletheprofoundlytactilequalityofthe
imageostensiblybringstheviewerclosertothesubject,andencourages,asBarkerhas
articulated,‘acaressingtouchratherthanapenetratinggaze’,thebrightblocksof
saturatedcolourandthesubject’sblackskinaddarhythmicandemotionaldimension
thatencouragesaloud,synaesthesticresponse,andthreatenstooverridetheviewer’s
deeperunderstandingofthesociopoliticalpurposeofhip-hopforAngolanimmigrants
livinginRiodeJaneiro.432Itisinthisveinthatthephotographiscomparabletoimages
ofnon-Westernsubjectsre-framedinNationalGeographicFashion,examinedinthe
previouschapter,whichdemonstratedatendencytofocusontheirexoticspectacleas
431JenniferM.Barker,TheTactileEye:TouchandtheCinematicExperience(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2009),pp.12-13.432Barker,TheTactileEye,p.24.
226
opposedtoacknowledgingcriticallytheindividualprocessesofself-fashioning.Kobena
Mercerhasemployedtheterm‘hyperblackness’todescribetheparadoxicalcondition
ofblackculturalexpressionssuchaship-hopwhich,asahighlyvisualformofglobal
brandingmarkedbyrhetoricalexcessandexaggeration,oftendivorcesblackculture
fromitspoliticalaspirations,particularlywhenviewedbywhite-skinned
viewers/consumers.433Hyperblacknesswasapparent,notsolelyinthisparticular
image,butinnearlyalloftheimagesreproducedwithintheNationalGeographicBrasil
article,eachofwhichhadalyricalqualityandarhythmicdimension,fabricatedbythe
brightcoloursandtactiletexturesthatframedtheblackmale(andfemale)subjects.
Whilstthisdialecticbetweenfigure,formandcolourfulenvironmentcouldbereadas
acelebrationofblackness,theimages’referentialcapacitiesweredrastically
underminedwhenviewedincomparisontotheadvertisementsreproducedelsewhere
withinthesameeditionofthemagazine,whichpresentedonlywhiteBraziliansin
aspirationalscenarios.
Belielhasexplainedthephotographicapproachheadoptedforthisarticle:
Manyofthephotosarespontaneoussituationsthatnaturallyhappened,I’venevercreatedanartificialsituationtophotograph,whatIdoisjournalism,butIcanaskthepersonbeingphotographedtoremaininaplaceoradirection,inordertolooktothevalueofthefinalimage[…]Apictureofsomeonealwayshasthecooperationofthepersonbeingphotographed.Itisimpossibletoremainindifferentandbephotographed.Everyoneissomehowexpressedthroughbeingphotographed.434
Hisinitialdescriptionoftheprocessbywhichhedocumentedhissubjectsrestedfirmly
withintheconfinesofreportageandconnotedspontaneity,neutralityonthepartof
433KobenaMercer,‘DiasporaAestheticsandVisualCulture’inBlackCulturalTraffic:CrossroadsinGlobalPerformanceandPopularCulture,ed.byHarryJ.Elam,Jr.andKennellJackson(AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,2005),pp.141-61(p.160).434Beliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.
227
thephotographer,truthfulnessandobjectivity.Yet,inapparentopposition,Belielthen
acknowledgedthathemightdirectthesubject‘toremaininaplaceordirection’,and
thateveryphotographiscollaborativetosomeextent,sincethesubjectisalways
responsivetothephotographer’sgaze,andtherebyhasadegreeofagencyinself-
presentationbeforehiscamera.Thisdescriptionofhisworkingmethodshighlighteda
similarcontradictiontoStanmeyer,whowasquotedinthepreviouschapter.
Stanmeyer’sworkingmethodsoscillatedbetweentransparentlyobjective,evidentin
hisassertionthat‘thisisreportagephotography.Itisnaturallyhappening–noposes
orstylingdone’,andopenlyfictitious,apparentinhisacknowledgementthatcapturing
aphotographwas‘likeworkingapotterywheel,constantlymoldingtheclayuntilthe
narrativetakesshapeandform’.435BothBelielandStanmeyerdefinedtheir
photojournalisticapproachesinoppositionto,orpossiblyevenbeyond,simplistic
oppositionsbetweenfactandfiction.Theircommentsbearwitnesstotheinstabilityof
reportagephotography,andsuggestacontemporaryshifttowardsacknowledgingits
decidedlysubjectivestatus,evenasitsobjectivityissimultaneouslyreasserted.T.J.
Demoshaspointedoutthatithasbecome‘common,evenfashionable,toannounce
subjectivebiases,ortoarguefortheimpossibilityofdocumentaryrepresentationtout
court,duetoitshistoricallydiscreditedstatus’.436Demosarticulatedadesireto
suspenddisbelief,toassertthatreportageisobjective,evenasthisproclamationis
forciblyrejectedbythewidespreadandcross-culturalinclinationtohighlightthe
creativefabricationofanimagebytheartisticmasteryofthephotographer
(particularlyinthecaseofStanmeyer,whoadoptsamoreauthoritarianapproach),but
435Stanmeyer,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.436T.J.Demos,TheMigrantImage:TheArtandPoliticsofDocumentaryduringGlobalCrisis(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2013),p.36.
228
oftenalsoincollaborationwithhissubjects(inthemorecooperativeexampleof
Beliel).
RatherlikeBeliel’sdescriptionofhisworkingmethods,thesecondsnapshot
thischapterexaminedwasindeterminate.WhilstAngolanhip-hopfashionswornin
Brazilwereadisplacedre-interpretationofUnitedStatesmainstreamhip-hopculture,
adaptedandlocalisedtohighlightthepovertyandracialinequalityexperiencedby
AngolanslivingonthesocialmarginsofRiodeJaneiro,theirrepresentationby
NationalGeographicBrasilpresentedacarnivalesquespectacleofblackOtherness,
whichwasadvertisedforaestheticappropriationbyadistancedwhiteviewer.Ithinted
thatthevisualandtactilegazeoftheNationalGeographicBrasilviewerinrelationto
theAngolansubjectwasimbuedwithunevenrelationsofpower;whereasthis
dynamichadpreviouslybeenbetweenNationalGeographicandBraziliansubjects,
powerhadbeenmobilisedandexchanged,andwasnowinoperationbetween
NationalGeographicBrasilandAngolanslivinginBrazil.Thissnapshotencapsulated
displacedideastotheextentthatithighlightedtheadditionalhierarchiesprevalent
withinthePortuguesecolonies,andcontributedtoanoverridingimpressionthata
newcontactzonehademerged,nolongerbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,but
betweenBrazilandAngolanimmigrantswithinitsborders.
APortraitureGazeonJapaneseBraziliansin2008
ThethirdsnapshotthischapterexamineswaspublishedinNationalGeographic
BrasilinJune2008,withinanarticleentitled‘NearEast:InLiberdadeinSãoPaulo,the
229
spiritof100yearsofJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazilresides.’437LikeBeliel’sarticle,it
examinedanareaofSaoPaulonamed‘Liberdade’(‘Freedom’)in1920,whichhasbeen
hometothelargestJapaneseexpatriatecommunityintheworldsince1912.Scavone
explainedthatthearticlewaspublished‘tocelebrate100yearsofJapanesepresence
inBrazil’,sincethefirstJapaneseimmigrantsarrivedinSantos,stateofSaoPaulo,on
theKasatoMarushipinJune1908.438Thereductivetitle,‘NearEast’,drewuponNorth
AmericanandWesternEuropeanideasofanexoticOrient.ItplacedLiberdadeasa
synecdocheforJapan,whichwasextendable,throughthedeliberateandnebuloususe
ofthegeographicallyindistinctterm‘theEast’,totheOrientinitsentirety,substituting
apartforawholeinasmuchasBeliel’sarticlenarratedaculturallydistinctareaofRio
deJaneiroasasynecdocheforAfricaatlarge.
Scavone’stexthadamoremeditativequalitythanBeliel’sinthewaythatit
lyricallyinterlacedpastandpresentthroughaffectivedescriptions,whichrecalledhis
owncaptivatingandsubjectivememoriesofLiberdadeonfirstvisitingtheareainthe
early1970s,accompaniedbyhisfather,forwhom‘themagicoftheJapanesedistrict
hadlongagocapturedhisimaginationasawriter’.439Scavonere-presentedLiberdade
lessasageographicallydistinctzoneasanidealisedrealmforimagination,desireand
nostalgia,whereboththeJapaneseexpatriateandtheBrazilianobservermighthope
toretrieveandreigniteamemoryofapastJapanesepresenceunavailableinthe
present.ScavonedescribedhowthearchitectureandurbanenvironmentofLiberdade
have‘anambercolourthatisloadedwithnostalgia’,whichinautumnallightmadeit
437Scavone,‘NearEast’.438MarcioScavone,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor(22November2014–6January2015).RefertoAppendix6:EmailCorrespondence.439Scavone,‘NearEast’,p.45.
230
appear‘evenmoreoriginal,morereal,andclosertoitsEasterndescent’.440Such
romanticiseddescriptionsevokedanimageofafadedoldsepia-tintedphotograph,
ratherlikethevisualtropeusedinNationalGeographicBrasilinthefirstsnapshot
examined,wheretimeandspacewereintricatelyinterwoventhroughthephysical
disintegrationofthematerialobject,whichwasmadetosymboliseabygoneera.
ScavonedescribedhowincontemporaryLiberdade‘everythingseemstoblur,waiting
foramysteriousordertoreturntowhatitoncewas’.441Suchnostalgiclongingsfora
more‘authentic’butpastLiberdadeofthe1960sand1970spermeatedhiswriting,a
periodhedeemedtobeof‘strengthandculturalautonomy’,butwasirretrievablylost
inthepresent,sincethearea‘grewupandwasswallowedbythemetropolis…
dissolvedintheethnicmeltingpotofneighboringareas’.442
Thesesensualtextualdescriptionswerereinforcedbytheaccompanying
images.Thetenphotographspublishedwithinthesixteen-pagearticleemployeda
shallowdepthoffield,atechniqueoftenusedinportraiture,whichrenderedmanyof
thebuildings,figuresandfacesdocumentedslightlyblurred(seeforexampleFigs.5.10
and5.11).Whilstthisphotographicdecisionevokedanostalgicmoodthatconnected
tothewhimsicaldescriptionsofthetext,italsoestablishedaboundary,ratherlikea
diaphanousveil,betweenthesubjectandtheviewer,whichobscuredtheviewer’s
directentranceintothesettingandcharactersofthescene,andfrustratedan
immediateidentification,andemotionalconnection,withrepresentedJapanese-
Braziliansubjects.
440Ibid.441Ibid.442Ibid.p.46.
231
Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWoodenGeta
Aparticularexamplecanbeseeninthefinalsnapshotthischapterexamines,
whichwasreproducedonadouble-pagespread(Fig5.12).443Spreadhorizontally
acrossthepage,itcapturedthirteenwomenofJapanese-Braziliandescentinan
interiorsetting,linedupinarowtofacethegazeofScavone’scamera,andthatofthe
NationalGeographicBrasilviewer.Thewomenarephotographedstationaryand
subjecttoalevelofscrutinyastheystandupstraight,dressedintheyukata,an
informalandmorecomfortableunlinedversionofthekimono,whichisconstructed
fromalightweight,printedcottonfabric.Thecreasesandfoldsoftheirclothingare
capturedincrispdetailbyScavone’scamera.Decoratedwithaboldlyprintedgraphic
patternthatstretchesfromdarkbluearoundthebottomtopalepurpleatthetop,the
textureofthewomen’syukatacontrastswiththeblurofpolishedwoodenfloorinthe
foregroundoftheimage.Abrightredobi,silksash,iswornhighupandtiedtight
behindthesubjects’waists.Itiscrisplyphotographedtohighlightthedelicately
patternedpolkadotsimprinteduponthecloth.Thewomenweargeta,Japanese
footwearwithalongculturalheritage,whichareconstructedfromwoodandasoft
thongedpieceofclothorleather.AnexampleofayukataandgetacanbeseeninFigs.
5.13and5.14,takeninashoponRuaGalvãoBueno,inLiberdade,SaoPauloin2014.
Whenwearinggeta,thefootsitslightlyonthewoodenbaseoftheshoe,notpushed
entirelyintotheforkofthethong,whichrequiresaslightforwardtiltfromthewearer,
particularlywhenwalking.Eventhoughthewomenarecapturedstationary,Scavone’s
443Ibid.,pp.44-45.
232
cameraangleemphasisesthisforwardtiltcreatedbythegetainaction,sothatthe
womenappearreadytotoppleforwardtowardstheviewer.
Thewomen’sdifferentfacialfeaturescounteractthehomogeneityoftheir
dress,whichassumesasuperficialveneerofanonymityassociatedwithanyformof
uniform.Notallofthesubjects’facescanbeseen,asaresultoftheharshcropping
andfull-pagebleedofthephotograph,whichcamefromamuchlargerprint(Fig.
5.15).Thatwecannotseealloftheindividualfacesdiscouragesidentificationwiththe
subjectsonthepartoftheviewer,whosurveysthewomenbutisunabletogetclose
tothem,andisinsteadcaptivatedbytherangeoftactilesurfacetexturesevokedby
theblurredshallowdepthoffieldandthecontrastbetweensmoothwoodandcrisp
cotton.Thosefacesthatarecapturedpresentamixtureofexpressions,fromforced
smilestoapparentindifference.Noneofthesubjectslookatthecamera,noratone
another,exceptforthesubjectonthefarleftwhogazeswarilyinthedirectionofthe
photographer,possiblyenactingacovertformofresistancetoherdocumentation.
Thatallofthewomenexceptforoneclutchtheirhandsacrosstheirbodiesandin
frontoftheircrotchesdrawsattentiontothewidesleevesoftheiryukatabutalso
accentuatestheirfemininity;asScavonelateracknowledged,‘formethisphotograph
isallabouttheexpressionsofthegirlsbeingtransferredtotheirhandsandfeet’.444
ThephotographwastakenduringabeautycontestheldduringtheTanabata
MatsurifestivalthattakesplaceinJapanandSaoPaulointhefirstweekendofJuly.
Thecaptionthataccompaniedthephotographacknowledgedthisandread:‘MISS
TANABATACONTESThappensattheAssociationheadquartersMiyaguiKenjinkail.In
2008the30theditionwillbeheld.Thecandidates,whocomefromalloverthestateof
444Scavone,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.
233
SãoPaulo,arewearingtheyukata,alightercostumekimono,whichiscompatiblewith
theclimateofBrazil.ClothingisagoodsymboloftheJapaneseBrazilian
neighborhoods.’445Thecaptionstagedanambivalence;itbothhighlightedhowa
traditionalmodeofJapanesefemaledresshasbeenreinventedandacclimatisedfor
localwearinBrazil,butitalsousedclothingasasymbolofethnicandcultural
difference.Ontheonehand,theyukataisaformofdressthatisexemplaryof
displacedideasandhasenabledJapanese-Braziliansubjectstoself-fashionandself-
presentbyaffirmingtheircross-culturalidentitiesin-betweenJapanandBrazil.446The
captionhighlightedthatthismodeofethnicdresswasnotstaticbuthadbeenfluidly
refashionedforcompatibilitywithitslocalcontext.Itacknowledgedthatthe
photographhadbeentakenonaceremonialoccasion,whichreiteratedthatitis
unlikelytohavebeenwornbythesewomenonadailybasis,buthasbeenusedto
reviveandreigniteamoretraditionalandfeminineJapaneseidentityforaspecific
purpose.Yetsimultaneously,theyukataprovidedasartorialfocustomobilisethe
distanceanddifferenceofthefemalesubjectsinrelationtothepredominantlymale
NationalGeographicBrasilviewer.Thatthewomenaredocumentedinsidegivesa
senseoffemininedomesticity,whichcontrastedwiththetoughmasculinityevokedby
therepresentationofLourençoLoyintheprevioussnapshotexamined.Thecaption
encouragesaquasi-ethnographicsurveillanceofthewomen,ratherlikethecaptionin
thefirstsnapshotexamined,andassertedthedistinctivenessoftheirdresswhilst
remarkingthatitwasculturallyspecifictoJapaneseBrazilians,ratherthanareflection
445Scavone,‘NearEast’,pp.44-45.446ThefollowingstudiesprovideaninformativeintroductiontohowJapaneseimmigrantshavesimultaneouslyassimilatedwithBraziliancustoms,butalsoexpressedasenseofloyaltytoJapaneseculturalpracticesthroughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies:SearchingforHomeAbroad:JapaneseBraziliansandTransnationalism,ed.byJeffreyLesser(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2003);JeffreyLesser,ADiscontentedDiaspora:JapaneseBraziliansandtheMeaningsofEthnicMilitancy,1960-1980(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2007);TakeyukiTsuda,JapaneseBrazilianReturnMigrationinTransnationalPerspective(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2003).
234
ofasartorialperformancere-enactedtomarkaspecificevent.Suchatouristicgaze
wasreinforcedbythefactthatalmostallofthewomenshylyaverttheirgazefromthe
viewer,contributingtoafeelingoftheirsubmissiontothephotographer’sgaze.
Certainly,itwasaconsciousdecisionmadebyNationalGeographicBrasilto
choosetopublishthisphotographofJapaneseBrazilianwoman,wearingaformof
cross-culturaldresslesseasilyrecognisabletotheviewer,thantoincludeafarmore
dynamicandcontemporary(bothindressandphotographictechnique)imagethat
ScavonecapturedonthesametriptoLiberdade(Fig.5.16).Thisphotograph
documentedaJapanese-Brazilianwomanoutsideinbrightsunlightintheurbancity
environmentofSaoPaulo.Althoughthebackgroundisblurred,thecentralsubjectis
crisplydocumented,distinctfromthehazyimagesreproducedinNationalGeographic
Brasil,tocapturetheknitofhergreysleevelessroll-necktop,theglossysheenofher
darkhair,andthesparkleofherdiamanteearrings.Eventhoughthesubjectdoesnot
lookdirectlyatussheappearsconfidentandself-possessed,andtheup-closefocuson
herface,assheglancestoherleft,engendersamoreintimateengagementbetween
viewerandsubject.HermodeofdressismorereflectiveofwhatmostJapanese
Braziliansmightwearonadailybasis.ThephotographcouldhavebeentakeninTokyo
orSaoPaulo,andreflectsmorerealisticallythecross-culturalmixofculturesthat
interactandnegotiateinLiberdade,whichisnotaromanticisedlocationofquaint
Japanesecustoms,astheimagere-presentedinNationalGeographicBrasilmayhave
suggested,butoneareaofathrivingglobalcity.
Scavone’ssummaryofhisphotographicapproachinthisarticleprovidesan
interestingpointonwhichtoconcludethischapter.Asheexplained:
235
Iamabsolutelytakenbyportraitphotography,somuchsothatIusemyapproachtoportraituretoexplainandnavigateinallothergenresofphotographythatinterestme[…]Idecidedthatanessayaboutacity,astreetoradistrict,likeLiberdade,isaportrait,Icallitanexpandedportrait.Iletthepeopleandtheobjectstellthestory[…]Myapproachwouldneverbeobjective,therewasneveranintentionofjournalismbehindit[myitalics].447
Scavoneclearlydrewontheaestheticqualitiesandcommunicativepossibilitiesof
portraiture,amodeofdepictionthatisrootedinsubjectivity,reinforcedbyhis
assertionthat‘Myapproachwouldneverbeobjective’.448Heoutlinedtheaesthetic
qualitiesandcommunicativepotentialsofhispractice,whichoverrideitsreferential
function,asanunbiasedmeansofaccuratelyconveyingdetailedinformation.Yethis
assertion,‘Iletthepeopleandtheobjectstellthestory’,actuallysuggestedamore
unmediatedrelationtohissubjectsthanthepreviousphotographersexaminedinthis
thesis,eachofwhomwasquicktoassertthereportagestatusoftheirpractice.449
Scavonesuggested,instead,thatthelivedexperiencesandpracticesofhissubjects
drovethecreativefabricationoftheimages,ratherthanhisowndesiretoimposea
particularstyleorsingulardocumentary‘truth’.Hisapproach,eventhoughthe
photographsselectedforinclusioninthemagazinetendedtofocusonmore‘ethnic’
formsofdress,wasthereforeashiftbeyondthatofthepreviousphotographers
examinedinthisthesis.ThisisbecauseScavone’scommentssuggestedacriticalre-
thinkingofdocumentaryphotography,whichcontainedthepotentialforamore
subjectivere-workingofthemedium,apointthatwillbetakenupintheworkofthe
photographerexaminedinthefinalchapterofthisthesis.
ThischapterhasexaminedtheestablishmentanddevelopmentofNational
GeographicBrasiloveritsfirsttenyearsinpublication.Inallthreeofthesnapshots447Scavone,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.448Ibid.449Ibid.
236
examinedtherehasbeenaconcernwithBrazil’shistoryandculturalidentity.Thefirst
snapshotre-framedandre-contextualisedanimageofanindigenousBraziliansubject
thathadoriginallybeenpublishedinNationalGeographicinApril1926,andplaced
himinmoreromanticisedandsentimentaltermsasaNobleSavageseventy-sixyears
later.YetNationalGeographicBrasilcamouflagedanimportantaspectofthesubject’s
creativeperformanceofgambiarra,andrenderedhimapassivesignifierofBrazil’s
indigenoushistory,divorcedfromcontemporaryBraziliancivilisation.Therewasan
overridingsenseinthissnapshotthatNationalGeographicBrasilhadre-fashionedthe
Mayongongsubjectasobjectifiedandraciallymonolithic,ratherthanthesubject’s
ownpracticesofself-fashioningconstitutinganactofindividualdefiancetohisoriginal
ethnographicsurveillancebyNationalGeographic.WhilstNationalGeographicBrasil
clearlyvisuallydeconstructedsomeoftheasymmetricalrelationsofpowerpreviously
inplacebetweentheindigenousBraziliansubjectandtheNationalGeographicviewer,
itmobilisedanewdynamicofcontrolthroughtextthatessentialisedandidealised
Brazil’sindigenouspast,andpaidlittleattentiontothesubjectivitiesandsubtletiesin
differentiationindressbetweenMayongongmenandwomen.Overall,thissnapshot
wasexemplaryofdisplacedratherthanmisplacedideas,becauseitintentionally,as
opposedtoaccidentallyorinevitably,usedtheindigenoussubjectasatooltomobilise
collectivememoryofanindigenouspastforthebenefitofcontemporaryBrazilian
viewers,yetindoingso,refusedtounderstandBrazil’snumerousandculturally
distinctindigenoussocietiesasbelongingtopartofthepresent.
Thesecondandthirdsnapshotsbothexaminedculturallydistinctimmigrant
communitiesofAngolansandJapaneselivinginzonedareasoflargeurbancities,Rio
deJaneiroandSaoPaulo.Bothofthearticlesthatthesesnapshotswerepublished
237
withinstruckanemotionalchordwiththeviewerthroughtheircomplexinterweaving
ofpastandpresent,andconstantreferencestoatraditionalpastapparentlyinscribed
inthesubject’spresent-dayactivities.WithinBeliel’sarticle,aninterestingsubtext,in
textandimages,concerningyoungAngolanmales’identificationwithglobalhip-hop
throughdressandgesture,workedtounderminetheproblematicanddominant
textualnarrative.Hip-hopenabledtheNationalGeographicBrasilviewertoseehow
Angolansubjectsnegotiatedandre-negotiatedglobalfashionsandusedthemto
expresstheirsocially,culturallyandpoliticallymarginalisedexperiencesinBrazil,but
alsoAngola,whichhadpromptedtheiremigration.Yettheirbrightlycolouredvisual
representationinNationalGeographicBrasilriskedmaskingtheirsociopoliticaluseof
hip-hoptoself-fashion.ItriskedinsteadfashioningAngolansubjectsinacarnivalesque
spectacleofblackOtherness,andadvertisingthemforaestheticappropriationbya
culturallydistancedandpredominantlywhite-skinnedBrazilianviewer.WhereasBeliel
establishedamasculineOther,Scavone’sarticlewasmoreconcernedwithafeminine
Other.Boththetextualnarrativethataccompaniedhisarticle,andhisaccompanying
photographs,fashionedawhimsicalandmythicalconstructionofLiberdade,whilstthe
snapshotexaminedwasaninterestingdemonstrationofhowJapanese-Brazilian
womenusedresstoconstructandperformtheirfluid,cross-culturalidentitieson
particularceremonialoccasions.Yetthecaption’sfocusondressriskedobscuringthis
exemplaryexpressionofdisplacedideasinfavourofaromanticiseddepictionofdress
asasymbolofpassive,feminisedOrientaldifference.
InNationalGeographicBrasil,comparabletoNationalGeographic,therehas
beenapalpabletensionbetweenencouragingidentificationwithBraziliansubjects
andhighlightingtheirexoticdifference.Schwarz’sargumenthasbeenre-fashioned
238
anddefinedintermsofmovementandrelocation,asdisplacedideas,asopposedto
solelyintermsofloss,asmisplacedideas.Thisreworkedtheoryhasenabledustosee
howideasbetweenNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasilhavebeenin
fluxratherthanstatic,butithasalsodemonstratedthenewhierarchiesand
inequalitiesthathavebeenestablishedintheformationofanewcontactzone,no
longerbetweentheUnitedStatesandBraziliansubjects,butbetweenBrazilandthe
variousimmigrantgroupsthathavesettledwithinitsborders.
239
Chapter5.Mundialization:BraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasil,August2013
• Snapshot11:TheGuarani-Kaiowa’sWestern-styledressandFeatheredHeaddresses,August2013
Theprecedingfourchaptersofthisthesisusedasnapshotmethodologytoanalyseten
casestudiesfromNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil,whichspanned
theperiod1926to2011.Thesechaptersexpandeduponthetheoreticalconceptsof
anthropophagy,anaestheticsofgarbage,thespacein-betweenandmisplacedideas,
conceptualisedrespectivelybyAndrade,Stam,SantiagoandSchwarz,toanalysethe
shiftingdynamicsandhierarchiesofpowerwovenintotherepresentationandre-
presentationofBraziliandressandfashion.Thesefourscholarswereselectedfortheir
specificandinterdisciplinaryusesofdressandfashionmetaphors,whichwere
employedtomakeapositiveidentificationwiththecross-culturalcomplexitiesof
Braziliansartorialidentities.
Themethodologicalframeworkusedinthefinalchapterofthisthesiscanbe
situatedhistoricallyastheculminationofthesefourtheoreticalconcepts.Inthe
greatlyacceleratedphaseofcontemporaryglobalisation,Brazilianculturalcriticand
sociologist,RenatoOrtiz,haspointedoutthelimitationsofmethodologiesthat
assumeBrazil’sdependencyontheWest,eveniftheyareusedpositivelytorevalorise
theimprovisationalandinteractivedimensionsofcross-culturalencounterand
exchange.Ortizadvancedthelogicofcrucialaspectsofconceptsemployedby
Andrade,Stam,SantiagoandSchwarz,andconsideredBrazil,nolongerasuniqueand
peripheralinrelationtotheWest,butoneculturalmanifestationcompetingagainst
numerousothersinaglobalsystem,withinwhichithasbecome,‘somehowsenseless
240
[…]totalkaboutadiffusingcentralityofaclearoppositionbetweenexternaland
internal,foreignandautochthonous’.450
OrtizisparticularlyrelevanttoanexaminationofNationalGeographicBrasilin
thetransitionalperiodfollowingMay2010,whenthemagazinecelebrateditstenth
anniversary,andbegantopositionitselfmoredynamicallyandpragmaticallyin
relationtoNationalGeographic.451AsMatthewShirtssummarised:
In2010,thecycleofglobalizationofNationalGeographicclosedwhenoneoftheeditorsoftheBrazilianedition,RonaldoRibeiro,wrotethetextofthereportonLençóisMaranhensesforthemothermagazine,publishedaroundtheworldandreadby40millionpeople[…]GlobalissuesareincreasinglycomingtoNGBrasil.It’struethatmanymaterialswereveryAmericanized,butwehadtotaketheseinordertoalsoproducetheBraziliancontent.Now,however,NGBrasilandNGUSAareincreasinglydiscussingthesametopics,albeitfromdifferentperspectives[myitalics].452
ShirtscitedtheexampleofaJuly2010articlewrittenbyRonaldoRibeiro,entitled‘Sea
ofDunes:windandrainhavesculptedthelandscapeofLençóisMaranheses.Butthis
BrazilianNationalParkfacesproblems’,whichwaspublishedsimultaneouslyin
NationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.453WhereasNationalGeographic
Brasilhadpreviouslybeendependentuponthe‘mothermagazine’,inacoercive
relationshipthathadforcedthemagazinetopublisharticlesonissuesmore
immediatelyrelevanttoaU.S.audience,inordertoalsoproducelocalBrazilian
content,Ribeiro’sarticlesymbolisedaparadigmshifttowardsamoreconsensual
rapportwithWashingtonDC.RatherthanNationalGeographicandNational
450Ortiz,‘PopularCulture,ModernityandNation’inThroughtheKaleidoscope:theexperienceofmodernityinLatinAmerica,ed.byVivianSchelling(NewYork:Verso,2000),p.144.451RefertoAppendix4:therepresentationofBrazilinNationalGeographicBrasil(May2010-December2014).452Shirts,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.453RonaldoRibeiro,‘DazzlingBrazilianDunes’,NationalGeographic,July2010,pp.108-17;Ribeiro,‘MardeDunas:ventoechuvasesculpiramapaisagemdosLençoisMaranheses.Masesseparquenacionalbrasileiroenfrentaproblemas’,NationalGeographicBrasil,July2010,pp.50-65.
241
GeographicBrasilco-existingwithinahierarchicalrelationofpower,theynowentered
inproductiveanddissonanttension,‘discussingthesametopics,albeitfromdifferent
perspectives’.454Shirtsacknowledgedthatthereweremultipleworld-viewsanda
parallelcanbedrawnherewithOrtiz’sunderstandingofmundialization.
Ortizmadeadistinctionbetweentechnologicalandeconomicglobalisation,
andtheculturaldimensionsofglobalisation,whichheconceptualisedin2006usingan
Englishneologism,mundialization,derivedfromtheFrenchword,mondialisation:
Thereisnoconceptualoppositionbetweenthecommonandthediverse;amundializedculturepromotesaculturalpatternwithoutimposingtheuniformityofall;itdisseminatesapatternboundtothedevelopmentofworldmodernityitself.Itswidthcertainlyinvolvesotherculturalmanifestations,butitisimportanttoemphasizethatitisspecific,foundinganewwayof‘being-in-the-world’andestablishingnewideasandlegitimizations.Andthatisthereasonwhythereisnotandtherewillnotbeasingleglobalculture,identicalinallplaces.Aglobalizedworldimpliesapluralityofworld-views.Whatwedohaveistheconsolidationofacivilizationmatrix,worldmodernity,thatisactualizedanddiversifiedineverycountry,region,place,asafunctionofitsparticularhistory.Andthismeansthatglobalization/mundializationisoneanddiverseatthesametime.455
Ortizarguedthattorefertothetechnologicalandeconomicsphereistodesignate
processesthatarereproducedthroughouttheworldinthesamefashion:whethera
singleandunifiedglobaleconomicstructure(capitalism)orasingulartechnological
system(comprisedoftheInternet,computersandsatellitesetc.).Hecontendedthatit
isnotpossibletospeakofasingularglobalcultureoridentityinthesamesensethat
onecanrefertoasingulartechnologicaloreconomicstructure,andasserted:‘thereis
454RenatoOrtiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge–GenealogiesoftheGlobal/Globalizations’,Theory,Culture&Society,23(2006),401-03(p.402).Ortizfirstintroducedtheconceptofmundialization,ormundialización,inSpanishin1998,inonechapter,‘SobrelaMundializaciónylacuestiónnacional’,publishedasacollectionofessaysinOtroTerritorio:ensayossobreelmundocontemporáneo(BuenosAires:UniversidaddeQuilmes,1996).ThatOrtizwaswritingadecadelaterthanSantiagoandSchwarz,whenamorepostnationalunderstandingofthehierarchiesbetweennativeandforeigninfluenceswasbeingdevelopedinBrazil,ispartofthereasonthathisargumentadvancesbeyondthespacein-betweenandmisplacedideas.455Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.
242
noglobalculture;onlyaprocessofculturalmundialization’.456Ortizusedtheexample
oftheEnglishlanguagetodemonstratehispoint.WhilstthepredominanceofEnglish
throughouttheworldunequivocallydemonstratesanimbalanceofpowerwithinthe
globalcontactzone,itdoesnotautomaticallyindicatethedisappearanceofdiverse
languagesorentailasingularmodeofconversinginthefaceofitsuniversal
dominance.Mundializationmustbeunderstoodthenasasiteofresistance,change
andadaptation;itdenotesaworldvisionthat‘co-existswithotherworldvisions,
establishinghierarchies,conflictsandaccommodationswiththem’.457Itisfacilitated
bythetechnologicalandeconomicprocessesofglobalisation,butdelineatesaspace
fordifferentconceptionsoftheworld,wherebydiverse,andsometimesconflicting,
formsofunderstandingcomeintocontactwithoneanother,neverthelesspreserving
thediversitiesoftheirdifferences.
Ortizarguedthatitwasinappropriatetorefertoanautonomousglobal
culture,whichishierarchicallysuperiortonational,regional,localorindividualcultural
practices.Hestressedthatmundializationisanoverallsocialphenomenon;whilst
thereexistsa‘culturalpattern’,acommonbackgroundthatweallsharethroughout
theworld,thatthismustnotbemisunderstoodasapervasivehomogenisationor
standardisationofideas,behaviourorculturalproducts,‘imposingtheuniformityof
all’.458Hisuseofadressmetaphorissignificant,andprovidesausefultooltoconsider
howthedynamicsofglobalculturearelocalisedandindigenisedthroughfashionand
dresspractices,whetheronamicroormacrolevel.Intheglobalfashionindustry,a
patternisatwo-dimensionalindustrialtemplateusedtocreateanynumberofthree-
456Ortiz,‘SocialSciencesandtheEnglishLanguage’,RevistaBrasileiradeCiênciasSociais,19.54(2004),5-22.457Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.458Ibid.
243
dimensionalgarments.Yetthetypeofpatterncandifferdrastically,nottomention
theendlesspossibilitiespriorandsubsequenttocutting,focusedpredominantlyon
thesurfaceofthegarmentandconcernedwithuseofdifferentfabrics,materials,
coloursanddecoration,eachofwhichisarticulatedanddifferentiatedaccordingto
theparticulardiscernmentsanddesiresofanindividual,group,cultureorcountry.A
revealingexampleofmundialization,inoperationonamicrolevel,hasbeenprovided
byMyleneMizrahi,whoconductedanethnographicstudyofthelocalappropriationof
aspecificBrazilianformofdenimwornbywomenatfavelaFunkBallsinRiode
Janeiro.459Whilstthejeanswornbydancersmayhaveappearedtobeagenericand
homogenousformofaglobalstyle,theywereproducedfromastretchyfabriccalled
moletom,whichwasnotdenimbutsimulateditsappearance.Thisdistinctivefabric
wasthickerthandenim,enablingrhinestones,embroideries,laceandotherfabricsto
beattachedtoit,aswellasrips,tearsandperforationstobemadeintoit,andclungto
themovingbodylikeasecondskin.TheresultwasadistinctivelyBrazilianre-
presentationofglobaldenimthatdrewmanyparallelswiththeLycrafashions
documentedinthefifthsnapshotthisthesisdiscussed,whichcapturedanAfro-
BraziliangirldancinginBahia;bothhadaseductivepowerasbody,clothinganddance
workedtogetherinmotion,whichpromptedviewerstoconsidernotonlyhowthe
Lycratopanddenimjeanslooked,butalsohowtheyfelt.
JustasMizrahiobservedthesubjectiveandsensoryexperiencesofBrazilian
jeansforwearerandviewer,Ortizreferredtomundializationinphenomenological
termsasaprocessthathasprovidedindividualswith‘anewwayof“being-in-the-
world”andestablish[ed]newideasandlegitimations’.460Suchastatementappeared
459MyleneMizrahi,‘“BrazilianJeans”:materiality,bodyandseductionatRiodeJaneiro’sFunkBall’inGlobalDenim,ed.byDanielMillerandSophieWoodward(Oxford:Berg,2011),pp.103-26.460Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.
244
tosuggestthatnotonlyistherenosingularglobalculture,butthereisnouniversal
experienceofglobalisation;rather,anindividual’sspecificengagementwiththe
processesofculturalmundializationareanchoredinhersubjectivesensory
perceptionsandexperiencesofhersurroundingenvironment.Thismundialized
sensoriummaytakediscursiveandnarrativisedforms,producingandfashioningnew
subjectivitiesandsensoryspacesacrossworld-timeandworld-space.Mundializationis
notsimplythehybridmixoflocalandglobal,asdiverseobjects,elementsandideas
interactandarere-fashioned,butalsothenewsensorymodesofperceptionand
experienceopenedupduringtheprocess.InaccordancewithOrtiz’sassertionthat‘a
globalizedworldimpliesapluralityofworldviews’,andbuildingupontheanalysis
madeinthepreviousfourchapters,thischapterseekstoconsiderhowtheBrazilian
subject,butalsotheNationalGeographicBrasilviewer,perceived,experienced,and
articulatedarelationtotheirsurroundingenvironmentthroughdress.
Thefinalcasestudythischapteranalysesexpandsmysnapshotmethodology
toexaminethreesnapshotswithinonearticle,whichwaspublishedinNational
GeographicBrasilinAugust2013.Thisarticlewasthecross-culturalproductofU.S.
photojournalistNadiaShiraCohenandherpartner,BrazilianphotojournalistPaulo
Siqueira.ItconcernedtheGuarani-Kaiowaindigenousgroup,whoinhabitareasofthe
central-WesternstateofMatoGrossodoSulinBrazil.461Ibeginbycontextualisingthe
articleandintroducingthemorespecificworld-viewthatinformsthegeographicaland
sensoryspacesthattheGuarani-Kaiowainhabit,whichwillbeusedtoanalysetheir
dresspractices.Imoveontoanalysethefirstsnapshot,whichwaspublishedonthe
461NadiaShiraCohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindigena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.116-31.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles.
245
left-handsideofadouble-pageviewwithinthemagazine.Thisanalysisisdevelopedin
thesecondsnapshot,whichexaminestheright-handsideofthesamedouble-page
viewasitwasre-framedandre-contextualisedforthedigitaliPadortableteditionof
NationalGeographicBrasil.Thefinalsnapshotadvancesbeyondthephotographic
analysismadeinthepreviousfourchaptersofthisthesisandexaminesathree-minute
filmthatwasproducedexclusivelyforthedigitaleditionofthearticle,tobeviewedon
aniPadortabletscreen.Thesethreecasestudies,locatedwithinonesnapshot,willbe
contextualisedwithcontemporaryexamplesfromthebroaderglobalmediascape.This
chapterconcludesbyknittingtogetheraseriesofconclusionstothefollowing
questions:howhasNationalGeographicBrasilfashionedanimageoftheGuarani-
Kaiowathroughtherepresentationoftheirdress,andtowhatextentcanindigenous
subjectsbeseentohaveself-fashioned?HasNationalGeographicBrasilhighlighted
thecomplexandshiftingprocessesofmundializationthroughwhichtheGuarani-
Kaiowahaveengagedandinteractedwiththetechnologicalandeconomicprocesses
ofglobalisation?Orhasitreducedtheseprocessestoaformofstandardisationand
homogenisation?
AnEthnographicGazeontheGuarani-Kaiowain2013
Thecasestudiesthischapterexamineswerepublishedwithinasixteen-page
article,writtenbyCohenandaccompaniedwithphotographsbySiqueira,entitled
‘Guarani:redearth.Theybelievetheyhaveaspiritualconnectiontotheplacewhere
theirancestorslived.InMatoGrossodoSul,fordecadesthisbeliefhasbathed
246
indigenousterritoryinblood.’462Thetitlereferencedthefertile,redearthofMato
GrossodoSul,anagriculture-richBrazilianstatethatbordersParaguayandBolivia,but
alsothebloodshedthathastakenplacethereasaresultofanincreasinglytense
stalematebetweenEuropean-descendedfarmersandindigenousgroups.Theregion
hasalargeproportionofhigh-valuefarmland,comprisedofsugarcaneandsoya
plantationsandcattleranches,whicharevitaltoBrazil’sincreasingeconomic
prosperityandsupportedbythedevelopmentalagendaofBrazilianPresidentDilma
Rousseff(1January2011-).463Theregionisalsohometoover61,000indigenous
people,themajorityofwhomareGuarani-Kaiowa.464Theconflictstemmedfroma
1988constitutionthatpromisedindigenouspeoplestherighttoinhabittheirancestral
lands,thoughnotthelegalrighttoownthem,aprocessofputtingthelawinto
practicethathasbeenconsiderablydrawnoutandjudiciallychallengedbythefarm
lobby.465Thisconstitutionovertheidentificationanddemarcationofsmallareasof
indigenouslandwasputinprocessin2007,andissupportedbyFUNAI,federal
prosecutorsandinternationalNGOs,buthasbeenrepeatedlyblockedbylegal
challenges,andopposedbyfarmers,thestategovernmentandFarmasul,theindustry
bodyforfarmers.466Indigenousgroupshavestagedaseriesofoccupationsof
462NadiaShiraCohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha.Elesacreditamterumaligaçãoespiritualcomolugaremqueseusantepassadosviveram.NoMatoGrossodoSul,essacrençahádécadasbanhadesangueoterritórioindigena’,NationalGeographicBrasil,August2013,pp.116-131.RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticles.463IncontrasttoLuizInacioLuladaSilvawho,althoughcriticisedbytheindigenousmovementduringhistimeinofficeoversawanumberofdemarcationsthatreturnedancestrallandstoindigenouspeoples,Rousseffisincreasinglyseenasaneconomicpragmatistwhoisinsensitivetoindigenousrights.ThisislargelyduetoherroleindisputesovertheBeloMontedamproject,whichwasexecuteddespitecriticismfromtheInter-AmericanCommissiononHumanRights.Anon.,‘Brazil:Clasheswithindigenousmovementwillrise’,inOxfordAnalyticaDailyBrief<https://www.oxan.com/>[accessed12February2015]464TherearethreesubgroupsoftheGuaranilivinginBrazil:theMbya,NandevaandKaiowa,eachwithsubtledifferencesinreligiousorientation,socialandpoliticalpractices,linguisticformsandcustoms.‘GuaraniKaiowa:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/guarani-kaiowa>[accessed3June2015]465Anon,‘Brazil:ClasheswithIndigenousMovementwillRise’,n.p.466Ibid.,n.p.
247
farmland,whichhasresultedinviolentexpulsionbyfarmsecurityguardsandfederal
police.Thetensionsbetweenlandownersandindigenouspeoplesthathavearisenin
MatoGrossodoSularerootedintheterritorialimportancethattheGuarani-Kaiowa
attachtothegeographicalareatheirancestorsinhabited.
ItisinthisrespectthatIintroducethecriticaltermthatconstitutestheworld-
viewoftheGuarani-Kaiowa.TheGuarani-Kaiowausethetermtekohatodenotethe
physicalplacesthattheyinhabit(whetherland,field,forest,water,animalsorplants),
andinwhichtheGuaraniteko(wayofbeing)isrealised.Thetekohahasbeendefined
as‘aresultandnotasadeterminingfactor,asacontinuingprocessofsituational
adjustment…definedbyvirtueoftheeffectivecharacteristics–materialand
immaterial–ofaccesstogeographicalspacebytheGuarani’.467Asacategorythat
onceconnotedsolelyterritorialspacefortheGuarani-Kaiowa,tekohahassince
acquiredgreatrelevanceandwideusageasasocio-political,culturalandmultisensory
spacethatencompassesbehaviour,habitatandculturalexpression,andinfluences
theirwayofbeing:ofthinking,feeling,acting,dressingandwearing.Thetekohaisnot
fixed,butcontinuouslyre-evaluatedinrelationtotheirchangingenvironment.A
parallelcanbedrawnherewithPierreBourdieu’sdelineationoftheevershifting
‘habitus’,whichhedefinedas‘structuredstructurespredisposedtofunctionas
structuringstructures,thatis,asprincipleswhichgenerateandorganizepracticesand
representationsthatcanbeobjectivelyadaptedtotheiroutcomes’.468Thehabitus
encompassesthecharacteristicnormsandtendenciesthatinfluencebehaviourand
thoughtinagivensocietyorgroupandstructuresthewaythatembodiedindividuals
live;likethetekoha,itentailsasituationaladjustmentandadaptationtoshifting
467‘GuaraniKaiowa:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/guarani-kaiowa>[accessed3June2015]468PierreBourdieu,TheLogicofPractice(Cambridge:PolityPress,1990),p.53.
248
surroundingsandunexpectedsituations.ThetekoharesonatedwithOrtiz’sassertion
thatmundializationwas‘atotalsocialphenomenon,whichpervadesallcultural
manifestations.Thewholegoestothecoreofitsparts,redefiningthemintheir
specificities.’469Thetekohamustbeunderstoodtheninphenomenologicalterms,asa
pervasivemanifestationoftheGuarani-Kaiowa’sembodiedexperienceandperception
of‘being-in-the-world’.470
CaseStudyOne:Magazine
Thefirstsnapshotthischapterexamines(Figs.6.0and6.1)wasprintedon
theleft-handsideofadouble-pageviewinNationalGeographicBrasil.Asetoffour
full-lengthphotographsofanonymousmembersoftheGuarani-Kaiowa,itwasplaced
oppositeaphotographofanindigenousmanreproducedontheright-handpage.471
Thesnapshothadastandardised,uniformquality,andstoodoutfromtheapparent
artlessnessthatcharacterisedthemajorityofimagespublishedwithinthearticle,
whichlayclosertowhattheNationalGeographicBrasilviewermayhaverecognisedas
asensationalist,photojournalisticaesthetic.Anexampleofthelattercanbeseenin
Figure6.2,afull-bleeddouble-pagespreadthatcapturedaGuarani-Kaiowanamed
Osoriobleedingfromaheadwoundfollowingaconfrontationwithalocal
landowner.472Itisadirectimage,instantlyrecognisableasreportageasaresultofits
hard-hittingsubjectmatter(accordingtoSusanSontag,‘warwasandstillisthemost
irresistible–andpicturesque–news’),andthechargedcompositionaltensionthat
469Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.470Ibid.,p.420.471Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,pp.126-27.472Ibid.,pp.120-21.
249
indiscriminatelycropsfragmentedbodiesoutofthephotographframe.473Incontrast,
thefourcarefullyframedidenticallysizedimagesthatconstitutethissnapshotwere
publishedinagridformationonanotherwiseblankmagazinepage.Theimagesshared
thecompositionalformatofasinglefigureposedinthecentreoftheframe:astyleof
representationdiscussedinthefirstsnapshotofthisthesisandsituatedwithinalong
traditionoftheessentialisedandobjectifiedethnographic‘type’,wherebythesubject
ispresentedwithinashallowpictureplane,instandardised,evenlighttoenableafull,
evenmathematical,mappingoftheindigenousbody.Here,thephotographerhas
maintainedastandardiseddistancefromhissubjects,andusedalargeapertureto
giveashallowerdepthoffield,whichlendsacrispnessandclaritytotheisolated
subjects,whoarecolourfullystagedagainstasoftlyblurred,lusciousgreen
background.Ostensibly,thisseductivefull-colourethnographicgaze,whichis
comparableincompositiontoStevens’monochromedocumentationoftheMakuman
andwomanin1926,encouragestheviewertostudytheisolatedandexoticsubjects
anthropometrically,asobjectsratherthanasinteractingsocialagents,andtomakea
comparativestudyoftheirdifferentmodesofdressfromwithintheuniformityoftheir
depiction.
Yetthecaptionthataccompaniedthisimageread:‘TheGuaranicallthese
takenlandstekohas.InPueblitoinIguatemi,anothermunicipality,residentstryto
buildalifeintheareaconsideredancestralterritory.’474Ithighlightedthetermtekoha,
anddrewtheviewer’sattentiontotheprocessofculturalmundializationbywhichthe
Guarani-Kaiowaattempttobuildanewlife,throughaprocessofsituational
adjustmenttotheirenvironment.Whilstthecaptionomittedtomentiondress,it
473Sontag,RegardingthePainofOthers,p.49.474Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,p.126.
250
situatedthesubjectsasinteractingsocialagentsratherthanessentialisedand
racialisedspecimens,andencouragedacloserexaminationofthefoursubjects.
Whereasethnographicphotographsweremadetocompareandcontrastdifferent
racesandethnicities,theseimagesdepictedsubjectsfromthesameindigenousgroup;
asaresult,ratherthansuggestingtheirhomogeneityasawhole,thesnapshotserved
toidentifyindividualdifferences.Theonlytypicalityistheserialapproachof
photographingthesubjects,sincethediversecharacteristicsofeachsubjectisshown
throughdress,pose,settingandtheirplacementwithinthephotographicframe.Each
subjectdisplayscalmandself-possessedexpressions,gesturesandposes,and
demonstrateshisorheragencyinself-fashioningbeforethephotographer’sgaze,
whichbecomesanimaginativespacetostagefancifulversionsofthemselves.
ThereisapalpableshiftinthissnapshotintherepresentationofGuarani-
Kaiowaidentity,fromsomethingfixed,tosomethingperformative.Thelittleboy
standswithhisfeettogetherandarmsandheadpoisedupwardsashefireshisplastic
gun(Fig.6.3);thelittlegirlstandslegsapartwithherhandscrossedinfrontofher,
lookingdowntoherright(Fig.6.4);thewomaninthetopleftportrait(Fig.6.5)stands
sidewaysonandlooksdownpensively,apparentlyabsorbedinherownthought,with
herhandsgentlyclaspingthehandleofagourdmaraca;andthewomaninthebottom
leftportrait(Fig.6.6),herfingerssplayedoverthetopoftwoceremonialstickspointed
intotheground,commandstheviewer’sattentionwithhersternexpression.Asthe
onlysubjecttodirectlyaddressthecamera(theotherslookup,downoroutsideofthe
pictureframe),sheformsthefocalpointofthesnapshot,compellingtheviewerto
meethergazeandpositioningherselfasanactiveparticipantofperceptionand
expression.AlisonGriffithshashighlightedtheparadoxicalqualitythatisattachedto
251
whatshetermsthe‘returngaze’,wherebyethnographicsubjectsdirectlymatchthe
gazeofthephotographer:‘Whileitsignalsthefilmmaker’s[orphotographer’s]agency
asthegathererofimages–wecollectimagesofthemandnotviceversa–atthesame
timeitcarrieswithitasubversiveordefiantelement,alookthatcouldbetranscribed
as“Iseeyoulookingatmeanddon’tlikeit”.’475Inthisexample,however,thesubject
appearscalm,composedandcomfortablewithherexposure,andtheimagecanbe
readlessasastraightforwardactofdefiancetoacontrollingphotographicgaze.Her
returngazeiscomparabletothatoftheBrazilianwomandocumentedinthefashion
boutiquebyStanmeyerin2011,examinedintheseventhsnapshotthisthesis
discussed,andsuggeststhatthenatureoftheinteractionbetweenphotographerand
subjectiscomplicitandconsensual,ratherthancontrolling.Thereisnoawkwardness
intheresultingimages,butratherasensethatthesubjectshadanincreased
awarenessandconsciousnessoftheirbodiesinphenomenologicalterms,asasubject
tobelookedat,andasanimagebeforethecamera.Thereisastillnesstothese
images,whichencouragesamoremeasuredandcontemplativeresponsefromthe
NationalGeographicBrasilviewerandisnotunexpected,giventhatprototypesfor
theseimageswereinitiallymadeusingalargeformatcamera,whichslowsdownthe
image-makingprocessanddemandsthatthesubjectsremainstillforaprolonged
periodoftime.476
Siqueiracommentedonthissnapshot:
WiththeseimagesIwasnottryingtopretendthattheyareobjective–theyareposedportraitsanditisobvious.Iallowedthesubjectstoshowthemselvesas
475AlisonGriffiths,WondrousDifference:Cinema,AnthropologyandTurn-Of-The-CenturyVisualCulture(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2002),p.200.476CohenandSiqueira,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.
252
theywished.ThisisamorerecentnewdirectionthatIhavetaken,awayfrommoretraditional,reportagephotography.477
RatherlikeScavone’sdescriptionofhisworkingmethodsinthepreviouschapter,he
describedhisrolewithintheimage-makingprocessasrelativelypassiveand
unmediated,butadvancedonestepbeyondScavonesince,intheseparticularimages,
he‘allowedthesubjectstoshowthemselvesastheywished’.478Heassertedthatthis
innovativeapproachdemonstratedashiftawayfrom‘moretraditional,reportage
photography’,inwhichsubjectsdonotposeandthephotographer,ashidden‘fly-on-
the-wall’witness,decidesonthecompositionandangleatwhichtocapturethem.
Siqueiradeemedthiswell-establishedphotojournalisticpracticetobeafaithful
transcriptionofreality.479Incontrast,withinthese‘posedportraits’,ratherthan
establishadistancefromhissubjects,Siqueiradistancedhimselffromtheimage-
makingprocess,beyondsettingupthecameraequipmentatauniformdistancefrom
eachsubject,andtakingthephotograph.TheimplicationhereisthatSiqueiradidnot
perceivetheseimagestorestwithintheconfinesofanobjective,documentarymode,
butrathersawthemasacontingentdramatisationofidentity,assubjectsperforming
theirownsubjectivities.480WhilstSiqueirapositedadividebetweenobjectivity,
‘traditionalreportage’,andsubjectivity,‘posedportraits’,healsoarticulatedalong
recognisedparadoxconcerningdocumentaryphotography,centredonan
understandingthatitissurelymorerealisttoallowsubjectstopresentthemselvesas
theywish,andtodisplayopenlythephotographicequipmentused,ratherthanto
catchthemoff-guard,andtoconstructtheiridentitiesfromadetermineddistance.481
477Ibid.478Ibid.479Ibid.480Ibid.481Ibid.
253
AlthoughnotopenlyacknowledgedbySiqueira,inmyreading,theseimageswerea
tangibledemonstrationofa‘performativedocumentary’,touseatermcoinedbyT.J.
Demos,wherein‘thedramatizationanddirecttransmissionofrealityintertwine’.482
ProducedinthesameyearthatCyprienGaillardcreated‘L’OrigamiduMonde’for
032c,thissnapshothintedathowamoreobjectivetruthmightbereclaimedthrough
narrativeconstructionandimaginativestorytelling,butoperatingonthepartofthe
Guarani-Kaiowasubjects,ratherthantheO32cviewer,whodramatisetheiridentities
throughdress.
Dressperformedacrucialrolewithinthissnapshotinarticulatingthe
subjects’identities,andfracturingthedistancebetweenNationalGeographicBrasil
viewerandGuarani-Kaiowasubject.Thereisanemphasisonthetextureand
materialityofthesubjects’colourfulclothing,whichrefusestoblendseamlesslyinto
thelushgreenenvironmentthatframesthem.Thesettingemphasisestherichness
andfertilityoftheenvironment,butalsotheimportancetheGuarani-Kaiowaattachto
theirtekohaasasourceofcultivatingfood,andcollectingrawmaterialsforuseas
firewood,remedies,utensils,tools,buildingsuppliesanddress.483Theirclothing
demonstratestheGuarani-Kaiowa’ssituationaladjustmenttotheirchanging
immediateenvironment,astheycreateoutfitsfromthetoolsandmaterialsthatthey
havetohandinaprocessthatdrawsongambiarra,whichwasdiscussedinthefirst
andeighthsnapshotsofthisthesis.Theimagesinviteatactilegazefromtheviewer,
whoseeyesmoveacrosstheglossyflatsurfaceofthemagazinepageandperceivethe
differenttexturespresented,fromthesoftcottonofWestern-styleT-shirts,the
482T.J.Demos,ReturntothePostcolony:SpectersofColonialisminContemporaryArt(Berlin:SternbergPress,2013),p.26.483‘GuaraniKaiowa:Introduction’,inPovosIndigenasnoBrasil,<http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/guarani-kaiowa>[accessed3June2015]
254
smoothfeelofapatternedpolyesterskirt,totheroughpatchesofdenimona
customisedskirt.Thetactilityoftheimagesinvitestheviewertoruntheirfingertips
acrossthepage,nottosimplylook,butalsotofeelthedresswornbythesubjects,
whodisplayacombinationofWestern-styleclothingandindigenouselementssuchas
beadednecklaces,bracelets,headdressesandskirtsfashionedfromstripsofcloth,
woolandplastic.484Thelittleboywearsmud-stainedpaleblueandgreenshorts,a
stripedT-shirt,redfacepaintandnecklacesmadeoffruitstones,gourdsandfound
objects.Thelittlegirlwearsadarkpurpletop,tie-dyeshorts,redfacepaintandaskirt
madefromdifferentcolouredwoolandplastictassels.Thewomaninthetopleft
portraitwearsanoversizedblueT-shirt,anorangebeadedandfeatherheaddress,
necklacesmadefromfruitstonesandfoundobjects(bones,gourds,animalskin,wood
andseeds),brownfacepaint,andaskirtmadefromdenim,feathers,fruitstonesand
blackT-shirtfabric.Thewomaninthebottomleftportraitwearsanelasticatedheavily
patternedskirt,anecklacemadeoffruitstonesandfeathers,acollectionofplastic
bracelets,andaredT-shirtthatreads‘FelizNatal’(‘MerryChristmas’inPortuguese).
Theviewerisencouragedtoidentifywiththesubjectsthroughtheirdress,totakeinto
accountitssensoryandexpressivemeanings,andtoexperiencevicariouslythetactile
fascinationthatinformstheGuarani-Kaiowa’sownrelationshiptotheirtekoha.
Althoughdresswasnotdirectlymentionedinthearticle,SiqueiraandCohen
wereclearlyinterestedintheclothingchoicesoftheGuarani-Kaiowa.485Adistinction
canthereforebedrawnfromtheBrazilianauthorsofthesnapshotsdiscussedinthe
previousfourchapters,oneofwhomevenconfessed:‘I'mnotanexpertonclothingor
484Itisimportanttoacknowledgethatmyuseoftheterm‘Western-styleclothing’istopointtothefactthatthestyle,evenifnotitsmanufacture,originatesinNorthAmericaandEurope.Maynard,DressandGlobalisation,p.12.485CohenandSiqueira,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.
255
femininebehavior’.486SiqueiraandCohendescribedhowdress‘hasshiftedalongwith
theGuarani-Kaiowa’sadaptationtotheirland.Todaytheyhaveincorporatedthe
materialsthattheyhavetohandintotheirdress.’487Thiscommentacknowledgedthe
Guarani-Kaiowa’scriticalassimilationofforeignelementsfoundwithintheirtekoha,
whicharere-fashionedtosuittheirownneedsandtastes.Anexamplecanbeseenin
theouterskirtwornbythewomaninthetopleftportrait,whichisacontemporary
adaptationofGuarani-Kaiowaceremonialdress,createdherefromapairof
deconstructedandre-stitcheddenimjeansandatorn-upblackT-shirtanddecorated
withaknottedbeltofwhitestonesandorangefeathers.SiqueiraandCohenexplained
thattheGuarani-Kaiowa‘usedtouseonlyfeathersfoundontheirland’asdecoration
fortheirdress,butnowtheyalsostrategicallyappropriateitemsfrommainstream
cultureand‘incorporatedifferentthingssuchasplasticbags,T-shirts,plasticbeads’.488
Anexampleofthecreativeutilisationofusedmaterialscanbeseenintheportraitof
thelittlegirl,whosedistinctiveskirthasbeenmadebyknottingtogetherrecycled
plasticbagsandwooltocreatehangingtassels.SiqueiraandCohencommentedthat
amongsttheGuarani-Kaiowa‘dressisverydifferent…therearethosewhowearonly
traditionaldress,thosewhoutilizeelementsoftraditionaldress,andthosewhodress
likenormalBrazilianteenagers’.489ThisremarkacknowledgedtheGuarani-Kaiowa’s
abilitytopickandchoosewhat,whenandhowtheyinteractwithitemsofglobaldress.
CohenandSiqueiradescribedhow‘theGuarani-Kaiowadressupforspecialoccasions,
forbattleandfordefense.Theyusedresstodemonstratetheirpersonaldesiresand
individualchoices.’490Thiscommentemphasisedtheflexibilityandfreedomthatthe
486Beliel,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.487CohenandSiqueira,PersonalCommunicationwithAuthor.488Ibid.489ibid.490Ibid.
256
Guarani-KaiowahaveintakingelementsofWestern-styledressandusingthemto
fashiontheirownindigenousidentities.Anexamplecanbeseenintheportraitofthe
womanwearingtheredT-shirtthatreads‘FelizNatal’.TheT-shirtisnotbeingworn
duringthefestiveperiodandtakesonanewmeaninginitsdifferentcontext.The
authorsacknowledged:‘Thelongerthatwestayedinthecommunity,webegantosee
changes.SomeoftheIndiansdidn’tweartraditionalclothesallofthetime,butothers
did,andothersdroppedtraditionalwearalltogether.Theyoungerkidswillnotgoto
thevillagedressedasIndiansbecausetheyareembarrassed,andtheybalkattheir
grandparentsfordressinglikethis.’491Thereisthesuggestionherethatyoung
membersofthegroupareashamedbytheirgrandparents’inabilitytoadaptand
negotiatechangethroughdress.Asawhole,theauthors’commentsacknowledged
thattheonlyaspectthatisWesternaboutGuarani-Kaiowaclothingisitsorigin,sinceit
hasbeenselectivelymodifiedandre-fashioned,anddemonstratestheprocessof
mundializationasproductstransferredacrosstheworldasaresultofeconomic
globalisationareusedstrategicallyforthecreationofpersonalandculturalindigenous
Brazilianidentities.
Arevealingpointofcomparisoncanbedrawnwithaphotographofan
anonymousGuarani-Kaiowagirl(Fig.6.7),whichwaspublishedon9October2013on
theonlineblogaccompanimenttotheBraziliannewspaper,OEstadodeS.Paulo,
withinanarticleentitled‘NGOsassociatehighrateofsuicideamongyoungIndiansto
landproblems’.492ThearticleexaminedincreasedsuicideratesamongsttheGuarani-
KaiowaandGuarani-Nandevacommunities,whichweremuchhigherthanthenational
491Ibid.492RoldaoArruda,‘ONGassociaaltataxadesuícidioentreíndiosjovensaproblemasfundiários’,<http://politica.estadao.com.br/blogs/roldao-arruda/ong-associa-alta-taxa-de-suicidio-entre-indios-jovens-a-problemas-fundiarios/>[accessed15March2015]
257
averageanddisproportionatelyaffectedadolescentsandyoungpeople.This
disproportionatetrendwasassociatedwiththeirsocialdislocationatlosingland
ownedbytheirancestors.Thearticledetailedthealcoholismandmalnutrition
widespreadonGuarani-KaiowareservationsthroughoutMatoGrossodoSul,andwas
publishedtocoincidewithWorldMentalHealthDayon10October2013.Itwas
accompaniedbyaphotograph,captioned‘GuaraniChild:forinternationalNGOsthe
solutiontotheproblemswouldbethemagnificationofindigenouslands’.Ayounggirl
staresdirectlyintothecameralensatcloserange,hersymmetricalbodyplaced
squarelyintheforeground.Shewearsadirty,oversizedwhitepatternedjumper,and
herlongdarkhair,plaitedatthefront,hangsforwardoverhershoulders.Sheregards
thecamerawithaninnocent,wide-eyedgaze,herhandsclaspedawkwardlyinfrontof
her,nervouslypullingatherjumper.WhereasinNationalGeographicBrasilthereisa
senseofthesubjectsasexhibitorsoftheirownactions,herethesubjectenactsa
dazedpassivity,whichismorelikelytoengendersympathyandpityintheviewerbut
refusestoacknowledgethesubjectasaninteractingagent.Thesubject’ssoiled
clothingisacleardemonstrationoftheproblemsfacedbytheGuarani,wholivein
overcrowdedreservationsandoftenhavelittleornoaccesstocleandrinkingwater,
medicinalplants,fuelandfood,whilstheryellowinghairisreflectiveofthesevere
malnutritionexperiencedbythecommunity.Adifferenttypeofidentificationbetween
viewerandsubjectisevokedinthisimage;inNationalGeographicBrasildress
revealedthevitalityofthecommunityandcontainedanelementofperformativity,
whereasherethepurposeoftheimageistoevokesympathy.Inthesecondsnapshot
thischapterexamines,however,whichwasalsointendedtobeviewedonadigital
screenasopposedtoamagazinepage,NationalGeographicBrasilriskedglossingover
theseriousproblemsfacedbytheGuarani-Kaiowa.
258
CaseStudyTwo:iPad
Thedouble-pageviewthatappearedinNationalGeographicBrasilwasalso
adaptedforaniPadeditionofthemagazine,whichwaslaunchedinDecember2012
andavailabletodigitalsubscribers.Inthefirstdigitaledition,thetheneditor-in-chief
ofNationalGeographicBrasil(May2000-May2013),MatthewShirtsenthused:
TheiPadeditionofNationalGeographicBrasilhasjustbeenlaunched!Thisisourfirsteditioninthisformat…itseemsthatthetabletcomputerwasmadeespeciallyforourmagazine.Thephotosaremorestunning,ifthatispossible,andthemapsandgraphicsareinteractive,facilitatingtheorganizationofinformation.Therearealsovideosthatcanleadyoutoanewdimensionofjournalisminmagazines.Thenewdigitalformatstimulatesthequalityofeditingmorethanthatprintedonpaper.493
Thedigitaleditionofthemagazinewaslockedsothatitcouldonlybeviewedin
landscapemode(Fig.6.8),aneditorialdecisionthatpromptedtheviewertoperceive
andexperiencetheimagesasaconstructednarrative,comparabletothesequencing
ofafilmstrip,ratherlikeSnapshot7bexaminedinChapterThree.Imageandtextwere
intentionallyisolated;toviewtheimages,whichwerepresentedonablack
background,theviewerwasrequiredtomakeahorizontalswipeacrossthescreen
(Fig.6.9),yettoreadthetext,whichwaspresentedonawhitebackground,theviewer
hadtomakeaverticalswipedownthescreen(Fig.6.10).Thehigh-resolutionimages
wereprivilegedoverthemonochromepagesoftext,whichreiteratedShirts’assertion
that‘Thephotosaremorestunning[…]Thenewdigitalformatstimulatesthequality
oftheeditingmorethanthatonprintedpaper’.494Shirts’emphasisontheproficiency
ineditingthatwasrequiredtoproducethedigitaleditionofthemagazineis
particularlyrelevanttoananalysisofdress,sinceNationalGeographicBrasilwould
493MatthewShirts,‘DoEditor’,NationalGeographicBrasil[digitaledition],December2012,n.p.494Ibid.
259
necessarilyhavebeenrequiredtoconsiderhowparticulartextures,materials,colours
anddecorationappearedwhenre-framedinhigh-resolutiononthedigitalscreen.495
IntheAugust2013iPadedition,thesamesetofportraitsexaminedinthe
previoussnapshotwasre-framedonablackbackgroundforthedigitalscreen(Figs.
6.11and6.12).496Themalesubjectseatedinanarmchairdominatedthebackground
ofthescreen,andservedasthepointofdeparturefromwhichtheviewercould
choosetoselectanyoftheotherfourportraitstoview,whichwerenowprintedin
close-upthumbnailsrunningdowntheleft-handsideofthescreen(Fig.6.13).The
digitaleditionofNationalGeographicBrasilalsoincludedthreenewportraitsnot
includedinthemagazine,whichcapturedtheirsubjectsinavarietyofmodes:dwarfed
bytheirsurroundings(Fig.6.14),attheveryfrontofthephotographframesothatthe
entirebodycannotbecapturedwithinit(Fig.6.15),andaclose-upshowingonlythe
headandtorsoinfocus,againstablurredbackgroundofblueskyandgreenvegetation
(Fig.6.16).Touchwasnowacrucialpartoftheviewingexperience,sincetheactive
viewerwasgivenachoiceastowhichimagestoview,andinwhichordertoview
them,whichwereselectedbypressingonindividualthumbnailswithafingertip.This
interactiveelementdispelledclaims,asdiscussedinthethirdchapter,whichargue
thatdigitalimageshaverenderedtheviewerpassiveandimmobile.Furthermore,the
shinyflatsurfaceoftheiPadnowreflectedtheNationalGeographicBrasilviewer’s
faceontothescreen,sothatsheislikelytohaveexperiencedthesimultaneous
sensationoflookingbutalso,beinglookedbackat.Thisreflectedgazehighlightedthe
495Inhisdiscussionofdigitalfashionfilms,GaryNeedhamhasnotedthat‘clothesarechosenforthescreenbecausetheyfilmwellratherthanwearwellandthisalsoextendstothecomputerscreen–wherefashionimagesexistaselectronicinformation,filesandcoding.Theywayclotheslook,andhowcertainfabricsandcolourswillappearonthedigitalscreen,arenowtakenintoconsiderationatthelevelofdesignandproduction’.GaryNeedham,‘TheDigitalFashionFilm’,inFashionCulturesRevisited,ed.byStellaBruzziandPamelaChurchGibson(London:Routledge,2013),pp.103-111(p.104).496Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,NationalGeographicBrasil[digitaledition],August2013,n.p.
260
viewer’sownprocessofidentityconstruction–theviewercouldnothelpbutcatch
sightofherownreflectioninthescreenandperhaps,self-consciouslyadjustedher
hair,orre-presentedherselfaccordingly–andindoingso,drewaparallelwiththe
Guarani-Kaiowasubjects’subjectiveprocessesofpresentingthemselvesbeforeagaze.
Thisreturngazewasparticularlyemotivewhenthephotographofthewomaninthe
red‘FelizNatal’T-shirtwasviewedontheiPad,sinceherreturnedgazeactedasa
palimpsestovertheviewer’sgazereflectedonthescreen,promptinganintimate
connectionbetweenNationalGeographicBrasilviewerandGuarani-Kaiowasubject.
Yettheviewer’sreflectedgazeonthedigitalscreenwasmoreproblematicinthe
secondcasestudythischapterexamines,asthefollowinganalysisreveals,sincethe
malesubjectrefusedtomeetthegazeofthephotographerandbyextension,the
viewer.
Inthissnapshot,themalesubjectisseatedoutsideinawornbrownarmchair,
againstaverdantbackdropofcrops,greenfieldandexpansivebluesky.Withhishead
lowered,andbodyinclinedtowardstheviewer,hegazesdownpensivelyandstaresat
theground.Hisleftpalmleansonawoodenstick,whilsthisrighthandholdsagourd
maraca.Althoughre-presentedonthescreenusingportraitconventions,muchasit
hadbeeninthemagazine,thereisade-familiarisationwiththeestablishedcodesof
portraiture,sincethesubject’sfaceandbodylanguagerefusetocommunicatewith
theviewer.Whilstdenyingastraightforwardidentificationbetweenviewerand
subject,theviewerisneverthelessseducedbythethree-dimensionaltactiletextures
thattheimageencompasses,fromtheroughfabricofthedirtydishevelledsofa,the
ribbedcottonofthesubject’smint-greenshirt,thesoftblue,redandgreenfeathers
thatadornhisheaddress,tothestringofshinybeadsandsmoothshellsthathewears
261
aroundhisneck.Thesetactilefabricshadanincreasedclaritywhenre-producedon
thehigherresolutioniPadscreen,enablingtheviewertodiscernmoreoftherangeof
differentsurfacetextures,andencouraginghertoconsidernotonlyhowtheylook,
butalsohowtheyfeel.Thesesurfacesleadthevieweraroundtheimageand
encourageasensualgazethatdelvesbeyondthetwo-dimensionalshinyhardflat
surfaceoftheiPadscreen,andencouragesanintersubjectiverelationshipwiththe
dressedsubject.Theensemblewornbythesubject,whosenamethecaptioninforms
usisAvaTapeRendy’i,displaysadiscriminateappropriationandre-presentationof
dressfromtwodifferentculturalsystems,bothWesternandindigenous.His
combinationofcollaredshirtandCargoshorts,wornwithdecorativeitemsfrom
Guarani-Kaiowamaterialculture,isapalpabledemonstrationthatglobalisationdoes
notengenderthelossoflocalformsofdress,butratherisamundializedprocessof
simultaneousfragmentationandreinventionaslocalandglobalitemsofclothing
interact.
Yetaphenomenologicalengagementwiththesubject,andanunderstandingof
hisphenomenologicalengagementwithhisownenvironment,wasunderminedbythe
accompanyingcaptiontotheimage,whichglossedoversartorialsubtletiesand
positionedthesubjectwithinaWesternart-historicalframework.Itread:‘Thespiritual
leaderAvaTapeRendy'i,oftheTeykueindigenouslandinCaarapó,posesinthe
cornfieldoftheSaintHelenafarm.’497Poseisanoverloadedchoiceofwordthatpoints
totheobviouslystagednatureofthehighlyaestheticisedandtheatricalcomposition.
Thesubject’sposesituatedtheimagevisuallywithintheWesternart-historicalcanon,
surelyrecognisabletoaneducatedBrazilianreadership,inwhichtheprincipalsubject
iscrowned,seatedonathrone,framedcentrallywithintheimage,gazingdownand497Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,NationalGeographicBrasil[digitaledition].
262
holdingsymbolicobjectsinopenpalms.498Thereisanoverridingsense,particularly
whencomparingthisimagetothefourphotographsexaminedinthepreviouscase
study,whereinthesubjectsappearedtorelishtheopportunitytoself-fashionbefore
thecamera,thatthesubject,whoisperhapslesslikelythanSiqueiratohavehadan
awarenessofthecontinuumofsimilarWesternart-historicalimages,hasbeen
fashionedbythephotographer,anddirectedtoremaininthisdramaticposeforthe
durationoftheshot.ThereisanawarenessofAvaTapeRendy'i’spassivesubmission
tothephotographicgaze,ashisheadhangslimplyforwards,andheispositioned
withinafictivemise-en-scèneofSiqueira’schoosing.Thereisacontrastbetweenthe
NationalGeographicBrasilviewer,whoviewsthisimageonthedigitalscreen,and
seesherownidentityreflectedback,andtheGuarani-Kaiowasubject’sinabilityto
asserthisidentity;withhisheadhangingforwards,heisplacedasanobjecttobe
surveyedandcontrolled,ratherthanasubjecttoengageindialoguewith.This
asymmetricalbalanceofpowerbetweentheactiveviewerandpassivesubjectwas
reversedinthefinalcasestudythischapterexamines,whichengagedwiththe
mediumoffilmpresentedonthedigitalscreen,andprovidedarareopportunityfor
thetactileandvisceralqualitiesofGuarani-Kaiowadresstobecapturedinthree-
dimensionalmotion,whichpreviouslycouldonlybesuggestedinthephotographs
presentedinthemagazine,onthewebsite,andontheiPadscreen.
CaseStudyThree:Film
Thefinalsnapshotthischapterexaminesistheshortfilmreproducedonthe
iPadeditionofthemagazine,whichwasentitled‘SemSolução:ogovernofederalnem498ThisWesternarthistoricalcanonincludedpaintingssuchas,tocitebutoneexample,theearlyfifteenth-centuryGhentaltarpiece,executedbyJanvanEyckin1430-42.
263
indenizaosruralistasnemregularizeasterrasindigenas’[‘Hopeless:thegovernment
neitherindemnifiesthefarmersnorregulatestheindigenouslands’].499Itwasfunded
byPlanetaSusteneval,andspeciallymadebyCohenandSiqueiraforthedigitaledition
ofNationalGeographicBrasil,servingasarecordoftheirsix-daytripduringwhich
timetheyphotographedtheGuarani-Kaiowa.Thefilmopenedwithapost-Apocalyptic
sceneasbillowingorangeandgreysmokeemergedfromthesilhouetteofatallforest,
andpollutedacloudlessskybarelyvisibleinthebackground(Figs.6.17and6.18).A
carefullyselectedsoundtrackofcracklingfirewasinterwovenintothesceneto
produceapotentsymbolofthedestructiveeffectsofcolonisationonindigenous
lands.Asthesoundofadecoratedgourdinstrumentbeingmeditativelyplayed
graduallydisplacesthesoundofcracklingfire,anemotivepalimpsestisenacted,and
theframeswitchestothetorsoofAvaTapeRendy’i,recognisablefromtheprevious
photograph,wearingbeadednecklaces,bodypaintandafeatheredheaddress,singing
asheperformed(Fig.6.19).Itisthefirsttimethatwehaveseenindigenousdressin
motion,andhowitconnectstoperformance,danceandsong,andafeelingofco-
presenceisengenderedbetweenviewerandsubject,throughthesenseoftactile
closenesspromptedbythezoomedinshot,whichprovidesacompellingfeelingof
beinginthemidstoftheaction,of“beingthere”withthesubject.Thereisa
mesmerisingqualityasAvaTapeRendy’i’sdressmovesinthree-dimensionalforms;
themusclesofhisrightarmflexasheshakesthemaraca,causinghisredandblack
bodypainttopulsate,thetasselsthatdecoratetheinstrumentmoveintimetothe
music,hisbeadednecklacesjingleandthefeathersonhisheaddressflutterashe
swayshisheadintimewiththemusic.Despitetheflatsurfaceofthedigitalscreenthis
499SemSolução:ogovernofederalnemindenizaosruralistasnemregularizeasterrasindigenas,dir.byPauloSiqueira(Brazil:PlanetaSusteneval,2013).RefertoAppendix8:TranslatedArticlesforatranslationofthefilm’sdialogue.
264
rangeoftactilesensationsandtexturespresentedinmotiongiveasimulatedsenseof
touch.Whilstthereisanelementoftheatricalitytothisperformance,thecameradoes
notlingeronAvaTapeRendy’ilongenoughforhimtobecomeanethnographic
spectacle,butratherswitchestoSiqueiraandCohen,whoaresurveyedwitha
comparablecuriositybutcapturedinWestern-styledressastheyfollowagroupof
Guarani-Kaiowa.
SiqueiraisdressedinjeansandaT-shirtandcarriesafoodsackonhisshoulder
(Fig.6.20).Cohenfollows,dressedinastrappyblackvesttopandrolledupdenim
jeans,carryingherpinkandorangeNiketrainersinonehandandhergreenHavaianas
flip-flopsintheother(Fig.6.21).AvoiceoverbySiqueiraexplainedthatthereare
around50,000GuaranilivinginBrazilatthemoment,andthatheandNadiahadcome
todocumentthedisputesovertheirlands.Throughoutthetwo-minutefifty-eight
secondsduration,viewerswitnesstheGuarani-Kaiowaastheyfulfildailyactivities
suchaswashing,cookingandfarmingtheland.Amemorablescenecapturesa
Guarani-KaiowamaninacombinationofWestern-styledressandindigenousjewellery
standingbeforeagroupofmen,alsoinacross-culturalmixofsartorialelements,
insideahut.Thevoiceovercaptureshimprovidingthepresumedperspectiveofthe
farmers:‘Theindigenousdon’twork,sowhatistheirinterestintheland,itisall
crazy.’500ThroughoutweareconstantlypresentedwithphotographsofCohen(whois
alsoaphotographer,althoughmostofthephotographsprintedinthemagazinewere
shotbySiqueira)documentingtheGuarani-Kaiowa.Shebendsdownandcroucheslow
togetthebestshot.Sheisreflectedwithhercamerainthecarwindscreen.These
shotsareveryself-reflexiveanddonottrytohidethepresenceofthephotographer;
theyemphasiseinsteadthesubjectivityofbothCohenandSiqueira,whichdisrupts
500SemSolução,0.58.
265
anynotionoftheirroleasanall-controlling,distancedethnographicgaze.
Representationisinsteadpresentedasafluidprocess,opentovariousdifferent
interpretations,andisreminiscentofacommentthatCohenmakesinthetextofthe
article,whichencouragestheviewertothinkabouthowtheGuarani-Kaiowamight
alsoperceivethephotographers:
OursocietyromanticizestheIndians.WetendtothinkthattheGuaraniwanttoreturntotheirancestralland,plantnewtreesforthewildlifetoreturnandthenliveinhuts,huntalldayandprayatnightdressedinfeathers.Notquite.‘YougoarounddressedasPedroAlvaresCabralin1500?’TonicoBenitesasksthephotographerPauloSiqueira,whoaccompaniesme.BenitesisGuaraniandteachesanthropologyattheFederalUniversityofDourados.‘DoeshavingamobileandcomputermakemelessIndian?Weareevolvingalongwithmodernsociety,likeanyotherethnicgroup,’hesays,aswetakeacoffeeatmyhotelinthecity.501
Thefilmcomprisedaestheticisedimagesthathadappearedinthemagazine,and
footageoftheirtripandinteractionswiththeirsubjects.Itclosedwithaphotographof
oneofthefarmers,namedasDacioQueirozSilva,asheexplainsthatifthe
governmentpaidfarmersconsiderablecompensationthentheywouldleavethearea:
‘Thereisnosolution.Ifyousay:“No,but,thereisanamendmenttothebudgetforthe
indemnificationagreementoftheland!”“So,giveme,giveme,thenIwillbeleaving
…”’502AlthoughnoneoftheGuarani-Kaiowaarenamed,unlikeSiqueira,Cohenand
Silva,theyaregivenanopportunitytorepresentthemselvessartoriallythroughthe
film,demonstratinghowclothingmovesontheirbodiesandfitsintotheirsurrounding
environment,theirtekoha.Thehapticvisualqualitiesoftheirdressinmotion
engendersasenseoftouch,drawingtheviewerin,andencouraginghertoconsiderits
formincloserdetail,producinganintenseawarenessofanactiveself-fashioning
Guarani-Kaiowapresence.WhereasNationalGeographicBrasilusedfilmtoproduce
anintimaterelationshipbetweentheviewerandGaurani-Kaiowadresspresentedon501Cohen,‘Guaranis:terravermelha’,p.130.502SemSolução,2.28.
266
thescreen,demonstratingitslivedandsubjectiveexperienceasamanifestationof
individualtastes,aratherdifferentrepresentationofGuarani-Kaiowadressisseenin
thefilmBirdwatchers,producedbyItalian-ChileandirectorMarcoBechis.503
Birdwatchers,afictionalfilmthatwasshotpredominantlywithouttheuseofa
scriptandusedmanyuntrainedGuarani-Kaiowaasactors,neverthelessreducedthe
indigenousgroup’sinteractionswithglobalisationtoaformofstandardisationthatled
toafragmentationofgroupidentity.TheopeningscenecapturedagroupofEuropean
birdwatcherssailingalongapicturesqueriverinMatoGrossodoSul(Fig.6.22),where
theycomeintocontactwithagroupofGuarani-Kaiowahidingintheverdanttreesthat
linetheriverbank(Fig.6.23).Theindigenouspeoplearearmedwithbowsandarrows
andwearloincloths,beadedjewellery,featheredheaddressesandbodypaint(Figs.
6.24-6.26).Afewreleasetokenarrowsfromtheirbowsforthebenefitofthetourists.
ThescenealludestowhatDeborahRoothasarguedistheinsatiable‘appetite’ofa
Europeanaudiencefortheexotic‘other’,asasourceof‘violence,passionand
spirituality’.504Thisnotionisamplifiedbythesecondscene,whichwatchedthe
Guarani-KaiowachangebackintotheirusualWestern-styleclothesofjeansandT-
shirts,andcollectscantpaymentfortheirexoticdisplay(Figs.6.27andFig.6.28)from
thewealthyEuropean-descendedlandownerRoberto,whoprofitsconsiderablyfrom
theEuropeantouriststhathehostsonhislavishestate,nottomentionhisrich
suppliesofsugar,soy,wood,beefandbiofuels.Withaerialshotsthatjuxtapose
denselywoodedforestandopenfieldsofcattleandcrops,thefilmconfrontsthe
devastatingeffectsofEuropeancolonisationupontheregionandthedisplacement
sufferedbytheGuarani-Kaiowa,whoaredehumanised,impoverished,livingonsmall
503Birdwatchers,dir.byMarcoBechis,(Brazil:ParisFilmes,2009).504DeborahRoot,CannibalCulture:Art,AppropriationandtheCommodificationofDifference(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1996),backcover.
267
reservesandmakeshiftprotestcamps,andtreatedwithpatronisingpaternalismby
mainstreamBraziliansociety.ThisismostevidentthroughtheyoungfigureofIreneu
(Fig.6.29),whouseshiswagesfromharvestingsugarcaneonthelandowner’s
plantationtobuyabrandnewpairofsneakersfromtheshoppingmall(Fig.6.30).He
isscoldedbyhisalcoholicfatherNadio,whoremonstratesthatheoughttohave
purchasedadditionalsuppliesfromthelocalshoptoprovideforthemalnourished
community.IreneuisaccusedbyNadioofneglectingtraditionalGuarani-Kaiowa
cultureand,inaclimacticscenetowardstheendofthefilm,hecommitssuicide.The
makeofIreneu’ssneakersisunknownsincethecameraintentionallyneverfocuses
longenoughuponthem,andsotheyserveasahomogenousexpressionofgeneric
globalculture,whichliterallywipesoutanindigenousGuarani-Kaiowalifeintheface
ofitsdominance.BirdwatcherspresentsGaurani-Kaiowasubjectsasfragile,withalack
ofagencythroughdress.Thereisanincreasedawarenessasthefilmprogressesthat
Bechisoughttocapturetheindigenousgroupbeforetheirpresumeddemise,ina
processthatdrewonsalvageethnographydiscussedinthefirstandthirdchapterof
thisthesis.Incontrast,NationalGeographicBrasilpresentedtheGuarani-Kaiowaas
individualsperformingtheirownsubjectivities,ratherthanasobjectsofacontrolling
anddehumanisingethnographicgaze.WhereasBechisfashionedtheGuarani-Kaiowa
asdoomed,onthereceivingendoftheasymmetricalglobalrelationsofpower,
NationalGeographicBrasilhighlightedtheirvitalitythroughmundialization,and
integratedacritiqueofWesterndocumentaryphotographyandethnographicimage-
makingintoarepresentationofGuarani-Kaiowadress.
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ThischapterhasusedOrtiz’sconceptofmundializationtoexaminethree
snapshotsthatwerepublishedwithinanarticleinNationalGeographicBrasilinAugust
2013.Mundializationcanbeunderstoodastheculminationofthefourtheoretical
conceptsemployedinthepreviousfourchapters,andithasbeenusedtoconsider
howBrazilianculturalexpressionsarenolongerfashionedin-betweenBrazilandthe
West,butaremanifestationscompetingagainstmanyothersinaglobalsystem.This
methodologicalframeworkhasbeenparticularlyusefulforanexaminationofNational
GeographicBrasilinthepost-2010period,whenthemagazinebegantopositionitself
morepragmaticallyanddynamicallyinrelationtoNationalGeographic.Ireturnto
Ortiz’sassertionthat‘thereisnoglobalculture;onlyaprocessofcultural
mundialization’.505Thisfluidconceptwasusedtohighlighttheimprovisationalnature
ofGuarani-Kaiowadress,whichwasunderstoodwithinthecontextofthetekoha,the
frameworkthatdenotesthephysicalplacesthattheGuarani-Kaiowainhabit,butalso
theirsituationaladjustmenttotheirchangingimmediateenvironment.
Thefirstcasestudywasexaminedasitwaspublishedwithinthemagazineand
consistedoffourposedportraits,eachofwhichenabledthesubjectstoself-fashion
andself-presentbeforethephotographer’sgaze.Thetactilequalitiesofdress
encouragedtheNationalGeographicBrasilviewertovicariouslyexperiencethe
fascinationthattheGuarani-Kaiowahavewiththeirtekoha,andtherewasatangible
sensethatthemagazinehadtakenadistancefromsubjects,providingaspacefor
themtostagefancifulversionsofthemselves,ratherthanimposingastyleof
representationuponthem.ThisphotographicapproachenabledtheGuarani-Kaiowa
todemonstratetheirindividualsartorialinteractionswiththetechnologicaland
economicprocessesofglobalisation,andrevealednoovertstandardisationor505Ortiz,‘ProblematizingGlobalKnowledge’,p.402.
269
homogenisationtotheirrepresentation,beyondthegridformationinwhichsubjects
werepresented.CohenandSiqueiraclearlyhadanawarenessofGuarani-Kaiowadress
practicesasaformofmundialization,whichwasashiftbeyondeachofthe
photographersandauthorsinterviewedinthepreviouschapters,noneofwhom
professedtobeparticularlyinterestedindress.Thisworkedtounderminethe
asymmetricalrelationsofpowerbetweenNationalGeographicBrasilandBrazilian
subjects.
ThesecondandthirdcasestudieswereexaminedaspresentedontheiPad
editionofNationalGeographicBrasil.Therangeoftactiletexturesinthephotographic
portraitofAvaTapeRendy’i,whichwasre-presentedforthescreeninhighresolution,
ostensiblybroughttheviewerclosertothesubject,andencouragedanawarenessof
hisabilitytoself-fashion.Yettherewasasensethatthesubjectmayhavebeenposed,
orfashioned,bySiqueira,inadramaticmise-en-scènethatdrewontheWesternart-
historicalcanon.Therewasastandardisationinherenttothisrepresentationalgesture,
whichdrewaveiloverthesubject’sdiscriminatenegotiationandre-negotiationof
dressfromtwodifferentculturalsystems,Westernandindigenous.Thefinalcase
studywasashortfilm,producedexclusivelyforthedigitaleditionofthemagazine.The
re-presentationofdressinmotion,andtheclose-upandtactilequalitiesoffilm,
providedasubstitutionfortouchandencouragedtheNationalGeographicBrasil
viewertoperceivethesubjectsasself-fashioningindividualswithinathree-
dimensional,multisensoryframework.Thismodeofrepresentation,notpreviously
examinedwithinthisthesis,producedanintersubjectiverelationshipbetween
Guarani-Kaiowasubjectsandtheviewer,anddrewherattentiontheindividual,
mundializedprocessesoftheindigenousgroup’ssartorialinteractionswithglobal
270
culture.Ratherthananover-saturationanddesensitisationofimagerypresentedon
thedigitalscreen,thefinalcasestudypromptedamoreintimate,nuancedresponse
fromtheviewer,whichprovidedanopportunityfortheGuarani-Kaiowatorepresent
theirownsubjectivitiesthroughdress,gestureandperformance.
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Conclusion
• Snapshot1:TheMakuWoman’s‘OldPieceofCloth’,April1926(Fig.7.0)• Snapshot2:PaulistaWomen’sWhiteSportswear,October1942(Fig.7.1)• Snapshot3:TheCintaLargaWomen’sBlackBodyPaint,September1971(Fig.
7.2)• Snapshot4:Djaui’sRedT-shirtandAdidasShorts,December1988(Fig.7.3)• Snapshot5:TheAfro-BrazilianGirl’sLycraTopandDenimJeans,August2002
(Fig.7.4)• Snapshot6:TheYanomamiBoy’sGazeattheNationalGeographic
Photographer’sClothing,September2001(Fig.7.5)• Snapshot7:BiancaMarque’sBikinisandVictorDenzk’sDresses,September
2011(Fig.7.6and7.7)• Snapshot8:TheMayongongMan’sRawhideBagandCottonLoincloth,July
2000(Fig.7.8)• Snapshot9:LourençoLoy’sRedandWhiteBandanaandGoldMedallion,
February2001(Fig.7.9)• Snapshot10:TheJapanese-BrazilianWomen’sCottonYucataandWooden
Geta,June2008(Fig.7.10)• Snapshot11:TheGuarani-Kaiowa’sWestern-styledressandFeathered
Headdresses,August2013(Figs.7.11,7.12and7.13)
Thisthesissetouttoexaminethehypothesisthat,sinceNationalGeographic’s
centenaryeditioninSeptember1988,themagazinehastracedthebeginningsofa
differentviewofencounterswithintheUnitedStates-Brazilcontactzone,drivenby
theforcesofglobalisation,whichhaveresistedtheprocessesofobjectification,
appropriationandstereotypingthatpreviousscholarshiphasassociatedwiththe
rectangularyellowborder.IthypothesisedthatthiswasbecausephotographsofBrazil
publishedinNationalGeographicsince1988haveprovidedevidenceofafluidand
variouspopulation,whichhasselectedandexperimentedwithpreferredelementsand
ideasderivedfromNorthAmericanandWesternEuropeandress,anduseditto
fashiontheirown,distinctlyBrazilianidentities.Thetemporalandgeographicalscope
ofthisthesis,aswellasitsprimaryfocusondressandfashion,emergedfrom
dissatisfactionthatacademicdiscoursetodatehasnotconsideredhowNational
GeographicmayhavefashionedBraziliansubjectswithinthecontextofcontemporary
272
sociallife,whichhasunequivocallybeentransformedbyglobaleconomicandcultural
exchange.Equally,andtoensurethatIdidnotprivilegeaWesternperspective,it
soughttoconsiderhowBraziliansubjectsmighthaveself-fashioned,and
demonstratedaresilience,ingenuityandinventivenessinnegotiatingandmodifying
commoditiesandideasthathavematerialisedthroughcross-culturalencounter.I
selectedBrazilasacasestudyduetoitslonghistoryofculturalandethnicdiversity,
whichisdemonstratedinthemultifacetednatureofBraziliandressandfashion.Brazil
embodiestheslipperinessofthetensionsbetweenthe‘Western’andthe‘non-
Western’,andenjoysaninfluentialpositioninLatinAmericaand,increasingly,onthe
worldstage,whichcastsdoubtuponsimplisticassertionsofU.S.culturalandsartorial
imperialism.Thesefactorsraiseinterestingquestionsabouthowarecognisableimage
ofBrazilhasbeennarratedtoanincreasinglyglobalreadershipbymeansofNational
Geographicand,sinceitsestablishmentinMay2000,NationalGeographicBrasil.This
thesishasemployedamultidisciplinarymethodofanalysisthatusesfiveBrazilian
scholarswhohavedeployeddressandfashionmetaphorsintheirwritings,whichhave
encompassedpoetry(Andrade),filmstudies(Stam),poststructuralisttheory
(Santiago),literarycriticism(Schwarz)andanthropology(Ortiz).Thishasprovideda
crucialopportunitytounderstandcontactbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazilthat
wasrepresentedinNationalGeographic,notsolelyfromtheperspectiveofthe
magazine,butalsotakingintoaccountthepracticesandlivedexperienceofdressfor
self-fashioningBraziliansubjects.
Thisconclusiontiestogetherthevariousthreadswoventhroughoutthisthesis
todeducetowhatextentitshypothesishasprovenaccurate,andtohighlightany
areasinwhichithasbeentested.Indoingso,itconsidersthetheoreticalimplications
273
ofthisthesis’findingsinrelationtothewideracademicdiscourseonNational
Geographic,whichhascondemnedtheprimitivisingandexoticisinggazethatthe
magazinehaspurportedlyplacedonnon-Westernsubjects.Thisconclusionprovides
answerstothefollowingfiveresearchquestionsthatwerepositedintheintroduction
tothisthesis:howhasNationalGeographicfashionedandnarratedanimageofBrazil
throughitsrepresentationofBraziliandressandfashion?Howdothese
representationalstrategiesrelatetothoseofthebroaderglobalmediascape?Howdo
themagazine’sdifferentgazesontoBraziliandressandfashionreflectglobal,political,
social,culturalandeconomicattitudesandagendasbetweentheUnitedStatesand
Brazil?Howmightphotographicsnapshotsofdressbreakoutofthesedifferentgazes,
whetherethnographic,documentaryorfashionable,byenablingactiveBrazilian
subjectstoself-consciouslyfashion,throughpose,performance,expression,gesture
andthemobilisationoftheirownmultiplegazes?Howdoestherepresentationof
BraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilcastalightuponNationalGeographic’s
representationalstrategies?Itwillhighlightthenewconclusionsprovidedbyacross-
cultural,dress-historicalanalysisofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicsince1988,
outlineanylimitationsencounteredand,briefly,considerpotentialavenuesforfuture
research.
HowhasNationalGeographicfashionedandnarratedanimageofBrazilthroughits
representationofBraziliandressandfashion?
Thefirstpartofthisthesis,comprisedofchaptersone,twoandthree,has
demonstratedthatthroughoutthehistoryofNationalGeographic’sdocumentationof
Brazil,clothingand/orbodilyadornmenthasbeenusedbythemagazineasacrucial
274
indicatorofBraziliansubjects’identities,whetherindigenous(snapshotsone,three,
fourandsix),whiteEuropean(snapshotstwoandseven),orAfro-Brazilian(snapshot
five).FromApril1926toSeptember2011,dressandfashionhaveprovidedaprimary
visualsymbolofculturalpracticesthatarepresumedtobeatcertainpointsdifferent
from,butatothertimessimilarto,thoseoftheNationalGeographicviewer.Theseven
snapshotsdiscussedinthefirstpartofthisthesisdemonstratedthatnotonlydidthe
magazineusedressasatooltooppressBraziliansubjectsandemphasisetheirexotic
difference,asLutzandCollins,Steet,andRothenberghavepointedout,italsoused
clothingtopresentthecomplexcross-culturaltensionsbetweenhomogeneityand
heterogeneity,asBraziliansubjectsnegotiatedandre-negotiatedtheforcesof
globalisation.
Asthisthesishasdemonstrated,hybridformsofdresswereapparentin
NationalGeographic’sdocumentationofBrazilintheperiodpriorto1988,which
confirmedthatcross-culturalsartorialengagementsandnegotiationswerealready
takingplacebefore,aswellasafter,theunravellingofthefabricofabipolarColdWar
world.PhotographspublishedinNationalGeographicduringthisperioddrewless
visualattentiontothesubtletiesofBraziliandress,andwereoftenreliantinstead
uponaccompanyingcaptionstoexplainthattheclothingwornbysubjectswasa
carefulandconsideredchoice.Thecaptionsarticulatednewsartorialframesof
reference,whichdisruptedtheasymmetricalpowerrelationsthatpreviousscholarship
hasattributedtoNationalGeographic’spurportedlyimperialistgaze.Whenconsidered
inrelationtothephotographsthattheyaccompanied,thecaptions,whichhighlighted
theMakuwoman’s‘oldpieceofcloth’(snapshotone),‘sports-cladgirls’,andtheCinta
Largawomen’s‘painted“clothing”’(snapshotthree),drewattentiontodressasanact
275
ofselectiveself-presentationonthepartofactivefemaleBraziliansubjects.
Nevertheless,whenconsideredasawhole,therhetoricofthearticleswithinwhich
thesesnapshotswerepublishedlargelyskirtedoverBraziliandresspractices,focusing
insteadonactive,masculinepursuitsintheAmazon;theindustrialisationand
modernisationofaBrazilthatwasreadyforwar;and,finally,anethnographicconcern
todocumentBrazil’sapparentlydisappearingindigenousgroups.Theoverriding
conclusiondrawnisthatintheperiodpriorto1988,themagazinedeemeddresstobe
anunimportant,femininepreoccupation;ontheonehand,thisenabledfemale
Braziliansubjectstoarticulateandconstructtheiridentitiesinidiosyncraticways,but
italsowarrantedlittlesustainedinterestfromNationalGeographic’sfrequently
shiftinggaze.
IntheperiodsubsequenttoSeptember1988,NationalGeographicbecame
increasinglyinterestedinmaleandfemaleBraziliandresspractices.Ratherthan
fashionanincreasinglyhomogenousimageofBrazil,asaresultofthe
interconnectednessengenderedbycontemporaryglobalisation,whichhasenabled
clothingcommoditiesandfashionableideasfromtheUnitedStatesandWestern
Europetomoverapidlyacrossgeographicalborders,NationalGeographichighlighted
thesubtletiesofheterogeneousBraziliandressforms,withinwhichlocalandglobal
elementshaveinteracted.ThephotographicrepresentationofDjaui’sredT-shirtand
Adidasshorts(snapshotfour),aswellastheAfro-Braziliangirl’sLycratopandjeans
(snapshotfive),demonstratedtheaccommodationsandresistancesinherentin
Braziliandress,whichmayhavebeenatacticalandconsideredchoice,asinthecaseof
Djaui,oradistinctiveandlocalre-presentationofEuropeanhighfashion,asinthe
exampleoftheAfro-Braziliangirl.Thehaptic-visualqualitiesofphotographspublished
276
inthemagazinesince1988encouragedviewerstoconsidernotonlyhowBrazilian
clothinglooked,butalsohowitfelt,promptingidentificationbetweenviewerand
subjectcentredontheinterconnectedactivitiesoflooking,seeing,being,feelingand,
crucially,wearing.ThiswasatransitionalmomentineditorialpolicyatNational
Geographic,encapsulatedbytheSeptember1988centenaryedition,towardsan
emphasisontheintrinsicandself-expressivevalueofphotography,asimageand
object,whichwasnolongerdeemedmerelyillustrativeoftheaccompanyingtext.This
thesishasshownthatnotonlydidNationalGeographicbegintodocumentamore
multifariouspopulationsince1988,butitalsoprompteditsreaderstoexperience
Braziliansubjectsinanincreasinglymultisensoryway.Despitethis,therhetoricofthe
articleswithinwhichthesetwosnapshotswerepublishedlargelyignoredthevaried
stylesofdresswornbyBraziliansubjects,andeitherrefusedtocommentondress
practicesperse,asinLorenMcIntyre’sarticle‘LastDaysofEden’,orinsteadfocused
onthefolkloricspectacleprovidedbymoretraditionalformsofBraziliandress,suchas
thatwornbythebaiana,thearchetypalmatureblackwomandressedinvoluminous
whitelacewhoisassociatedwithSalvadordaBahia,asinCharlesCobbJr.’sarticle,
‘WhereBrazilwasBorn’.
2001markedthefirstoftwoexceptionstothehypothesisofthisthesis,asthe
magazineattemptedtoengageconsciouslywithfashionforthefirsttime,withthe
publicationofthephotobookNationalGeographicFashion.Ratherthanhighlightthe
nuancesandinflectionsoffashionablestylethroughouttheworld,whetherfastand
throwawayorrarefiedandelite,NationalGeographicfocusedverynarrowlyonethnic,
regionalandnationaldress.ThetextualcommentarythataccompaniedNational
GeographicFashionwascontradictory;itincludedaforewordbyEicher,whosituated
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thephotobookwithincontemporaryacademicscholarshipthatcastdoubton
simplisticdichotomiesbetweenWestern‘fashion’andallegedlynon-Western‘dress’,
butitalsoplacedobscurequotationsbesideunrelatedimages,juxtaposingdiverse
geographicalplacesandtemporalperiodswithlittleconcernforindividualsubjects.
PhotographspublishedwithinNationalGeographicFashionhadclearlybeenselected
withaneyeattunedtoWesternbeautyconventions,whichconnecteddiversesubjects
visually,bytheirmodel-likefacesandsymmetricalbodies.Viewedinitsentirety,the
photobookplacedahomogenisingveiloverthedifferentanddiverseprocessesofself-
fashioningandself-presentationthathaveemergedthroughouttheworld,which
transcendgeographical,social,cultural,politicalandeconomicboundaries.The
haphazardandeclecticjuxtapositionofcolourful,tactileimagery,ratherthan
encouragingidentificationwithBraziliansubjects,riskedresultinginasynaesthetic
overloadthatreinforcedtheirfetishisedstatusasasymbolofexoticOtherness.The
representationofBrazilfocusedentirelyonmaleindigenoussubjects(snapshotsix),
whodisplayednoovertsignsofcross-culturalself-fashioningthroughitemsofdress.
2011markedNationalGeographic’ssecondengagementwithBrazilianfashion,and
documentedhigh-enddesignerclothes(snapshotseven),inthearticlewrittenby
CynthiaGorney,‘Machisma’.Itpresentedfashionwithinananthropological
framework,onlythistimeitsgazehadbeenturneduponwhiteEuropean-descended
BrazilianwomenlivinginRiodeJaneiro,asopposedtoindigenousmalesubjects.It
documentedtheinterioroftwoboutiques,inwhichBrazilianwomenexperienced,
performed,andconsumedfashion,butthemagazinenarratedanideaofthese
activitiesassuperficialanddistinctlyfeminine,whichwasreinforcedbytherhetoricof
thearticlewithinwhichthissnapshotwaspublished.Themagazinepresentedavery
narrowviewofBrazilianfashion,whichignoreditsmultidimensionalnature,ratheras
278
NationalGeographicFashionhaddone,andimpliedinsteadthatitwastheprivileged
domainofaselectgroupofelite,white,wealthyBrazilianwomen.National
Geographic’srepresentationofBraziliandresshasthusbeensubjecttovariousshifts
sincethemagazinewasestablishedin1888,whichhastendedtowardsamore
intimateengagementwithBraziliansubjectssince1988,buthasoccasionallystill
lapsedintoolderrepresentationalparadigms,asdemonstratedin2001and2011.
Howdotheserepresentationalstrategiesrelatetothoseofthebroaderglobal
mediascape?
ThefirstpartofthisthesiscontextualisedNationalGeographic’srepresentation
ofBrazilwithexamplesfrommainstreamU.S.magazinessuchasPopularMechanics,
Vogue,Life,TheNewYorkTimesandWomen’sWearDaily,anddrewpointsof
comparisonanddistinction.NationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategiesproved
moremultilayeredthanthoseofcontemporaryU.S.media;eachoftheseven
snapshotsexaminedrevealedpointsoffractureandresistancetosimplisticbinaries
betweencivilisedandprimitive,clothedandunclothed,dominantanddominated.
ThesetensionswerearesultofNationalGeographic’sintentiontocommunicatewith
itsviewersnotsolelyintermsofsemiologicalmeaning,butalsointheaffective
responsesandfeelingsthatimagesofdressevoked,howeversubconsciouslyor
involuntarilytheseoperatedonbehalfoftheviewer.Thiseditorialstrategyprompted
activeNationalGeographicviewerstomakeamorecomplexreadingofphotographs
and,whilstapparentinthemagazinesinceitfirstmadecontactwithBrazilin1906,it
wasbroughtintomuchsharperfocusasofSeptember1988.Byplayingwiththe
affectivecapacitiesoftheviewer,andfunctioningasimageandobject,thearticle
279
‘WithintheYellowBorder…’,publishedinthecentennialeditionofthemagazine,
signalledaparadigmaticshift,asNationalGeographicworkedtoprovideviewerswith
anincreasinglymultisensoryandintimateengagementwithdressedBraziliansubjects,
encouragingthemtosee,butalsotofeelthephotographs.Thistactileandintimate,as
opposedtodisembodiedanddistant,gazewasnotsoapparentincontemporaryU.S.
media,butinNationalGeographic,itoperatedtoerodegeographicalandtemporal
distancebetweenthemagazine’sviewersandBraziliansubjects.Thisshiftineditorial
policyrevealedaprescientawarenessonthepartofNationalGeographic,which
recognisedthatitwouldberequiredtokeepup-to-datewith,butalsotocompete
against,theproliferationofimagesproducedbytheglobalmediascape.Although
NationalGeographic,unlikeVogue,Women’sWearDailyandTheNewYorkTimes,has
notfocusedexplicitlyonfashionuntil2001,imagesofdresshaveplayedacrucialrole
infashioninganideaofBrazilandBraziliansubjects.NationalGeographichasproven
morefluidandunstablethanpreviousscholarshiphasacknowledged;thishasbeena
resultofthecontradictionsinthenexusofmeaningbetweenthephotographs,their
placementontheprintedpageorwebpage,theaccompanyingcaption,thetextofthe
articlewithinwhichphotographswerepublished,andthefunctionofthemagazineor
computerasamaterialobject.
Howdothemagazine’sdifferentgazesontoBraziliandressandfashionreflect
global,political,social,culturalandeconomicattitudesandagendasbetweenthe
UnitedStatesandBrazil?
NationalGeographicfirstmadecontactwithBrazilinApril1906,thesameyear
thatthePan-Americanconference,whichwasorganisedforco-operativetradewithin
280
theWesternhemisphere,washeldinRiodeJaneiro.Thisdemonstratedthatthe
magazine’sinitialinterestinBrazilclearlyreflectedU.S.awarenessofBrazilasan
economictradingpartner.Articlespublishedbetween1906and1933placedan
ethnographicgazeontheAmazonregion,andemphasiseditssuitabilityforU.S.
economicexpansionandcommercialexploitation.Thesecondtrendnotedemerged
between1939and1945,aperiodofworldwidefragmentationandanxiety,and
articlesplacedadocumentarygazeonBrazil,toemphasiseitssimilaritieswiththeU.S.
intermsofsize,modernityandcapitalism.NationalGeographic’sdocumentationof
BrazilduringthisperiodcanbeunderstoodasareflectionofRoosevelt’sGood
Neighborpolicy,whichwasintensifiedfollowingtheoutbreakofwarinEurope,and
soughttopresentBrazilasanationcomparabletotheU.S.,whichwasreadyand
willingtoparticipateinprotectingtheWesternhemispherefromattackbytheAxis
powers.Thethirdtrendnotedemergedfrom1964to1984,duringaperiodwhen
Brazilwassuppressedbyaright-wingmilitarydictatorshipwhichwaspoliticallyaligned
totheinterestsofUnitedStates.NationalGeographic’sethnographicgazefocusedon
indigenouspopulationsintheAmazonregion.Thisheightenedinterestinindigenous
subjects,whichignoredanysensitivepoliticalinferences,canbeattributedtoU.S.
anxietiesconcerningthebrutalnatureofthemilitaryregime.Thethreepatternsnoted
inNationalGeographic’srepresentationofBrazilpriorto1988demonstratedthatthe
magazinewasclearlyconcernedtoadvancethebroaderpoliticalinterestsofthe
UnitedStates,ratherthanBrazil,andtothisextentitrepresentedaformof
imperialismthatisconsistentwiththefindingsofpreviousscholarship.
Intheperiodsubsequentto1988,however,NationalGeographic’sgazedidnot
reflectanoverteconomicorpoliticalagendabetweentheU.S.andBrazil,anditno
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longerfollowedsuchasystematic,uniform,oreasilydefinablepattern.Generalised
themes,includingtheAmazon,urbancentressuchasRiodeJaneiroandSaoPaulo,
andAfro-Brazilians,emergedonlywhenthearticleswereviewedasawholeandfrom
adistance.AllofthearticleswereconnectedbytheirmultifariousarticulationofBrazil
that,forthefirsttimeinthemagazine’shistory,highlightedtheglobalmixofBrazilian
people.WhereaspreviouslythemagazinehadalwaysjudgedBrazilinrelationtothe
UnitedStates,andindoingso,presentedaworldpolarisedonColdWarlines,since
1988itbegantoconsiderBrazilinitsown,uniqueterms.Thisshiftineditorialpolicyat
themagazinemarkedatransitionalperiodforBraziltoo,asitemergedfromabrutal
militarydictatorshipandmovedtowardsademocraticconstitution.Withthe
stabilisationoftheBrazilianeconomyin1994,whentherealreplacedthecruzeiro,
Brazilslowlystrengtheneditsprominenceasaregionalpowerandgraduallyworkedto
gainapositionofinternationalinfluence.Thiswasrecognisedin2001,whenitwas
namedasoneofthefourfast-growingeconomiesdenotedbytheacronymBRICs
(Brazil,Russia,IndiaandChina).AstheleastpoliticallyproblematicoftheBRICs,and
themostculturally,ethnicallyandraciallydiverse,NationalGeographic’sgazeonBrazil
mightbeattributedtothegeopoliticalforcesofcontemporaryglobalisation,which
havepushedthemagazinetorecognisethecountryassymbolic,inmicrocosm,ofthe
evolvingstructureofanewglobalorder.WhilstNationalGeographicneverovertly
focusedontheBrazilianeconomyoritspoliticalconstitution,bydocumentingamore
multifariouspopulationthroughdress,itrecognisedthedynamismofaBrazilthat
couldsartorially,butpotentiallyalsoeconomicallyandpolitically,bridgetheperceived
gapbetweentheWesternandthenon-Western.Thisthesissuggeststhepotentialfor
furtherresearchintothisarea,coveringasimilartemporalperiodbutabroader
geographicalscope,whichcouldexamine,firstly,howNationalGeographic’s
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representationofdressinemergingpowerssuchasRussia,India,ChinaandSouth
AfricamightfareincomparisontoBrazil,andsecondly,whatthismighttellusabout
theirbroadergeopoliticalrelationtomoreestablishedpowers,suchastheUnited
StatesandEuropeanUnion.
Howmightphotographicsnapshotsofdressbreakoutofthesedifferentgazes,
whetherethnographic,documentaryorfashionable,byenablingactiveBrazilian
subjectstoself-consciouslyfashion,throughpose,performance,expression,gesture
andthemobilisationoftheirownmultiplegazes?
InordertoconsidercontactbetweentheUnitedStatesandBrazilthatwas
representedinNationalGeographic,thisthesisdrewonPratt’sterm,‘auto-
ethnographicexpression’,whichsheusedtodescribehowethnographicsubjects
creativelyself-fashionedbyappropriatingelementsfromadominantculture,and
infiltratingitwithlocalmodesofdress.Intheperiodpriorto1988,thisthesisdrew
uponAndrade’sself-awaremetaphorofanthropophagytoexaminehowBrazilian
subjectsinNationalGeographicsartoriallyconsumedselectelementsofWestern
culture,andusedthemtoregurgitateadistinctlyBrazilianensemble.Thefirst
snapshotdemonstratedthattheMakuwoman’sappropriationofapieceofcloth
exemplifiedherabilitytodigestforeignculturalelementsobtainedthroughcross-
culturalcontact,andrefashionthemtomeetdifferentends.Dressenabledthesubject
todemonstrateherinventivenessandresourcefulness,whichresistedNational
Geographic’sethnographicphotographicgaze.Inthesecondsnapshot,thePaulista
girls’whitesportsweardemonstratedhowawell-establishedU.S.sportswearaesthetic
hadbeenappropriatedandre-presentedtoserveadifferentmeans,whichworkedin
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favourofVargas’EstadoNovoregimethatlabouredtopresentBrazilasamodern,
whiteEuropeannation.DressenabledtheBraziliansubjectstodemonstratetheir
BraziliannessratherthantheirAmericannessthroughwhiteclothing,butthe
placementofthedocumentaryphotographonthemagazinedouble-pageview,
oppositeaphotographofBrazilianbeef,objectifiedthewomenandhinderedtheir
abilitytoself-fashion.ThethirdsnapshotofCintaLargawomen’sbodypaintpointed
toaself-reflexivegazebywhichtheymimickedtheethnographicgazeNational
Geographicplacedonthem,andposedtodemonstratetheiringenuityinadoptingand
adaptingWesterndresscodesandphotographicconventions.Ineachofthesethree
snapshots,dressarticulatednewpotentialitiesandsubjectivitiesforaninterpretation
oftheimagesbut,justasAndrade’stheoryrevealedlimitationssinceitassumedthe
contradictionsofBraziliandependencyontheWest,therewasanoverridingsense
thatNationalGeographichadeaten,orratherfashioned,Brazil,asopposedto
Braziliansubjectsself-fashioningthroughdress,poseandgesture.Whilstthis
conclusionisconsistentwithpreviousscholarship,sinceithasrevealedthemagazine’s
processesofobjectifyingandstereotypingBrazilintheperiodpriorto1988,itgoes
beyondtheargumentsofLutzandCollins,Rothenberg,SteetandHawkins,sinceit
recognisesthatthiswasnotastraightforwardasymmetricalrelationofpower
betweenBraziliansubjectsandNationalGeographic,butratherinvolvedvarious
elementsofaccommodationandnegotiationbetweentwodifferentcultures.
Toanalysetheperiodsubsequentto1988,thisthesisusedStam’smetaphorof
anaestheticsofgarbagetoencapsulatethesubtletiesandcomplexitiesofBrazilian
subjects’skillinself-fashioningwithinthecontextofanincreasinglyinterconnected
globalera.Inthefourthsnapshotthisthesisexamined,thegarbagemetaphorworked
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onaliteralbasisandenabledDjauitoappropriatesecond-handitemsofWestern
clothinganduseittomixandmatchlocalandglobalelements.Dressbrokeoutofthe
textualnarrativethatsoughttoplacetheUrueu-Wau-Wauwithinanimposed
ethnographicpresent.Thefifthsnapshotthisthesisexaminedoperatedonamore
conceptualbasisandenabledtheAfro-Braziliansubjecttore-interpretEuropeanhigh
fashionthroughherstrategicrecyclingofsecond-handideasandaesthetics.Dress
brokeoutofNationalGeographic’sgazetotheextentthatitrefusedthetextual
narrativeofthearticlethatsoughttopresentSalvadordaBahiaasastaticcultural
preserveofAfricanness.WhatisinterestingaboutthesetwosnapshotsisthatNational
Geographicactivelydrewattentiontothesubjects’self-fashioningthroughthehaptic-
visualpropertiesoftheimages,whichencouragedviewerstorethinkBraziliansubjects
inawaythatwasnotessentialist.Thesefindingssupportthehypothesisofthisthesis
that,since1988,NationalGeographichasallowedsubjectstodemonstratetactical
decisionsabouttheirdifferentmodesofdress;therewasatangiblesensethatBrazil
representednumerousdifferentstylesofclothingand/orbodilyadornmentthat
constitutethepatchworkquiltofcontemporarygloballife.
Inthesixthandseventhsnapshotsthisthesisexamined,Braziliansubjects
brokeoutofNationalGeographic’sattemptstofashionthemin2001and2011tothe
extentthattheirreturnedgazes,eitherbackattheviewer,oratoneanother,
encapsulatedSantiago’snotionofthespacein-between,wherebydistinctions
betweentheU.S.andBrazil,photographerandphotographed,becameblurred.Inthe
sixthsnapshot,thelittleboy’sinquisitivegazeatthephotographercounteractedthe
visualmasteryofNationalGeographic’sfashionablegaze.Intheseventhsnapshot,the
women’sgazesatoneanotherandatthephotographerreinforcedtheirpositionsas
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interactingsocialagents,whowereabletoself-fashion.Nevertheless,duringthis
period,NationalGeographic’sfocusonthehaptic-visualqualitiesoftheimageasa
materialobjectthreatenedtooverridethesubjects’abilitiestoself-fashionand
providedtheexceptiontothehypothesisofthisthesis.Inthesetwoinstances,the
magazinepresentedalesscomplexpictureofaglobalpopulation,anddefined
subjectsmorenarrowlyaseitherindigenousorEuropean-descended,revertingto
representationalstrategiesutilisedintheperiodpriorto1988.Braziliansubjects
representedinNationalGeographichavethereforedemonstratedanabilitytoself-
fashionsince1888,butthishasbecomemorepronouncedsince1988,anddirectly
communicatedtotheviewerthroughthehapticvisualqualitiesofphotographs,which
haveencouragedanintersubjectiverelationshipbetweenviewerandsubject.
HowdoestherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilcasta
lightuponNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategies?
Thesecondpartofthisthesis,comprisedofchaptersfourandfive,provideda
counterpointtoNationalGeographic’sdocumentationofBrazilthroughdress,and
examinedtherepresentationofBraziliandressinNationalGeographicBrasilsinceMay
2000,whenthemagazinewasfirstestablished.ArticlespublishedinNational
GeographicBrasildrewaconnectionwithNationalGeographic’srepresentationof
Brazilintheperiodsubsequentto1988,sincetheyfashionedanideaofthecountryas
hybridandsyncretic,whichcombinednumerousculturally,ethnicallyandracially
diversesubjects.
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Intheperiodpriorto2010,NationalGeographicBrasildemonstratedthat,
whilstitdeclareditselfnottobeinterestedindress,ratherasNationalGeographichad
doneuntil2001,clothingwasrepeatedlyusedasaprimaryvisualsymbolemphasising
thedifferenceofrepresentedBraziliansubjects.Thefirstcasestudy(snapshoteight)
examinedanimageofanindigenoussubjectthathadoriginallybeenpublishedin
NationalGeographicinApril1926,buthadbeenre-contextualisedseventy-sixyears
laterinNationalGeographicBrasil.Thesubjectwasplacedinmoreromanticisedand
sentimentaltermsthanhehadbeenpreviously,butthisactalsocamouflagedacrucial
aspectofthesubject’sself-presentation,gambiarra,andplacedhimasapassive
construct,ratherthananinteractingsocialagent.Thesubject’sprocessesofself-
fashioning,whichwereexemplifiedbyhisdeterminedgaze,hisdefensivelycrossed
arms,andhisuseofleft-overitemstocreateasetoftoolsto,asNationalGeographic
acknowledgedin1926,‘workhishealingmagicuponthecredulous’,werelargely
ignoredbyNationalGeographicBrasil.506Themagazinedrewaveiloverthesubject’s
tacticaluseofmaterialitemsandexpressivegestures,andinsteadhighlightedhis
clothingasacrucialmarkerofhisdifference.Thiswaspointedoutinthecaption,
whichblindlyquestioned:‘whydoeshetiehisarmssotight?Manyquestionsremain
unanswered.’507NationalGeographicBrasilmobilisedanewdynamicofpower,which
replacedNationalGeographic’spseudo-imperialistgazewithanostensiblymore
intimateBraziliangaze,butitwasonethatdisguisedaninsidiousformofdominance
thatsoughttoessentialise,objectifyandmemorialiseanindigenousBrazilianpast.This
gesturemightbeattributedtoBrazil’sincreasedeconomicstability,andadesireto
severitsconnectionswithnativeindigenouspopulations,whodidnoteasilyfitwithin
itsglobalisingambitionsforthefuture.Thisparticularexampledemonstrated506Stevens,‘ExploringtheValleyoftheAmazoninaHydroplane’,pp.398-99.507Moraes,‘GrandesReportagens:aterraéverde’,p.157.
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displacedideas,toemployareformulatedversionofatermfirstusedbySchwarz,
sinceitexemplifiedthefluidityofideasderivedfromNationalGeographic,whichwere
re-presentedinNationalGeographicBrasil,andtherebyusedtoserveadifferent,neo-
imperialistpurposethatadheredtoaBrazilianagenda.
Theconceptofdisplacedideaswasexaminedingreatersartorialdetailinthe
secondexampleanalysedfromNationalGeographicBrasilpriorto2010(snapshot
nine).AsubtextwithinthearticledemonstratedhowyoungAngolanmenlivinginRio
deJaneiroappropriatedelementsofglobalhip-hopculture,andusedthemto
negotiateandre-negotiatetheirownmarginalisedidentitiesin-betweenAngolaand
Brazil.Thetextualnarrativeofthearticlewithinwhichthissnapshotwaspublished
constantlyreferredtoa‘traditional’Pan-Africanpastthatwasallegedlyinscribedin
Angolans’present-dayexperiencesinBrazil.Ittherebydrewmanyconnectionstothe
textualrepresentationofSalvadordaBahiainNationalGeographicinAugust2002
(snapshotfive).YetwhilsttheAfro-Braziliangirl’sclothingresistedandprovideda
palpablecounter-narrativetoNationalGeographic’sgaze,inNationalGeographic
BrasiltherewasanoverridingsensethatthemagazinehadfashionedAngolan-
BraziliansubjectsinacarnivalesquespectacleofblackOtherness.WhereasNational
Geographichadhighlightedthehaptic-visualqualitiesofdressthroughphotographsto
encourageidentification,andanemotionalinterconnection,betweenNational
GeographicviewerandBraziliansubject,NationalGeographicBrasiluseddressto
highlighttheexoticdifferenceofBraziliansubjects.ItisinthisrespectthatNational
GeographicBrasilrevealedmanyoftheprocessesofobjectificationandstereotyping
thatwerenolongerevidentinNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategiesinthe
post-1988period.ThismightbeattributedtothefactsthatNationalGeographicBrasil
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wasstillstrugglingtoassertitsownidentityasamagazine,thatitwasusingolder
editionsofNationalGeographicforinspirationonthetypesofarticlesitmight
commission,andthatitwasstillbeingcensoredbyNationalGeographic,which
wantedtoensurethatitwaspresentinga‘realistic’visionofBraziltoitsown,English-
speakingreadership.
ThefinalsnapshotfromNationalGeographicBrasilexaminedpriortothe
magazine’sten-yearanniversaryalsodisplayedevidenceofdisplacedideas,
exemplifiedbytheuseof‘traditional’JapaneseclothingbyJapaneseBraziliansto
performtheircross-culturalidentitiesonparticularceremonialoccasions(snapshot
ten),suchasonthecentennialofthefirstJapaneseimmigrationtoBrazil.Thiscase
studywassituatedwithinadominanttextualnarrative,whichriskedobscuringthe
NationalGeographicBrasilviewer’sunderstandingthattheadoptionoftheyukataand
getaamongstthesecommunitieswasacarefulandconsidereddecisionmadeby
Japanese-Braziliansubjects.Suchcross-culturalsartorialreferenceswereobscuredin
favourofpresentingthedressofJapanese-Braziliansubjectsasapassiveandfeminine
spectacleofOrientalOtherness.Thehapticvisualqualitiesofthesnapshotdrewaveil
overthesubtletiesandnuancesoftheyukata,whichhadbeenadaptedforwearinthe
tropicalclimateofBrazil,andplaceditasadistinctsymbolofethnicandcultural
difference.
Thetensionsbetweentextandimagethatwereprevalentineachofthese
NationalGeographicBrasilsnapshotsdrewaconnectiontoNationalGeographic’s
ambiguousrepresentationalstrategies,anddemonstratehowdresshasassumedand
accruednewmeaningsasithastravelledthroughdifferentinterpretativespheres.This
wasparticularlyinterestinginNationalGeographicBrasilgiventhatarticles,unlike
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thosepublishedinNationalGeographic,werefrequentlywrittenandphotographedby
thesameauthor.AsNationalGeographicBrasildevelopedthroughoutitsfirstdecade
ofpublicationandgainedmoreeditorialfreedomfromNationalGeographic,therewas
anoverridingawarenessthatitwasbeginningtoestablishnewhierarchiesand
inequalities,whichsuggestedtheformulationofanewcontactzone,nolonger
betweentheUnitedStatesandBrazil,butbetweenBrazilandthevariousimmigrant
groupsthathadsettledwithinitsborders.AlthoughNationalGeographicBrasil
documentedahybridandmultifariouspopulation,newessentialismsbegantoemerge
throughdressfromwithinthoserepresentations.LikeNationalGeographic,although
themagazinedidnotdirectlyfocusondressandfashion,itplayedacrucialroleinthe
constructionofBrazilianidentities,fromthedominantperspectiveofNational
GeographicBrasil,butalsofromtheviewpointofself-fashioningBraziliansubjects.A
futureresearchpointinmyexaminationofNationalGeographicBrasilintheperiod
from2000to2010wouldbetoanalysecontextualisingexamples,inordertodraw
pointsofcontrastandcomparison,andthereby,developandtestmyconclusion.
Intheperiodpost2010,whenNationalGeographicBrasilcelebrateditsfirst
decadeinpublication,themagazinebegantopositionitselfmorepragmaticallyand
dynamicallyinrelationtoNationalGeographic.Thisshiftwascomparabletotheshift
inNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategiessince1988,anditwasaresultof
themagazine’sincreasedconfidence,andtheestablishmentofamoreamicable
rapportwithWashingtonDC.ThisthesisusedOrtiz’snotionofmundializationto
acknowledgethattherewasnolongeronlyoneworld-vision,producedbyNational
Geographicbutrather,inanincreasinglyinterconnectedworld,thereexistedmultiple
world-visions,ofwhichNationalGeographicBrasilprovidedone,thatcompetedwith
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numerousothers,bothwithinandbeyondBrazilianborders.Threecasestudieswere
examinedwithinonesnapshot,andtheconceptofmundializationwasusedtodraw
attentiontoGuarani-Kaiowasubjects’abilitytoself-fashionandperformtheir
individualidentitiesusingtheversatileoptionsprovidedbythemovementofclothing
acrossgeographicalandregionalboundaries.AcomparisonwasmadewithNational
Geographic’srepresentationalstrategiesin2011,whichcrossedoverintodigital
media,andthesecondcasestudyexaminedhowNationalGeographicBrasil’siPad
editionofthemagazineaffectedtheviewer’sinterpretationofdressedBrazilian
subjects.RatherlikeNationalGeographic’srepresentationalstrategies,discussedin
snapshotseven,whichwasre-framedontheNationalGeographicwebsite,therewas
anoverridingsensethatNationalGeographicBrasilhadfashioneditsBrazilian
subjects,inthiscase,glossingoversartorialsubtletiesandsituatingitssubjectwithina
Westernart-historicalframework.Nevertheless,thefinalcasestudyexaminedmoved
beyondeachoftherepresentationalstrategiesemployedinthepreviousten
snapshotspublishedinNationalGeographicandNationalGeographicBrasil.Theuse
ofthemediumoffilm,whichwasproducedspecificallyfortheiPadeditionofthe
magazine,providedanopportunityforGuarani-Kaiowasubjectstorepresentand
performtheirsubjectiveidentitiesthroughdress,movement,gesture,expressionand
gaze.Theclose-upandtactilequalitiesoffilm,andthemovingformsofdressthatit
facilitated,providedasubstitutionfortouchandencouragedanintimatehaptic-visual
relationtoclothedGuarani-Kaiowasubjects.NationalGeographicBrasil’s
representationalstrategiesilluminatedpotentialsforNationalGeographictoventure
intonewmodesofdigitalrepresentation,whicharecapableofcontinuingtoresistthe
processesofobjectification,stereotypingandappropriationthathavebeenassociated
withthemagazineinscholarshiptodate,andwhichcouldmakeuseofthedigital
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technologiesavailableinaglobalcontext.Scholarsareyettoexamineeditionsof
NationalGeographicthathavebeenproducedindifferentlocationsthroughoutthe
world;thiswouldprovideanimportantavenueforfutureresearch,toexaminethe
cross-culturalprocessesofnegotiationthathavetakenplacewithintheU.S.edition,
andtoconsiderhowthemeaningsofdress,butalsoitsrepresentation,neverspeakto
asingleaudience,butaredecodedandrecodedasclothingtravelsthroughdiverse
sitesandlocations.LikeNationalGeographic,asNationalGeographicBrasilhas
developedasamagazine,ithasdemonstratedmoreofaconcernwithissuesof
materialitythatarecentraltotherepresentationofdressasimageandobject,andits
diversionintofilmencapsulateditsabilitytopromoteidentificationwithdressed
Braziliansubjects.
Thisthesis,whichsetouttoexaminethehypothesisthatsince1988National
GeographichasdocumentedamoremultifariousBrazilianpopulation,engagingwith
elementsofNorthAmericanandWesternEuropeandressinindividualandselective
ways,hascontributedadress-historicalandcross-culturalanalysistothebodyof
knowledgealreadyproducedonthemagazine.Ithashighlightedhowdresshas
providedathree-dimensional,multisensorymediumthroughwhichtoreviseprevious
viewsthathavestressedNationalGeographic’sone-dimensionalparticipationinan
imperialistrepresentationregime,andithasdemonstratedthatthemagazinehasby
nomeansfixedsubjectswithinatimelessethnographicpresent.Theambiguitiesand
fluiditiesofBraziliandresshaveenabledittooperateinunexpectedandfrequently
strategicways,oftenagainsttheoverridingtextualnarrativesthathaveframedit.This
thesishasdemonstratedhowNationalGeographichasenabledNationalGeographic
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viewers,butalsoBraziliansubjects,toengageselectivelywithaspectsofglobaldress,
asimage,object,textandideaintertwined,andindoingso,tofashiontheir
interconnectedidentitiesinaprocessthatiscontinuallybecoming,andneverstatic.