FALLACYFALLACYStatementsStatements

used to deceive people;used to deceive people;

FALSE REASONINGFALSE REASONING

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF FALLACIES2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF FALLACIES:: 1.1. Fallacies of ambiguityFallacies of ambiguity – the term or – the term or

the premise used in argument appears to the premise used in argument appears to have more than one meaning, and while have more than one meaning, and while applicable in one situation may not be applicable in one situation may not be applicable in another.applicable in another.

2.2. Fallacies of relevanceFallacies of relevance – the – the conclusion does not necessarily follow from conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises.the premises.

Ms. Bautista is useless on this topic. She Ms. Bautista is useless on this topic. She has no right to talk about LOGIC and has no right to talk about LOGIC and FALLACIES since she is not even a FALLACIES since she is not even a Philosophy teacher.Philosophy teacher.

Can you learn LOGIC and FALLACIES from a Can you learn LOGIC and FALLACIES from a teacher of English and Mass Communication teacher of English and Mass Communication graduate?graduate?

How can the lawmakers formulate a law that is How can the lawmakers formulate a law that is pro-poor if, in the first place, they haven’t pro-poor if, in the first place, they haven’t experienced being poor? All of them are experienced being poor? All of them are millionaires. That is why, our laws, obviously, millionaires. That is why, our laws, obviously, are pro-rich.are pro-rich.

Abusive type/ Genetic fallacyAbusive type/ Genetic fallacy -- -- focuses on focuses on the characteristic of the person which is the characteristic of the person which is incompatible with the statement incompatible with the statement

Argumentum ad hominemArgumentum ad hominem ( (ATTACK ATTACK AGAINST THE PERSONAGAINST THE PERSON))

““My dad always tells me to stop smoking. My dad always tells me to stop smoking. Why should I follow him when he couldn’t Why should I follow him when he couldn’t stop smoking himself?”stop smoking himself?”

““My parents didn’t finish college but they are My parents didn’t finish college but they are literally dragging me to go to school. I can’t literally dragging me to go to school. I can’t believe it. I think I should not follow them.”believe it. I think I should not follow them.”

Circumstantial typeCircumstantial type -- -- One One argues against the statement because argues against the statement because the author himself has contradicted the the author himself has contradicted the statement. (“Don’t do as I do.”)statement. (“Don’t do as I do.”)

Argumentum ad hominemArgumentum ad hominem ( (ATTACK ATTACK AGAINST THE PERSONAGAINST THE PERSON))

April is not a credible contestant in Ms. April is not a credible contestant in Ms. Philippines. She had joined Mutya ng Pilipinas last Philippines. She had joined Mutya ng Pilipinas last year and she didn’t win. Now, she’s joining Ms. year and she didn’t win. Now, she’s joining Ms. Philippines! I bet she has no chance of winning.”Philippines! I bet she has no chance of winning.”

““I’m not good at public speaking. Everytime I I’m not good at public speaking. Everytime I deliver a speech, I fail. I’m not credible. I quit.”deliver a speech, I fail. I’m not credible. I quit.”

““Mass housing results in faceless, drab-looking Mass housing results in faceless, drab-looking apartment blocks and living spaces. These buildings apartment blocks and living spaces. These buildings do not make for warmth and beauty. We fee the city do not make for warmth and beauty. We fee the city should stop its mass housing program.”should stop its mass housing program.”

Call for perfectionCall for perfection -- Arguing that a person is -- Arguing that a person is not credible because he has made a mistake before.not credible because he has made a mistake before.

Argumentum ad hominemArgumentum ad hominem ( (ATTACK AGAINST ATTACK AGAINST THE PERSONTHE PERSON))

“ “ Liza will never make a good lawyer. In Liza will never make a good lawyer. In one of her classes, he was once asked a one of her classes, he was once asked a simple question, and the only answer he simple question, and the only answer he could give the professor was a blank could give the professor was a blank stare.”stare.”

ACCIDENTACCIDENT – – treating as treating as permanent a quality that may only permanent a quality that may only be temporary.be temporary.

““The Constitutional Commission came out with a The Constitutional Commission came out with a draft which suggests that we should adopt the draft which suggests that we should adopt the parliamentary form of government. This is the parliamentary form of government. This is the most preferred, and the best form of government most preferred, and the best form of government suited to the country.”suited to the country.”

(most preferred by whom? Best suited (most preferred by whom? Best suited compared to what?)compared to what?)

““Good morning Philippines! You are Good morning Philippines! You are listening to the number one radio station in listening to the number one radio station in the land! This is 99.1 GVFM!”the land! This is 99.1 GVFM!”

(number one? Land? So what’s the point of (number one? Land? So what’s the point of comparison?)comparison?)

FLOATING COMPARISONFLOATING COMPARISON – – the the comparative or superlative form of a term comparative or superlative form of a term which is not connected to anythingwhich is not connected to anything

““Before heavy rains fall, frogs always go Before heavy rains fall, frogs always go into a clamor of croaking. Clearly, frogs into a clamor of croaking. Clearly, frogs cause heavy rains, and the louder their cause heavy rains, and the louder their croaking, the heavier the downpour.”croaking, the heavier the downpour.”

““You lost a lot of weight. I heard you were You lost a lot of weight. I heard you were always practicing for this dance number. always practicing for this dance number. So, I believe that the series of practices So, I believe that the series of practices made you really slim tonight.”made you really slim tonight.”

POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER HOCHOC (after the fact, therefore (after the fact, therefore because of it)because of it)

““I’m confident of finally passing the bar I’m confident of finally passing the bar exams this time around. I’m going to use exams this time around. I’m going to use the fountain pen of last year’s topnotcher.”the fountain pen of last year’s topnotcher.”

NON CAUSA PRO CAUSANON CAUSA PRO CAUSA (there (there is no cause of the kind that has been given is no cause of the kind that has been given as the cause)as the cause)

““Darwin’s theory of evolution has not been Darwin’s theory of evolution has not been disproved either by rival theories (the disproved either by rival theories (the creationist view, for example) or empirical creationist view, for example) or empirical evidence. It is therefore, to all intents and evidence. It is therefore, to all intents and purposes, true.”purposes, true.”

““Has anyone ever proven beyond reasonable Has anyone ever proven beyond reasonable doubt that God exists? No one has. That’s doubt that God exists? No one has. That’s convincing proof that there is no God.”convincing proof that there is no God.”

ARGUMENTUM AD ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIUMIGNORANTIUM (argument to (argument to ignorance) – ignorance) – something must be true something must be true because it has never been proven false; because it has never been proven false; something must be false because it has something must be false because it has never been proven true.never been proven true.

““The sanctity of marriage has been with The sanctity of marriage has been with us for more than 400 years. The principle us for more than 400 years. The principle that ‘what God has put together, let no that ‘what God has put together, let no man put asunder’ has stood the test of man put asunder’ has stood the test of centuries. In light of this, it is wrong to centuries. In light of this, it is wrong to even propose that divorce be made legal even propose that divorce be made legal in our country.”in our country.”

FALLACY OF CONSENSES FALLACY OF CONSENSES GENTIUMGENTIUM (agreement of the people)(agreement of the people) – – one argues the truth of a conclusion one argues the truth of a conclusion because most people believe it, either at because most people believe it, either at the present time or universallythe present time or universally

Imelda Marcos: Imelda Marcos: “When Marcos and I are “When Marcos and I are gone, the Philippines will go to the Russians. gone, the Philippines will go to the Russians. Doesn’t America know this?” Doesn’t America know this?”

““If you don’t make it tomorrow in your final If you don’t make it tomorrow in your final production, you’ll get a failing mark on this production, you’ll get a failing mark on this subject.”subject.”

FALSE DICHOTOMYFALSE DICHOTOMY – – rests on rests on the unreasonable assumption that only the unreasonable assumption that only two alternatives exist; if one does not two alternatives exist; if one does not hold, the argument runs, the other hold, the argument runs, the other must.must.

“ “ I do not know of a mother who gave I do not know of a mother who gave birth to a child and deliberately destroyed birth to a child and deliberately destroyed that child. This is the same situation with that child. This is the same situation with America. America guided and nurtured America. America guided and nurtured the Philippines in the ways of democracy. the Philippines in the ways of democracy. Can anyone seriously think that the US will Can anyone seriously think that the US will deliberately destroy our country, her own deliberately destroy our country, her own child?”child?”

FALSE ANALOGYFALSE ANALOGY – – use of use of illustrations or analogies as proofillustrations or analogies as proof

““Mel Gibson was good in BRAVE HEART; he Mel Gibson was good in BRAVE HEART; he was also good in RANSOM and THE was also good in RANSOM and THE PATRIOT. I therefore conclude that Mel PATRIOT. I therefore conclude that Mel Gibson is a good actor.”Gibson is a good actor.”

““Jihan Carla Mercado, a former ABMC student Jihan Carla Mercado, a former ABMC student from AUF had won the title Mutya ng PRISAA. This from AUF had won the title Mutya ng PRISAA. This year, another Mass Comm student from the same year, another Mass Comm student from the same university, Lyanna Paula Castro, won the same university, Lyanna Paula Castro, won the same title. ABMC students at AUF must be all be pretty title. ABMC students at AUF must be all be pretty and smart.”and smart.”

HASTY GENERALIZATIONHASTY GENERALIZATION – –

generalizing from the limited or inadequate generalizing from the limited or inadequate evidence.evidence.

““Not one of the members of the steering Not one of the members of the steering committee comes from the urban poor or the committee comes from the urban poor or the peasants. There are no farmers, fishermen, peasants. There are no farmers, fishermen, laborers or craftsmen. The members are laborers or craftsmen. The members are businessmen and professionals, and all are businessmen and professionals, and all are products of colleges and universities. This products of colleges and universities. This committee will come up with proposals that will committee will come up with proposals that will favor only the rich and the middle class.”favor only the rich and the middle class.”

FALLACY OF COMPOSITIONFALLACY OF COMPOSITION– –

assuming that what holds true for assuming that what holds true for each member of a class will hold for each member of a class will hold for the class as a wholethe class as a whole

““A survey of selected AUF students A survey of selected AUF students showed that 78% of them had cheated showed that 78% of them had cheated several times, 10% said they cheated a several times, 10% said they cheated a few times and only 2 % claimed they few times and only 2 % claimed they haven’t cheated in any exam. These haven’t cheated in any exam. These results show that AUF is basically a school results show that AUF is basically a school of cheaters.”of cheaters.”

SKEWED SAMPLESKEWED SAMPLE – when a – when a statistical sample used as evidence is not statistical sample used as evidence is not truly representative of the larger truly representative of the larger population about whom the conclusion is population about whom the conclusion is mademade

• “According to the latest survey by the SWS, 37% of the Filipinos want Pres. GMA to resign!”

•SLANTING – selects or overemphasizes evidence in favor of a particular conclusion and/or ignores or deemphasize evidence against it.

• “Twice now, the first prize sweepstakes winner came from Tacloban. I’m going to buy a whole booklet of tickets when I go there tomorrow – the chances are great that I’ll finally win a prize.”

•GAMBLER’S FALLACY – ignoring the laws of probability, this fallacy argues that since something has not happened for a long time, its probability of occurrence thereby increases, or conversely, that because a chance occurrence has been repeated over and over, the odds against its happening increase or decrease.

“The president of the Republic of the Philippines has declared that the county is now on a state of national emergency to protect public interest. Citizens who are found guilty of sedition and rebellion will be dealt with accordingly.”

Argumentum ad baculum (APPEAL TO FORCE) -- You do something out of fear, not because you want to do it

► ““What are you doing in your seats? Don’t you What are you doing in your seats? Don’t you think it’s about time that we question the think it’s about time that we question the organizers of Wowowee? This program killed organizers of Wowowee? This program killed our loved ones. I can’t forgive what they did!”our loved ones. I can’t forgive what they did!”

►RALLY TACTICRALLY TACTIC -- -- arouse the arouse the emotions of large group to get them to emotions of large group to get them to agree without presenting the logical side agree without presenting the logical side of the issueof the issue

► ““I don’t like Samsung. Nokia is my kind of I don’t like Samsung. Nokia is my kind of phone. All my friends are using the same brand phone. All my friends are using the same brand so why shouldn’t I?”so why shouldn’t I?”

►BandwagonBandwagon

►““Why should celebrities be prosecuted Why should celebrities be prosecuted and sent to jail for failing to pay and sent to jail for failing to pay correct taxes, when business tycoons correct taxes, when business tycoons who have several tax evasion cases who have several tax evasion cases are free?”are free?”

►TWO WRONGS DON’T MAKE TWO WRONGS DON’T MAKE A RIGHT – A RIGHT – justifying a wrong by justifying a wrong by arguing that other people did the arguing that other people did the same.same.

►““The youth is the hope of the nation.”–The youth is the hope of the nation.”– Dr. Dr. Jose RizalJose Rizal

►ARGUMENTUM AD ARGUMENTUM AD VERICUNDIAMVERICUNDIAM (argument to (argument to authority) – justifies an argument not authority) – justifies an argument not on its merits but because a well-known on its merits but because a well-known person said itperson said it

►Ignoratio elenchiIgnoratio elenchi ( (IRRELEVANT IRRELEVANT CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION) -- “You’re missing the ) -- “You’re missing the

point.”point.”►Suppressing the factsSuppressing the facts -- presenting -- presenting

only one side of the issueonly one side of the issue►Complex question/Loaded questionComplex question/Loaded question – A – A

question which actually alleges question which actually alleges something which is still to be proven.something which is still to be proven.

► Ex: What wrong answer did you Ex: What wrong answer did you copy from your seatmate?copy from your seatmate?

► AccentAccent– A statement has many meanings – A statement has many meanings depending on how you say itdepending on how you say it

► ExEx: Go slow men at work: Go slow men at work► Fine for parkingFine for parking► Millionaires don’t steal/ Millionaires don’t steal/

Millionaires! Millionaires! Don’t steal!Don’t steal!

► Fallacy of large numbersFallacy of large numbers -- Using -- Using expressions with large values to make the expressions with large values to make the argument more convincing.argument more convincing.

► Small numbersSmall numbers -- the reverse tactic of large -- the reverse tactic of large numbersnumbers

► Not quite large tacticNot quite large tactic – Using figures that – Using figures that act as psychological act as psychological

boundariesboundaries► Ex: prices – P29.95Ex: prices – P29.95