f7.1 use of food additives

Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 1

Serbian Enterprise Development Project:

Use of Food Additives

Dr. Lisa MauerAssociate Professor

Department of Food SciencePurdue University

Overview

• Definitions of food additives

• Regulatory information

• Classification of food additives

• Specific categories and uses of food additives

• Organic• Shelf-Life

• Introduction– Definitions and functions

• Food additive categories• Functions of direct food additives• Utilization of food additives• Functions

– Sweeteners– Acidulants– Thickeners and stabilizers– Emulsifiers– Flavors– Colors– Vitamins– Preservatives– Antioxidants– Enzymes

• Government regulations• Organic

Regulations for Use of Food Additives

Definitions of Additives• National Academy of Sciences, Subcommittee

on Food Protection– A substance or mixture of substances, other than a

basic food stuff, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging but not including contaminants that enter foods by chance

• United States Food and Drug Administration– Any substance, the intended use of which results or

may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging

Regulations

Regulatory Status of Food Ingredients• USA

– Responsible agency: Food and Drug Administration (FDA)• Others: Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS), United Stated

Department of Agriculture (USDA), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)

• FDA approves use of food additives in USA and sets limits on appropriate usage applications and levels

• Other countries– FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)

• Judges safety of food ingredients on a worldwide basis• Establishes acceptable daily intakes for specific food additives• Many countries contribute to JECFA activities

– Each country has its own regulations

Regulations

Role of Organizations related to Food Additives

• FCC– Food Chemicals Codex– National academy of sciences directed group that

develops identity specifications, purity specifications, and testing methods

• FEMA GRAS Panel– Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Associations

Generally Recognized as Safe Expert Panel– FEMA is the industry trade association that sponsors

the panel– The panel judges the safety of flavors and extracts– The panel is composed of toxicologists from

universities and independent consulting firms

Regulations


US: Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act• In the US, the major legislation pertaining to

foods and food ingredients was passed in 1938 and is called the Food, Drug, & Cosmetic Act. Amendments relating to food additives and color additives were passed later.– Food Additive Amendment (1958)

• Approves intentional food chemicals under the following classes:

– Generally recognized as safe (GRAS), in CFR title 21– Prior sanction, excluded from food additives definition– Food additives petition

– Color Additive Amendment (1960)

Regulations

US: Delaney Clause, 1958• A provision of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic

Act, that governs the setting of pesticide residue tolerances in the approval process of food additives, color additives, or new animal drugs. The Delaney Clause bars the Environmental Protection Agency from granting any tolerance for a pesticide residue that has been found to induce cancer in humans or in animals, if it concentrates during processing.

• 21 USC: 348, page 280. Section 409 of the Delaney Clause specified: "No additive shall be deemed to be safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by man or animal, or if it is found, after tests which are appropriate for the evaluation of the safety of food additives, to induce cancer in man or animals."

Regulations

US: Specifications for Food Ingredients

• Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)– 21 CFR Part 172: direct food additives– 21 CFR Part 173: secondary direct food additives– 21 CFR Part 175-179: indirect food additives– 21 CFR Part 182: GRAS– 21 CFR Part 184: GRAS– 21 CFR Part 70-82: color additives

• Food Chemicals Codex: National Academy of Sciences– Specifications for identity– Specifications for purity– Test methods

• Company generated specifications

Regulations

FDA CFR Title 21:Regulations

Other FDA Regulations

• Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Regulations – 21 CFR 110

• Food Labeling– 21 CFR 101

• Recall Guidelines– 21 CFR 7.40

• Nutritional Quality Guidelines– 21 CFR 104

• Nutritional Labeling Guidelines– Nutritional Labeling

and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990

• Fair Packaging and Labeling Act

Regulations

US: Food Definitions and Standards

• Established by FDA and published in 21 CFR 100-169

• Standards of Identity• Standards of Quality• Standards of Fill

Regulations


Regulations Regulations




Food/Ingredient Analysis

• Association of Official Analytical Chemists– AOAC Official Methods of Analysis– www.aoac.org

Regulations

AOAC Methods• 45. Vitamins and Other Nutrients

45.1 Chemical Methods45.2 Microbiological Methods45.3 Bioassay Methods45.4 Nutritionally Related Components

• 46. Color Additives46.1 Separation and Identification of Color Additives in Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics46.2 Intermediates46.3 Subsidiary and Lower SulfonatedDyes46.4 Metals and Other Elements46.5 Halogens46.6 Miscellaneous

• 47. Food Additives: Direct47.1 General Methods47.2 Antioxidants47.3 Chemical Preservatives47.4 Emulsifying Agents47.5 Enzymes47.6 Miscellaneous

• 48. Food Additives: Indirect

• 33. Dairy Products33.1 Sampling33.2 Milk33.3 Cream33.4 Evaporated and Condensed Milk33.5 Dried Milk, Nonfat Dry Milk, and Malted Milk33.6 Butter33.7 Cheese33.8 Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts

• 34. Eggs and Egg Products• 35. Fish and Other Marine Products• 36. Flavors

36.1 General Methods36.2 Vanilla Extract and Its Substitutes36.3 Lemon, Orange, and Lime Extracts, Flavors, and Oils36.4 Almond Extract36.5 Cassia, Cinnamon, and Clove Extracts36.6 Flavor Extracts and Toilet Preparations

• 37. Fruits and Fruit Products

Regulations

Food Additive Regulations in Europe

• European Parliament and Council Directive 89/107/EEC of December 21, 1988– All permitted food additives must be assessed by the

European Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) for their safety against the criteria that are listed in the Annex of the Directive

• Sweeteners: Directive 94/35/EC of June 1994• Food colors: Directive 94/36/EC of June 1994• Food additives other than colors and sweeteners: Directive

95/2/EC of February 1995

Regulations

UK Food Additive RegulationsRegulations

EU: E Numbers

• E numbers are codes for food additivesand are usually found on food labels throughout the European Union. The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentariuscommittee. Only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union, giving rise to the 'E' prefix.

Regulations

Wikipedia.com

EU: E Numbers• In the European common market, E numbers are given to additives

as they are approved.• E-numbers are numerical designations which have been developed

within the European Community (EC) for declaration of foodstuff additives. There are a number of sources for lists of E-numbers on the Internet, including:– http://www.elc-eu.org/approved.htm

http://www.fst.rdg.ac.uk/foodlaw/additive.htmhttp://www.eurunion.org/legislat/Foodstuffs/ENumbers.htm

• The UK Food Standards Agency publishes a listing of E numbers split into major additive categories (colours, preservatives, etc.). Copies are available on the Internet in pdf format at: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/elist_numbers.pdf

• The numbering system is being adapted for international use by the Codex Alimentarius Commission who are developing an International Numbering System (INS). This largely uses the same numbers (but without the E).

Regulations

Wikipedia.com


E NumbersRegulations

Wikipedia.com


Wikipedia.com


Wikipedia.com

Food Additive Regulations in Japan

• The Food Chemistry Division of the Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW) has jurisdiction over food additives through the Food Sanitation Law that was enacted in January 1948

• Kohetisho = the Japanese Codex of Food Additives

Regulations

Regulations

How other countries regulate food additives

• www.faia.org.uk (United Kingdom)• www.foodlaw.rdg.ac.uk/uk/reg-ni.htm (Northern

Ireland)• www.foodstandards.gov/uk/scotland/regulations

(Scotland)• www.foodstandards.gov.au (Australia, New

Zealand)• www.inspection.gc.ca/english/reg/rege.shtml

(Canada)• Many others…

Regulations


Classification of Additives

Classification of Additives: US Regulatory Status

1. GRAS ingredientsExempt from regulation because their extensive

use has produced no known harmful effects2. Prior sanctioned substances

Approved by FDA or USDA prior to 1958 Food Additives Amendment

3. Approved food additivesDirect and indirect additives

Classifications

Classifications

FDA website

Classification of Additives:Direct, Secondary Direct, Indirect

1. Direct• Substances intentionally added to food to achieve a specific

purpose and remain in the food as consumed• Most are direct, aspartame in diet beverages

2. Secondary direct• Substances added to foods for a specific purpose but which

are removed from the final product before consumption• Propellant gases in pressurized foods

3. Indirect• Become part of the food in trace amounts as the result of

packaging, handling, or storage practices. Have no function in the finished product

• Packaging migrants, VCM from plastics…

Classifications

Classification of Additives:By use of food ingredient

1. To improve or maintain nutritional value• Nutritional additives, fat substitutes

2. To maintain palatability and wholesomeness• Antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, anti-browning agents

3. To enhance appeal of foods• Flavors, sweeteners, colorants, texturing agents (emulsifiers,

stabilizers, water holding or binding agents, dough conditioners, bulking agents)

4. To provide leavening or control pH• Leavening agents, acidulants, pH control agents

5. To aid in the processing of foods• Enzymes, non-enzymatic catalysts, antifoaming agents,

propellants and gases, lubricants, chelating agents, solvents

Classifications

Classification of Additives:By Technical Effect

1. Processing Additives– Substances used at the industrial level to facilitate

the processing, storage, handling, or packaging of foods, and in general are not functionally active in the final food product, although they may, using good manufacturing practices, remain in the final product at low concentrations.

2. Final Product Additives– Substances that are intentional constituents of the

final food product and generally remain functionally active following processing.

Classifications


Types of Processing Additives• Aerating and foaming

agents• Antifoam agents• Catalysts (including

enzymes)• Clarifying and flocculating

agents• Color control agents• Freezing and cooling

agents• Malting and fermenting

aids• Material handling aids

• Oxidizing-reducing agents

• pH control and modification agents

• Release and antistickagents

• Sanitizing and fumigating agents

• Separation and filtration aids

• Solvents, carriers, and encapsulating agents

• Washing and surface removal agents

Classifications

Types of Final Product Additives• Antimicrobial agents• Antioxidants• Appearance control

agents• Flavors and flavor

modifiers• Moisture control agents• Nutrient, dietary

supplements• Acidulants• Sequestrants (chelating

agents)

• Surface tension control agents

• Sweeteners• Texture and consistency

control agents– Emulsifiers and emulsifier

salts– Firming agents– Leavening agents– Masticatory substances– Propellants– Stabilizers and thickeners– Texturizers

Classifications

Top Ten Most TroublesomeIngredients in Formulation

33.3

27.2

26.7

20

15.6

13.3

12.2

11.7

10.6

10

0 10 20 30 40

Fat Re placer s/Textur e Enhancers

Swee teners (Low-calorie)

Chee se

Vegetable Pr oteins, Dairy P roteins

Fats & Oils, Flavors (Art ificial)

Gums, Dehydrated Fruits/Veg.

Starches

Anti-Oxidants/Pre ser vatives

Color s

Flavors (Natur al)

Pe rcent of re aders surveyed who rate the following categorie s asmost troublesome ingredients in formulation.

1997 FOODFORMUL AT INGProduct De velopment Surv ey

Specific Categories and Uses of Final Product Food Additives Antimicrobial Agents


Definition of Antimicrobial Agents

• Physical or chemical agents that can be added directly as a preservative or indirectly (intended for another function)

• “cidal” indicates that the compound is capable of killing (bactericidal)

• “static” indicates that the compound is capable of preventing growth (fungistatic)

Antimicrobial Agents

Antimicrobial agents must…

• Not affect the normal accepted quality of a food (texture, flavor, color)

• Not interact with other food components and become inactive or otherwise dangerous

• Work well under the intended storage conditions of the food (pH, aW, RH, temperature)

• Be stable• Be available and economical


Questions to ask about antimicrobials:

• What is the specificity to act against certain microorganisms

• Can it be applied to a food and food process application?

• Does it meet prescribed regulatory requirements?– Safe for human consumption, effective in

small concentrations, does not hide any food defects, listed on the label when applicable


Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials

• Food composition– Moisture content– Presence of other inhibitors (salt, sugar, spices)– pH

• Contamination– Sanitary condition of ingredients and equipment– Processing methods (temperature, filtration ,

radiation)– Types of microorganisms present

• Handling of the processed product– Packaging– Length of storage– Storage environment (temperature, humidity, O2/CO2)


Types of Antimicrobials• Organic acids• Parabens• Hydrophilic compounds• Sulfites• Nitrites• Hydrogen peroxide• Bacteriocins• Antibiotics• Wood smoke• Naturally occurring enzymes• Others


Organic acids

• Organic acids are generally used in foods that have a pH < 5.5.– Usually used against spoilage organisms that

grow at low pH (yeast, mold, some bacteria)– Can be used against pathogens

• Organic acids take advantage of the undissociated form of the acid

Lower pH



Organic Acids

• stronger acids have higher K values, lower pK values• weaker acids have lower K values, higher pK values• pK = pH when the ratio of dissociated ions to

undissociated acid is equal to 0.5• pK = pH when half of the acid (50% of it) is dissociated

and the other half is undissociated

• For effective use of organic acids as antimicrobials, want pH of food < pK of acid

• The undissociated form of the acid is more active and can cross cell membranes


Organic Acids: Mode of Action

• Lipophilic compounds• Can pass through cell membranes when in

undissociated form• Inhibit substrate uptake, disrupt

intracellular metabolism, inactivate enzymes, coagulate some proteins

• Use levels usually limited to 0.1 – 0.2% added to foods


Examples of organic acids

• Acetic acid• Ascorbic acid• Benzoic acid• Citric acid• Propionates• Sorbic acid• Lactic acid


Examples of organic acids• Acetic acid• Ascorbic acid• Benzoic acid• Citric acid• Propionates• Sorbic acid• Lactic acid

• Often potassium or sodium benzoate salt

• Most effective at pH 2.5-4• Use level restricted to 0.1%

– Carbonated drinks 0.03-0.05%– Noncarbonated drinks 0.1%

• More active against yeast and mold than bacteria

• Used in fruit juices and drinks, jams and jellies, pie fillings, fresh fruit cocktails, pickles, condiments



• Free acid and potassium salt forms– Potassium sorbate used when high

water solubility desired• Broad spectrum of antimicrobial

activity but more effective against yeast and mold than bacteria

• Effective up to pH 6.5• Neutral flavor• Frequently used in:

– dried fruits (0.02-0.05%),– pie fillings (0.05 – 0.1%), – beverage syrups (0.1%), – fruit drinks (0.025-0.075%)



• Sodium and calcium salts of propionic acid

• Effective mold inhibitors but no effect against yeast and bacteria

• Effective up to pH 6• Used in baked products because

do not inhibit yeast, used at 0.2 –0.4% in fruit products– Retards mold growth on blanched

apple slices, figs, cherries, blackberries, dried plums



Parabens

• Functions: broad spectrum antimicrobial agents– Due to high pKa values, they are effective at

high pH• Types: methyl, ethyl, butyl, propyl• Use levels: 10 – 100 ppm (0.01 – 0.1%)

– Nonalcoholic and alcoholic beverages, fruit fillings, jams/jellies, pickles, convectioneries, salad dressings, spreads, mustards


Hydrophilic Compounds• Sulfites:

– Mechanism unknown but thought to disrupt critical enzyme systems

– More effective against molds and yeasts than bacteria– At low pH (<4.5) and low aW the fungicidal effect is

much more pronounced– Types: sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfide,

sodium metabisulfites– Use levels: vary by country, 200-300 ppm in US– Used in: soft fruits, fruit juices, lemon juices,

beverages, wines, sausages, pickles, fresh shrimp– Note: approx. 1% of population is sensitive to these

compounds


Hydrophilic Compounds

• Nitrites– Both oxidizing and reducing agent– Primarily used to control the growth and toxin

production of Clostridium botulinum– Work best in low pH foods (pH 5-6) and in the

presence of reducing agents (ascorbate, erythorbate, cysteine) and with sorbate

– Used mostly for heat processed meat, poultry, and fish that has been vacuum packaged


Hydrogen Peroxide

• Used to facilitate the destruction of foodbornepathogens alone or with other means of preservation (heat).

• Solutions of 0.05 – 0.1% are recommended• Natural catalase in foods will detract from

effectiveness• Used in cheese and liquid egg processing• Also used as sanitizing agent on equipment and

packages


Bacteriocins

• Byproducts that bacteria produce to attack other microorganisms– Peptides, proteins, or protein complexes– Inhibitory to closely related bacteria

• Nisin is the only commercial bacteriocinapproved for food use in US (for processed cheese, effective against Listeria monocytogenes)


Antibiotics

• Secondary metabolites synthesized by many types of microbes

• Inhibitory to a wide range of microbes• Antibiotic resistance is a concern



Wood Smoke• Usually used to impart desirable flavor for meat

products and to improve texture and color attributes– Can be applied as liquid smoke or by burning

hardwoods– Production of formaldehyde and other inhibitory

compounds leads to antimicrobial properties• Temperature and time of heating, degree of

surface drying (aW), concentrations of chemicals produced all impact bactericidal and bacteriostatic properties

• Used for smoked meat, fish, cheeses


Naturally occurring enzymes

• Conalbumin (egg white) binds iron• Avidin (egg white) binds biotin• Lysozyme (egg white) degrades G(+) cells• Lactoferrin (milk) binds iron• Lactoperoxidase (milk) damages

membranes


Other antimicrobials

• Antioxidants (BHA, BHT)• Flavoring agents (spices, essential oils)• Emulsifiers (fatty acids and esters)• Ethylene oxide gase (surface sterilents)


Antioxidants

http://www.althealth.co.uk/services/info/misc/antioxidants1.php

Definition of Antioxidants

• General:– All substances that inhibit oxidation reactions

• Compounds that interrupt the free radical chain reaction involved in lipid oxidation

• Compounds that scavenge singlet oxygen

Antioxidants

Food Antioxidants• Oil-Soluble

– BHA– BHT– TBHQ– Propyl gallate– Tocopherols– Thiodipropionic acid– Dilauryl

thiodipropionate– Ascorbyl palmitate– Ethoxyquin

• Water-Soluble– Ascorbic acid– Erythorbic acid– Glucose

oxidate/catalase– Gum guaiac– Sulfites

Antioxidants


Commonly Used Antioxidants• BHA• BHT• TBHQ• Propyl Gallate (PG)• Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)• Erythorbic Acid• Tocopherols• Sulfites• Gum Guaiac• Spice Extracts

Antioxidants

Often used at low concentrations (0.01% of

the fat content)

In US must be < 0.02%

Japan Standards for Use

BHA

• Butylated hydroxyanisol• Often used in edible frying fats and oils,

salad oils, shortenings, nut meats, orange-flavored fruit drinks, processed fruits containing carotene pigments

• Often used in combination with other antioxidants

Antioxidants

BHT

• Butylated hydroxytoluene• Often used as antioxidant for waxes used

in packages and wrappers

Antioxidants

TBHQ

• Often the best synthetic antioxidant• Widely used in oils

Antioxidants


Propyl Gallate

• Often used as a synergist in combination with BHA and BHT

Antioxidants

Ascorbic Acid/Sodium Ascorbate

Max. 200 mg/kg25-100 mg/lWineMax. 200 mg/kg150-200 mg/lCitrus beverages

Flavor protection in:100-500 mg/kgOlives

Prevention of discoloration in:Max. 2000 mg/kg1000-3000 mg/kgCanned fruitMax. 500 mg/kg300-500 mg/kgNectarsMax. 200 mg/kg120-200 mg/kgFruit juicesMax. 2000 mg/kg300-1000 mg/kgFrozen fruit

Prevention of browning in:

Antioxidants

Erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate

• Primarily used as antioxidants in cured meats but also in canned and frozen fruits, fruit juices and nectars, olives, refrigerated guacamole to retard discoloration and off-flavor development

• Comparable antioxidant activity to ascorbic acid – use 1.23 kg of sodium erythorbate to replace 1 kg of ascorbic acid in frozen or canned fruit products

• Often less expensive than ascorbic acid

Antioxidants

Tocopherols

• Best antioxidant activity = 80% gamma and 20% delta mixture of natural tocopherols

• Nutritional vitamin E = alpha tocopherol• Possible replacement for synthetic

antioxidants

Antioxidants

Sulfites

• Sulfur dioside, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, potassium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, potassium metabisulfite

• Retard enzymatic browning and reduce destruction of carotene and ascorbic acid– SO2 solutions 0.2-0.5%

• Some people are very sensitive to sulfites• Possible replacements: EDTA, blend of

erythorbic and citric acids

Antioxidants

Sulfites (cont.)

• FDA limits for residual sulfur dioxide equivalent levels in foods– Jams and jellies: 30 ppm– Nut products: 25 ppm– Dried fruits: 2000 ppm– Fruit juice concentrates: 1000 ppm– Single-strength fruit juice: 200 ppm– Maraschino cherries: 150 ppm– Wine: 275 ppm– Vinegar: 75 ppm

Antioxidants


Gum Guaiac

• Resin containing complex phenoliccompounds

• More effective in animal fats than vegetable oils

• Approved antioxidant for natural flavoring substances used in conjunction with fruit flavors

Antioxidants

Spice Extracts

• Spice extracts do not have specific FDA approval for use as antioxidants and thus cannot be promoted as such

• However,– Rosemary-based extracts have high

antioxidant capacities• Used in processed meat and poultry

Antioxidants

Antioxidant Capacity of Select Foods

Antioxidants

Appearance Control Agents

Colors

Color Psychology• …. a lasting color

impression is made within 90 seconds and accounts for 60 percent of the acceptance or rejection of an object….

Dr. Morton Walker, The Power of Choice

Colors

Definition of a “Color Additive”

• A color additive is “any dye, pigment, or other substance made or obtained from a vegetable, animal, mineral or other source capable of coloring a food, drug, or cosmetic or any part of the human body.”

Colors


Why Do We Use Food Colors?

Aesthetic Value Identification Judgement of Quality

Colors

Food Colors may be added to foods for the following reasons:

• To restore original appearance of food when natural colors have been damaged by heat processing

• Te ensure uniformity of color due to natural variation in color intensity (seasonal, etc.)

• To intensify colors naturally occurring in foods where color is weaker than that which consumer associates with the product

• To help protect flavor and light-sensitive vitamins during storage by sunscreen effect

• To give attractive appearance to foods that would otherwise look unappetizing (colorless gelatin jelly)

• To help preserve the identity or character by which foods are recognized

• To serve as visual indication of quality

Types of FDA Regulated Colorants

• Certified Colors• Compounds of known

structure, produced by chemical synthesis and conforming to high purity specifications established by the FDA.

Colors Exempt from Certification

Colors typically referred to as‘Natural Colors’ by the food industry. They are obtained from vegetable, animal, and mineral sources, or are synthetic duplicates of naturally existing colorants.

Colors

Certified Colorants• Dyes

– Colorants that function by dissolution

• Pigments– Insoluble colorants that

function by dispersion

Both dyes and lakes must have every batch certified by the FDA in the US

Colors

FD&C Certified Dye and Lake Colors Approved for use in the US


Synthetic Colors Approved for use in Japan

Major Western European Synthetic Dyes for Food Use

How Dyes Function

• Dyes selectively absorb some wavelengths of light. They allow the balance of the wavelengths to be transmitted without scattering.

• Dyes always make the product appear darker since they reduce the amount of light which reaches the eye.

White Light

Colors

FDA Approved Certified Food Dyes

FD&C Blue #1 (sky blue; turquoise)

• FD&C Blue #2 (royal blue)

• FD&C Green #3 (sea green)

• FD&C Yellow #5 (lemon yellow)

• FD&C Yellow #6 (orange)

• FD&C Red #40 (orange red)

• FD&C Red #3 (pink)

Colors

Typical Uses of Dyes

• Any application in which there is enough water (or some other solvent) to dissolve the color

• Very strong…a little goes a long way

BeveragesDessert MixesConfectionsDairy Products

Pet FoodsCerealsBaked Goods

Colors

Potential Issues with DyesDull effectspH stabilityPrecipitationFading

Strong LightMetal IonsMicro-OrganismsExcessive HeatingOxidizing and Reducing Agents

Powder appearanceFlashingSolubility

Colors


Certified LakesLakes–Extensions of the water soluble

dyes on a substratum of alumina hydrate

–Color by dispersion–Common carriers: water,

propylene glycol, glycerine, sugar syrup, oil

Colors

How Pigments Function• Pigment particles are dispersed

throughout the product, not dissolved.• The pigment selectively absorbs some

wavelengths of light and reflects others.

White Light

Pigments contribute to the opacity and can lighten or darken theproduct being colored.

Lakes are one type of pigment.

Colors

Typical Uses of Lakes

• Any application in which they can be suitably and uniformly dispersed

• Lakes are also used in products where color migration or bleed is not desired.

Icings & FrostingsCompound CoatingsDry mix productsSemi – moist pet food

PharmaceuticalsCosmeticsPlasticsInks

Colors

Potential Problems with Lakes

• Incomplete Dispersion• Settling• Haze• Shade/Strength Variation• pH Stability

Colors

How Dyes and Lakes Differ

Characteristics Lakes Dyes

Solubility Insoluble Soluble in water, propylene glycol,

glycerine Method of coloring

Dispersion

Dissolution

Pure dye content

Generally 10-40%

~90% (Primary

colors) Rate of use

0.1% to 0.3%

(1000 – 3000 ppm)

0.001% to 0.03% (10 – 300 ppm)

Colors

Market Forms• Dyes

– Primary Powder– Primary Granules– Powder Blends– Powder Monoblends– “Cut” Colors and Blends– Liquid Colors

LakesPrimary powdersPowder blendsDispersions

Colors


Types of FDA Regulated Colorants

• Certified Colors• Compounds of known

structure, produced by chemical synthesis and conforming to high purity specifications established by the FDA.

Colors Exempt from Certification

Colors typically referred to as‘Natural Colors’ by the food industry. They are obtained from vegetable, animal, and mineral sources, or are synthetic duplicates of naturally existing colorants.

Colors

21 CFR Part 73 (exempt)

• 26 Permitted for Foods• Many Restrictions

–Tagetes Meal–Grape Skin Extract

• 28 Permitted for Drugs• 28 Permitted for Cosmetics• 5 Permitted for Use Across the Board

Colors

Food Color Additives Exempt from Certification

Natural Color Additives in Japan Common Exempt Colorants

• Turmeric Oleoresin

• Annatto Extract• Paprika Oleoresin• Beta Carotene• Cochineal

Extract/Carmine

Vegetable/Fruit JuiceAnthocyaninsRed Beet Juice Concentrate

Caramel Color

Titanium Dioxide

Colors


Turmeric Oleoresin Applications

• Ice Cream• Pickles

• Yogurt• Mustard• Dairy

Applications• Salad

Dressings• Chewing Gum

Salad Dressings

Dry Mix Soup

Baked Goods

Seasonings

Cereals

Candy/Confection

Colors Annatto Extract Applications• Beverages

• Ice Cream• Frozen Novelties• Cereal• Yogurt• Salad Dressing• Fruit Preparations• Baked Goods• Confections• Ice-cream Cones• Sausage Casings• Cheese• Eggnog

Colors

Paprika Oleoresin Applications

• Salad Dressings

• Popcorn Products

• Snack Foods

• Processed Cheeses

• Coatings• Breadings

Breadings

Sweet Goods

Gravies

Marinades

Crackers

Cookies

Colors

Beta Carotene Applications• Butter• Dairy Products• Popcorn Oil• Margarine• Snack Foods• Soups • Salad

Dressings• Confections• Baked Goods• Cheeses• Beverages

Colors

Carmine Applications

Beverages

Dairy Products

Yogurt

Ice Cream

Tomato Extenders

Confections

Surimi

Cosmetics

Pharmaceuticals

Colors

Anthocyanins

• Yellow-Red– Black Currant– Elderberry – Hibiscus

• Blue-Red– Red Cabbage– Grape Skin Extract– Grape Juice Conc. – Black Carrot

Colors


pH’s <3.8(best stability)

pH 11.0 (not stable)

pH 8.0(unstable)

pH’s 3.8-7.9(stabilitydecreases)

Alcohol SolubleChange shade with change in pHVarying shades of redMost stable at pH less than 3.8

Anthocyanin PropertiesColors

Anthocyanin Applications

• Beverages• Fruit Preps• Confections

Colors

Red Beet Applications

• Ice Cream• Yogurt• Fruit Preps• Frozen

Novelties• Confections• Tomato

Extenders• Dry Mix

Beverages•

Colors

Caramel Color Applications• Baked Goods

• Beverages

• Gravies

• Sauces

• Syrups

• Seasonings

• Pet Foods

• Candy

• Alcoholic Beverages

• Dry Mixes

Colors

Titanium Dioxide Applications

• Opacifier

• Pastel Candies

• Pet Foods

• Dairy Products• Mozzarella

Cheese

• Cottage Cheese

• Cream Cheese

• Low fat / No fat (replaces opacity)

• Salad Dressings

Colors

Exempt Colorants

• Exempt Shades Easy to Obtain– Yellow– Orange– Red

• Exempt Shades Difficult to Obtain– Blue– Green

Colors


Typical Usage Levels

• Annatto Extract 0.04-0.08%• Beta Carotene 0.05-0.10%• Cochineal Extract 0.05-0.15%• Carmine Liq. Color 0.05-0.10%• Vegetable Juice Conc.. 0.03-0.20%• Fruit Juice Conc.. 0.05-0.15%• Caramel Colors 0.10-0.30%

Colors

Labeling of Certified Colors

21 CFR Section 101.22

May 1993 - NLEA removed prior labeling exemption

Must declare individually by name

Prefix “FD&C” and “No.” not requiredFD&C Blue No. 1Blue No. 1

Use of “Lake” suffix is mandatoryBlue No. 1 Lake

Colors

Labeling of Exempt Colorants

Cannot use the term “natural”

Several Options Artificial Color (Added)Color Added“Colored with name of color”Colorant name (color)

Do not need to declare titanium dioxide by name

Colors

Flavors and Flavor Modifiers

Flavoring agentsFlavor potentiators

Flavor Definition

• Legal Definition– Flavors are mixtures of ingredients whose

exact composition is usually known only to their supplier and which are sold in bulk to food and beverage manufacturers. They are labeled as FLAVORS according to definitions found in the code of federal regulations title 21, part 101.

– The composition of flavors are considered trade secrets

Flavor: Definition• “Sensation”: The sum of those characteristics of

any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell and also by the general tactile and pain receptors in the mouth as received and interpreted by the brain (Hall, 1968)

• A substance which may be a single chemical entity, or a blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part of the particular flavor effect to any food or other product taken in the mouth (Society of Flavor Chemists)


Flavor: Definition• A composite of chemosensations:

taste, olfaction, and trigeminal (nerve) sensations– Without olfaction/ability to smell, food no

longer has as much flavor (noticed by anosmics or you when you have a cold)

• Flavor results from compounds divided into two broad classes:– Those responsible for taste– Those responsible for odors (aroma

substances)– Note: there are compounds that do both

Definition of Flavoring Agent

• In the US, natural fruit flavors represent over 1/3 of the flavor market

• In the US, natural + synthetic fruit flavors = 48% of the sales value of flavor industry

• Largest user of fruit flavors = fruit beverages (including alcoholic beverages)

Flavors

Reasons for adding flavors to food products

• To create a totally new taste• To enhance, extend, round out, or increase the

potency of flavors already present• To supplement or replace flavors to compensate

for losses during processing• To simulate other more expensive flavors or

replace unavailable flavors• To mask less desirable flavors (NOT hide

spoilage)

Flavors

21CFR 101.22Flavors

Flavors Flavors


Flavors Flavors

Flavors

Chemical Flavor Classification

• Natural • Natural Type• Natural WONF

• BATF (0.1% artificial top note, 40ppm vanillin, 250ppm maltol)

• Artificial• N/A

– Natural and Artificial• Nature Identical

Flavors

Regulatory Labeling• Kosher (Parve, Dairy)

• Non-Kosher (contains meat, grape skin, etc.)

• Halal (contains no alcohol)

• GMO free

• Allergens (Peanut, Soy, egg, etc.)

Flavors

Beverage New Product Positioning Claims


Flavor Trends in Juice Products Flavor Houses

• Bell www.bellff.com

• Degussa www.degussa.com

• Dragoco www.dragoco.com

• Firmenichwww.firmenich.com

• Givaudanwww.givaudan.com

• IFF www.iff.com

• Mane www.vmf-mane.com

• McCormick www.mccormick.com

• FONA (Flavors of North America) www.fonaflavors.com

• Sensient www.sensient-tech.com

• Takasago www.takasago.com

• Wild www.WILDflavors.com

Definition of Flavor Enhancer• Enhance flavors at levels below their independent

detection thresholds and contribute umami taste to foods when used in excess of detection threshold– Enhance flavors of vegetables, dairy products, meats, poultry,

fish, seafoods• Examples:

– 5’ribonucleotides (5’ inosine monophosphate)– Glutamate (monosodium glutamate)– Yeast extracts and vegetable hydrolysates

– Maltol and ethyl maltol used to enhance flavors for sweet goods and fruits used at 50 ppm

Moisture Control Agents

Nutrient, Dietary Supplements

Definition of Nutrient, Dietary Supplement

• Nutrient: – A chemical compound (such as protein, fat,

carbohydrate, vitamins, or minerals) that make up foods.

• A dietary supplement is a product (other than tobacco) that:– is intended to supplement the diet; – contains one or more dietary ingredients (including

vitamins; minerals; herbs or other botanicals; amino acids; and other substances) or their constituents;

– is intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid; and

– is labeled on the front panel as being a dietary supplement.

Nutrient, Dietary Supplement

21 CFRNutrient, Dietary Supplement


Vitamin Definition

• Organic compounds, usually of low molecular weight, that are essential nutrients for normal body growth and functions

• The human cannot synthesize vitamins – Except vitamin D with exposure to sunlight– Therefore vitamin sources must be

external (food and/or dietary supplements)


Vitamins

• There are 13 recognized vitamins• Classified as fat soluble or water soluble• Each has unique chemistry and RDI• Each must be considered in food

processing and formulation– Concentration and bioavailability will

influence food quality


100% Daily Value

10 mgPantothenic acid0.3 mgBiotin6 µgVitamin B12

0.4 mgFolic acid2 mgVitamin B6

30 IUVitamin E400 IUVitamin D20 mgNiacin1.7 mgRiboflavin1.5 mgThiamin60 mgVitamin C5000 IUVitamin A


Types of Fortification

• Restoration– Restore losses due to processing and handling

• Standardization– Enrich to meet current food standards

• Fortification– Enrich to meet a specific nutritional profile

• Replacement – A modified or new product replacing a standard

product (reduced, low, non-, light, etc.)


Why Fortify?

• Processing can reduce vitamin content or bioavailability– Heat sensitive vitamins

• D, E, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenicacid, folic acid

– Oxygen sensitive vitamins• Fat soluble (ADEK), C, thiamin, biotin,

pantothenic acid, folic acid• Can add antioxidants to reduce lipid oxidation

and oxidative rancidity to slow damage to carotenoids and ACE


Why Fortify?

• Variation of vitamins in plants– Growth conditions, genetic variation, postharvest

practices– Soil conditions (moisture, fertilizer)– Washing, blanching, cooking will decrease vitamin

content– Vitamin C content dramatically decreases after

harvest and with maturity of plant– Milling of cereals reduces vitamin content

• Flours usually fortified with B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin)



Classes of Vitamins

• Fat soluble– A (retinol)– D (cholecalciferol, D3)– E (tocopherol)– K (phytonadione, K1)

• Water soluble– B vitamins

• Thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin/niacinamide (B3), pyridoxine (B6), cyanocobalamin (B12), folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin

– C (ascorbic acid)


Vitamin A as a Food Ingredient

• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin A can be dispersed in water

• Isomerizes in acid (< pH 6), stable at pH > 7• Sensitive to air oxidation (catalyzed by Fe

and Cu)• Palmitate more stable than acetate in solution• Inactivated by UV light• Sensitive to heat and humidity• Stabilized by reducing agents


Vitamin D as a Food Ingredient

• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin D is dispersible in water

• pH stable• Similar but slightly more stability than

vitamin A (sensitive to oxygen and light)• Analysis difficult at food occurrence

levels


Vitamin E as a Food Ingredient• Unesterified forms used in foods• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin E is

dispersible in water• Free tocopherol sensitive to air

oxidation (especially at pH>7)• Free tocopherol oxidation catalyzed by

metals (Fe, Cu)• Acetate ester very stable• Tocopherol used as an antioxidant (in

many oils, e.g. safflower, etc.)


Vitamin K as a Food Ingredient

• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin K is dispersible in water

• Stable to air• Stable in acid• Unstable in strong bases• Decomposed by sunlight


Water Soluble Vitamins

B vitaminsC



B Vitamins

• Thiamin (B1)• Riboflavin (B2)• Niacin/niacinamide/nicotinamide (B3)• Pyridoxine/pyridoxal (B6)• Cyanobalamin (B12)• Folic acid• Pantothenic acid• Biotin


Thiamin (B1) as a Food Ingredient

• Water soluble (HCl 1g/1ml, mono 1g/35ml)• Is the most unstable B vitamin

– Increasingly unstable as pH rises to neutral and greater

– Completely degraded in chocolate cake (pH = 8.0)• Sensitive to oxidizing and reducing agents• Split by sulfite• Off flavor and aroma potential• Good stability in crystal form


Riboflavin (B2) as a Food Ingredient

• water soluble (120mg/L, B2-5’phosphate 11.2g/100ml)

• Light sensitive especially at pH>7• Stable in acid solution, unstable in

basic/alkaline solution• Moderately heat stable in neutral solutions• Sensitive to reducing agents• Orange color


Niacin (B3) as a Food Ingredient

• Water soluble – Niacin = 1g/60 ml– Niacinamide = 1g/1ml

• Very stable – not sensitive to heat, light, air, alkali

• Best to use niacinamide in foods since niacin is a vasodilator


Pyridoxine (B6) as a Food Ingredient

• water soluble (1g/5ml)• Most stable of 6 vitamin structures• Relatively stable and heat resistant• Dilute solutions are sensitive to light and

alkali• Activity = pyridoxine * 1.21 = pyridoxine

HCl


Cyanocobalamin (B12) as a Food Ingredient

• Water soluble• Hygroscopic crystal• Moderate/good heat stability at pH 4-5• Destroyed rapidly when retorted at high

pH• Decomposed by reducing agents (Fe)• Assay sensitive to light in dilute solution• Red in color



Folic Acid as a Food Ingredient

• Water soluble • Unstable at pH<5• Stable to heat in neutral and alkaline

solutions• Sensitive to light• Stabilized by ascorbic acid• Destruction catalyzed by copper• Light yellow in color


Pantothenic Acid as a Food Ingredient

• water soluble (1g/3ml)• Heat stable at pH=5-7• Increasingly unstable as pH drops

below 5• Decomposed by hydrolysis (rate

influenced by pH)


Biotin as a Food Ingredient

• water soluble (1g/5000ml)• Good stability to heat, dilute acids,

alkali, oxygen, and light• Inactivated by avidin in raw egg whites


Vitamin C as a Food Ingredient• Water soluble (1g/3ml)• Usually loss of vitamin C in foods

exceeds that of B and fat soluble vitamins

• Stable in crystal form• In solution is readily oxidized by

atmospheric oxygen and oxidizing agents (catalyzed by Cu, Fe)

• Most stable in pH 4-6– More sensitive to base than acid


Vitamin C as a Food Ingredient• Sensitive to heat and light• Can decolorize azo and

triphenylmethane colors• Anthocyanins are unstable in presence

of oxygen and ascorbic acid• Will stabilize carotenoids (β-carotene)


Mineral Definition

• An inorganic substance• Something neither animal nor vegetable• A solid homogeneous crystalline

chemical element or compound that results from the inorganic processes of nature (or synthetic substance with same chemical composition and crystalline form)



Primary Functions of Minerals

• Nutrients • Biological functions• Minor structural functions


Functional Properties of Minerals in Foods

• Bleaching• pH control• Buffering• Antioxidant• Chelating or sequestering• Oxidation or reducing agents

– Transition metals will catalyze lipid oxidation• Preservation by lowering aW• Leavening• Coloring


Types of Minerals

• Elements• Salts

– Most minerals added to foods are salts• Complexes• Ash

– Minerals are the constituents in foods that remain as ash after incineration


Elements

• 30 elements are required or beneficial to humans

• 7 are macronutrients • 7 are micronutrients • 18 added to foods for nutritional

purposes• 12 added to foods for nutrition and

functional properties– Added to foods as salt forms


ElementsMAIN ELEMENTS

• Calcium• Phosphorus• Potassium• Chlorine• Sodium• Magnesium

TRACE ELEMENTS

• Iron• Fluorine • Zinc• Silicon • Copper• Boron • Vanadium• Arsenic• selenium• Manganese• Iodine• Nickel • Molybdenum• Chromium• Cobalt


12 Elements Added to Foods for Functional Properties

• Sodium• Magnesium• Aluminum• Silicon• Phosphorus• Sulfur• Chlorine• Potassium• Calcium• Titanium• Bromine• Tin

Examples for each are contained in the following

slides



Sodium

• Sodium is the anion in the salts of many inorganic and organic compounds (improves solubility)

• Seasoning/flavor• Preservative (lowers aW)• Can use to salt in proteins


Magnesium

• Solubility properties• White color (milk of magnesia)• Part of hard water

– Desired for brewing because dissolved magnesium (and calcium) salts increase acidity of the wort


Aluminum

• Sodium aluminum phosphate –– Provides acid in baking powders– Hydrated Al3+ reacts with bicarbonate (HCO3

-) to release CO2

• Aluminum salts firm pickles• Colloidal calcium phosphate

– White opaque color of milk• Aluminum calcium silicate anticaking agent• Aluminum hydroxide used to bind water

soluble dyes to form lakes


Silicon

• Silicon dioxide = anticaking or freeflowagent– Flours, powdered soups, powdered coffee

whiteners, baking powder, dried eggs• Silicones with methyl groups used as

anti-spattering agents in cooking oils


Phosphorus

• Buffering• pH stabilization• Acidification or alkalization• Sequestering of metals• Chelation of metals• Water-binding in protein foods• Emulsification• Anticaking• Antimicrobial preservation• Leavening


Sulfur

• In foods, use oxo-species of sulfur– Bisulfite, sulfite, sulfurous acid, metabisulfite,

sulfur dioxide• Sulfur dioxide –

– Preserving dried fruits and vegetables (color)– Retard growth of unwanted organisms in wine– Antioxidant properties

• Preserve color (bleaches or oxidizes products that discolor the food)



Chlorine

• Chlorine and chlorine dioxide gases used to bleach flour

• Improves solubility of salts in water


Potassium

• Anion of many salts – good solubility• Potassium ion used to help gel

carrageenan• Potassium hydroxide used to peel fruit


Calcium

• Calcium chloride used as firming agent for canned foods– Tomatoes, potatoes, apple slices

• Calcium ion active ingredient in leavening agents (monocalciumphosphate) = fast acting leavening agent

• Monocalcium phosphate acidulant


Titanium

• Titanium dioxide used as white color (levels up to 1% finished weight allowed)– Confectionary panned goods (jelly beans),

icings, sugar syrups


Bromine

• Calcium and potassium bromate used as bleaching agents and dough conditioners (improve strength, grain, texture, water absorption, crumb resiliency)

• Being phased out of use because is possible carcinogen


Tin

• Not widely used• Stannous chloride used as food

preservative• Tin salt retains color in asparagus



Acidulants

Definition of Acidulants• Acids that occur naturally in fruits and

vegetables or are used as additives in food processing

• Functions:– Acidifier– pH regulator– Preservative and curing agent– Flavoring agent– Chelating agent– Buffer– Gelling/coagulating agent– Antioxidant synergist

Acidulants

Types of Acidulants

• Acetic acid• Adipic acid• Citric acid• Fumaric acid• Lactic acid• Malic acid• Phosphoric acid• Tartaric acid

Acidulants

Japan Standards for Use

Typical usage of acidulants in fruit processing (table 13.4)

Acidulants

Tartness comparisons• At equal concentrations, acidulants vary in their

ability to depress pH and the level of acidic taste or tartness intensity

55-60Phosphoric (85% soln.)

110-115Adipic

78-83Malic

80-85Tartaric

67-72Fumaric

100Citric, anhydrous

% to replace anhydrous citric acidAcid

Acidulants


Citric Acid

• The most versatile and widely-used food acidulant

• Characteristics: – excellent solubility, extremely low toxicity,

chelating ability, pleasantly sour taste• FDA designates citric acid and its sodium,

potassium, and calcium salts as GRAS for general purpose uses

Acidulants

Citric Acid: Functions

• Lower pH, buffer– Widest use in beverages

• Preservative, sequestrant• Flavor enhancer• Antioxidant synergist with ascorbic or

erythorbic acid• Prevent crystallization of honey

Acidulants

Malic Acid

• Second major acid next to citric• Strongly associated with apples• Used in fruit-flavored sodas (apple or berry

flavors), may mask high-intensity sweetener off-tastes in sugar-free drinks (synergism with aspartame)

• Blends of citric and malic acid may exhibit some better taste characteristics

Acidulants

Phosphoric Acid• Not recognized as an acidulant in Japan• The only inorganic acid extensively used as a

food acidulant, least costly of the food acidulants, gives the lowest attainable pH

• Has a characteristic flavor and tartness and is almost entirely used in cola-flavored carbonated beverages

• Sometimes used as buffering agent in jams and jellies to adjust acidity for maximum gel formation

• Food-grade phosphoric acid mostly supplied as 75% aqueous solution

Acidulants

Fumaric Acid• Use in mixtures with 0.3% dioctyl sodium

sulfosuccinate (DOSS) and 0.5% calcium carbonate to speed solubility

• Used as modified acid for use in dry beverage powders, frozen fruit concentrates

• Increases strength of gelatin gels and acts as a calcium liberator incorporated in alginate preparations

• Stabilize suspended matter in in flash-pasteurized and frozen juice concentrates and inhibits development of off-odors and darkening

Acidulants

Adipic Acid

• Often used in dry food products (it is nonhygroscopic and may extent shelf-life in humid conditions)

• Adds supplementary flavor to grape-flavored products

Acidulants


Lactic Acid

• Has a mild taste relative to other food acids

• Often sold as 50% and 80% solutions that are colorless and odorless

• Used in frozen desserts, jams, jellies to add slight tartness without masking natural fruit

• Used as gelling agent for demethylatedpectins (dietetic/sugar-free jams/jellies)

Acidulants

Tartaric Acid

• EC regulations indicate this should not be used in sparkling waters

• Widely used in cranberry and grape flavored foods and beverages

• Used in candies with citric acid to produce tart and sour flavors

Acidulants

Vinegar

• Cider vinegar (US), wine vinegar (EU), malt vinegar (UK)

• 4-8% solution of acetic acid has similar taste to cider vinegar

• Vinegar powder used in dry seasonongblends

Acidulants

Sequestrants (Chelating Agents)

Definition of Sequestrant

• To sequester = “to withdraw from use”• Ingredients added to form complexes with

metal ions and thereby stabilize foods– Any molecule with an unshared electron pair

can form complexes with metal ions in a favorable physical environment

• Act synergistically with antioxidants

Sequestrant

Types of Sequestrants• EDTA• Polycarboxylic acids

– Citric acid– Malic acid– Tartaric acid– Oxalic acid– Succinic acid

• Polyphosphoric acids– Adenosine triphosphate– phyrophosphate

Calcium, sodium, and potassium salts of these increase solubility

Sequestrant


EDTA

• The EDTA molecule can bind to metal ions by forming six bonds to it - two from nitrogen atoms in amino groups and four from oxygen atoms in carboxyl groups.

Sequestrant

Sweeteners

NutritiveNonnutritive

Definition of Sweeteners

• Nutritive:– Ingredients that are metabolized and provide

calories– May also function as flavor, body, bulk,

texturizing, aW lowering, and viscosity agents and lower the freezing point

• Nonnutritive:– Ingredients that are non-caloric– Many high-intensity sweeteners fall in this

category (>30 times sweeter than sucrose)

Sweeteners

Sweetness

• Sucrose is the standard against which sweeteners are measured in terms of quality taste and taste profile

Types of nutritive sweeteners

• Sugars– Sucrose– Glucose– Fructose– Galactose– Mannose– Maltose– Xylose– Lactose

• Polyols– Mannitol– Lactitol– Isomalt– Xylitol– Sorbitol– Maltitol– Hydrogenated corn

syrup

Sweeteners

May be “ingredients” not “additives”

Types of nonnutritive sweeteners

• Acesulfame K• Alitame• Aspartame• Cyclamate• Glycyrrhizin• Monelin• Neohesperitin dihydrochalcone• Saccharin• Stevioside• Sucralose• Thaumatin

Sweeteners


Table of Sweeteners and Regulatory Status

• Table 13.3

Sweeteners

Questions to ask about non-nutritive sweeteners

• Regulations on use• Price• Safety• Taste• Solubility• Stability in your product

Sweeteners

Economics of Sweeteners

Alitame

• 2000x sweeter than sucrose• Approved for use in foods, beverages, and

as table top sweeteners in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Colombia, China, Indonesia, and Mexico.

• Approval is pending in USA, Brazil, Canada

Sweeteners


Cyclamate

• 30 x sweeter than sucrose• Banned in some countries (including US),

reapproved in over 50 countries• Enhance fruit flavors, even in low

concentrations, and can mask some natural tartness of citrus fruits

• Has lower specific gravity and osmotic pressure than sucrose syrups, therefore do not draw water out of canned fruits

Sweeteners

Glycyrrhizin

• US FDA GRAS status to ammoniated glycyrrhizin for use as flavor enhancer and natural flavoring agent

• Japan – used as a sweetener

Sweeteners

Nonhesperidin DC

• 2000x sweeter than sucrose• Currently used in Belgium, Holland,

Germany• Often coupled with other sweeteners

(aspartame and aceK)• Recommended for fruit juices and nectars

Sweeteners

Stevioside

• 300x sweeter than sucrose• Approved for sweetening use in Japan,

Republic of Korea, Brazil

Sweeteners


Thaumatin

• 3000x sweeter than sucrose• Used primarily as a flavor enhancer• Approved in US, EU, Japan, others

Sweeteners

Tagatose

• 0.9x as sweet as sucrose• Has the bulk of sucrose, is almost as

sweet, but provides only 1.5 kcal/g• Declared GRAS by manuracturer’s self-

determination process

Sweeteners

Production of Polyols

Use of Polyols Polyol Functionality• Polyols are derived from sugars, but they are not

processed by the body like sugars. Polyols have many advantages such as reduced calories as compared to sugar, reduced insulin response, ability to be labeled "sugar-free" and "no sugar added", do not promote tooth decay, and do not brown in bakery applications (i.e. no Maillard reaction).

• Polyols are used mostly in confectionery, food, oral care, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications. Some characteristics of polyols are fewer calories, pleasant sweetness, ability to hold moisture, and improved processing. Polyols serve as humectants, bulking agents, and freeze point depressants.


Polyol Functionality

• Sweet• Cool• Not fully digested in body• Non-cariogenic• Beneficial to colon health• Laxative effects

Spipolyols.com – refer to for many applications


Texture and Consistency Control Agents

Emulsifiers and emulsifier saltsFirming agents

Leavening agentsMasticatory substances

PropellantsStabilizers and thickeners

Texturizers

Emulsifiers and Emulsifier Salts

What Are Emulsifiers• Chemical agents which reduce surface tension between

two normally immiscible agents (water and oil) and allow then to mix together.

• Agitation is typically required.• Produces either an oil in water (o/w) or water in oil (w/o)

emulsion.• Results in small droplets being dispersed within a

continuous phase.• Droplets are held interspersed by the emulsifiers

employed.

Emulsifiers

Emulsion Examples• Water in oil

– examples: margarine and butter– water is the dispersed phase and oil the

continuous phase• Oil in water

– examples: milk, ice cream, mayonnaise– oil is dispersed phase and water the

continuous phase

Emulsifiers

Stearic acid [R = -(CH2)16CH3]OOCR

CC

C

HOH

HH

HH OH

HCC

C

H

O P O N(CH3)3

RCOOH

RCOO

H H

OH

O+

RCH2O S O

O

OH

-

Nonionic 1-monoglyceride

Amphoteric - lecithin

Anionic lauryl sulfate

Emulsifier Chemistry

Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic Domains

stearic

Emulsifiers

fragmentation to meta stable colloids

Shear

surfactant micelle

surfactant molecule

polar

nonpolar

dispersed phase

Brownian motion

Emulsifier Structure/Function Mechanisms

1. Electrostatic - phospholipids & proteinsrepulsion

Emulsifiers


1. Electrostatic

2. Steric hindrance

3. Particle adsorption

Emulsifier Structure/Function Mechanisms

3. 3.

Water

Oil

2.

Emulsifiers

How Emulsifiers Work

• Electrostatic - charged emulsifiers like lecithins and proteins; alternate charges attracted to polar headgroup creates ion clouds to repel like droplets.

• Steric - non-ionic emulsifiers like MG and polysorbates; in o/w emulsions, hydrophilic group holds a layer of water and repels like hydrophilic micelles.

• Adsorbtion - small particles held on the surface of emulsion droplets that protrude into the preferred liquid.

Emulsifiers

How To Select Emulsifiers• In theory, selection is based upon HLB values

– hydrophilic/lipophilic balance– values of between 1 and 20; 1-8 lipophilic and 9-20 hydrophilic– HLB is a calculated value based upon the chemical groups

present in the compound

• In reality, historical uses and experience help with proper selection– some situations require only one emulsifier– most use a blend of emulsifiers– stabilizers are often used to “tie up” available continuous phase

Emulsifiers

Selecting Emulsifiers

• Product design involves determining:– the problem– knowing what the emulsifier can & cannot do– on basis of food system functionality, will an

emulsifier solve that problem?– select the appropriate emulsifier/s – optimize usage levels

Emulsifiers

Selecting emulsifiers• Functionality• Cost $

– Plastics vs. powders

• Low Fat– Flavor impact problems

• Regulations– MG & DG not regulated, polysorbates more highly

regulated (U.S.)

• Synergism– Work best in combination with each other

Emulsifiers

Common Emulsifiers• Lecithins (phospholipids); baked goods, chocolates,

cooking sprays, confections, instantized foods• Mono and diglycerides; bakery, frozen desserts,

icings, toppings, peanut butter• Sucrose esters; wide range of HLB dependent on

ester number• Sorbitans (Spans 60); toppings and cake mixes• Polysorbates

– Tween 60- cake mixes and icing; Tween 65- ice cream, custards; Tween 80- oils in diet foods, vitamin-mineral preps, fat-soluble vitamins

• Stearoyl lactates; baked goods• Proteins (milk proteins)

Emulsifiers


Fats in food systems interact with other components, usually at an interface:

• liquid–liquid• air–liquid • solid-liquid

Emulsifiers:• ingredient component (e.g., egg yolk)• additive (e.g., monoglyceride)

Rheological & Textural - EmulsifiersEmulsifiers

Rheological & Textural - Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers: • decrease surface tension of dispersed phase

• surface active agents• solubilizing agents• dispersants• wetting agents• whipping agents• foaming agents• defoaming agents• viscosity modifiers

Emulsifiers

Stearic acid [R = -(CH2)16CH3]OOCR

CC

C

HOH

HH

HH OH

HCC

C

H

O P O N(CH3)3

RCOOH

RCOO

H H

OH

O+

RCH2O S O

O

OH

-

Nonionic 1-monoglyceride

Amphoteric lecithin

Anionic lauryl sulfate


Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic Domains

Emulsifiers


Shear

fragmentation to meta stable colloids

Emulsion: homogeneous mixture of two fluids that are normally immiscible

Dispersion of fine droplets in a continuous/bulk phase

surfactant micelle

surfactant molecule

polar

nonpolar

Dispersed phase

Brownian motion

Emulsifiers

Bulk

Oil-in-water emulsion

Water-in-oil emulsion

Physical State: Functionality Affected:Melting & Solidification

Snap & Appearance

Viscosity

Melting & Solidification

Stability

Whipping Qualities

Viscosity & De-emulsification

Melting & Solidification

Stability

Plasticity & Consistency

Spreadability & ViscosityLipid

H2O

H2O

oil

lipid phase

Rheological & Textural - EmulsifiersEmulsifiers

PhospholipidsLecithin:

• important emulsifier in the food industry• by-product of processing crude soybean oil• complex of phospholipids, glycolipids, TAGs, smallquantities FAs, sphingolipids

• fractionation new products of variable functionality

Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) = High or LowFood technologists calculate:

HLB values = ∑(hydrophilic values) - ∑(lipophilic values) + 7

Emulsifiers


Phospholipids

• HLB of 2-6: good W/O emulsifier, retards wetting

• HLB of 7-9: good wetting agent

• HLB of 10-18: good O/W emulsifier, wetting of fat powders

Wetting:

High surface tension

Reduced surface tension

(θ < 90°)H2O

(θ > 90°)H2Oθ

Emulsifiers

Lecithin

Enzyme-digested Lecithin

fatty acid part

phospholipid

Either of choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine

P X

fatty acid part

phospholipid

Either of choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine

P X

Enzyme-Digested Lecithinfatty acid part

phospholipidP

Hydroxyl group

Market products are paste lecithin & powdered lecithin of high purity.Uses: viscosity control & wetting, anti-spattering & anti-staling, also used in chocolate

Enzyme-digested or enzyme-treated lecithin is improved through strengthening the hydrophilicity by a treatment with phospholipase

Emulsifiers

Monoglycerides (MG)fatty acid part

hydroxy grouphydroxy group

Diglyceridesfatty acid parts

hydroxy group

Acetylated Monoglyceride (AMG)

fatty acid part

hydroxy groupacetyl group

Glycerine + plant/animal oil/fat produced by interesterification

Uses: emulsifier W/O, foaming agent, starch modifying agent, anti-foam, anti-tack, anti-bacterial, anti-staling, & softening

A very stable oil, peroxide value not increased at 97 C for 1,000 h. Stable α-crystals

Uses: added to hydrogenated fats (margarines), coatings, plasticizer, solvent, & powdered foaming agent

Emulsifiers

fatty acid part

hydroxy groupacetyl group

Lactylated Monoglycerate (LMG)

Foaming ability > emulsifier ability

Uses: in shortenings for cakes, desserts, & foam aeration for cream, by itself or with MGs, & gloss enhancement

Citric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides

fatty acid part

hydroxy groupcitric acid

Highly hydrophilic emulsifier, stable α-crystal structure

Uses: margarine, dairy products (in coffee whitener & cream), an emulsion stabilizer for mayonnaise & dressings because of strong acid-resistance

Emulsifiers

Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides (DATEM)

Succinic Acid Esters of Monoglyceride (SMG)

fatty acid part

hydroxy groupsuccinic acid

tartaryl groups

fatty acid part

hydroxy group

acetyl group

Insoluble in cold water, dispersible in hot water, soluble in hot alcohol, fats & oils. SMG complexes with starch & reacts with protein

Uses: dough modifying agent, emulsifier for shortening

Dispersible in cold & hot water, soluble in fats/oils,hydrophilic emulsifier, acid resistant

Uses: emulsification & foaming of margarine, mayonnaise & dressing, acts on starch & protein, & a dough modifier

EmulsifiersPolyglyceride Esters of Fatty Acids (PGE)

fatty acid part

hydroxy group

nn = ~ 2-10

fatty acid parthydroxy group

nn = ~ 2-10

( ) n

Polyglycerol Polyricinate (PGPR)

Dispersible in water, soluble in oilHydrophilicity & lipophilicity greatly change with degree of polymerization and the type of fatty acid, HLB range 3-13

Uses: various (i.e., in many types of food as an O/W & W/O emulsifier for milk products containing acid & salt, and a modifier to control fat crystallization

Strong lipophilic W/O emulsifier, a highly-viscous liquid, insoluble in water & ethanol, and soluble in fats & oils

Uses: a viscosity-reducing agent for chocolate

Emulsifiers


Calcium Stearoyl-2-Lactate (CSL)

o

fatty acid part

o o

hydroxyl group

Sucrose ester

nCam

stearic acid lactic acid

Usually m = 2, n = 1/2

Wide HLB range 1 - 16 & multi functional

Uses: emulsifying & dispersing agent for cream & bacteriocidal agents for canned coffee

Unreacted stearic acid & salt, partially neutralized with calcium, an anionic emulsifier with a strong ability to bind protein Uses: as a dough modifier for flour foods like bread

Emulsifiers

Sorbitan Monoester

Sorbitol Monoester

hydroxy group

fatty acid part

o

Many types of sorbitan esters, each with different kinds of fatty acids & various degrees of esterification

Uses: by itself limited to emulsifying applications mainly for cream, widely used as a major emulsifier in combination with other emulsifiers with different functions

o

o

o

Sorbide Monoester

OR

Emulsifiers

Emulsion Destabilization• Creaming - density differences; droplet size critical• Flocculation - droplet aggregation; interaction of

adsorbed macromolecules between droplets, pH and ionic strength play a role as well

• Coalescence - droplet collision that breaks interfacial film; pH, salts, temperature, emulsion volume all involved

• Oswald Ripening - droplet collision that produces smaller and smaller particles that eventually dissolve and float above the aqueous layer; frozen foods

Emulsifiers

Emulsifier Applications

• Baked Goods– largest use of emulsifiers (over 55%)– Dough Conditioning (SSL, polysorb, DATEM,

ethoxylates and succinylated mono and diglycerides

• improve binding of gluten strands by increasing binding sites

– Crumb Softening (monoglycerides, SSL, DATEM)

• complex with amylose to inhibit staling

Emulsifiers


• Foaming/Aeration (monoglycerides, PGME, polysorbates)– batter systems; helps gas bubbles to form

• Emulsification (mono and diglycerides, PGME)

– shortening and oil dispersion• Crumb Softening (PGME acetylated and lactylated

monoglycerides, polysorbates)– moisture retention, higher volume, tender

crumb

Emulsifiers


• Confectionary and Coatings– prevention of fat bloom– sorbitan tristearate, lactylated

monoglyceerides– lecithins in chocolate (scavenges free water)– monoglycerides often used to enhance fat

dispersion and improve eating in caramels and toffees

Emulsifiers


Emulsifier Applications• Dairy and Aerated Foods

– foam promotion with stability arising from proteins in system; emulsifier promotes fat crystal agglomeration to form matrix

– propylene glycol esters, acetylated and lactylatedmonoglycerides used

– coffee whiteners use emulsifiers for dispersion and rapid hydration

– ice cream usually used additional gums (CMC, guar, locust bean, and carrageenan) to stabilize

Emulsifiers


• Fat Reduction– better fat dispersion and smaller droplets for

better mouthfeel even at reduced fat levels– emulsifiers used in full fat will require

modification in reduced fat systems– combinations of emulsifiers work better

Emulsifiers

Emulsifier Regulations• In USA:

– GRAS:• Lecithin, mono and di-glycerides, DATEM, triethylcitrate

– All others governed by multipurpose additive regulations stating use in specific products at set levels

• In Europe:– Classified under EEC Council Directive reference

numbers• e.g. mono and diglycerides: E471• Western Europe – no food use of sorbitan esters• Germany – no propylene glycol esters

Emulsifiers

Emulsifier Regulations• In Japan:

– On positive list of food additives:• Glycerin fatty acid esters• Sorbitan fatty acid esters• Propylene glycol fatty acid esters• Sucrose fatty acid esters• Lecithin

Emulsifiers

Definition of Leavening Agents

• From the latin “levare” - to lift• a substance used in doughs and batters

that causes them to rise. - the holes left by the gas bubbles give breads, cakes, and other baked goods their soft, sponge-like textures.

Types of leavening agents

1. Air• Beating of a batter or egg whites,

creaming of butter and sugar, incorporates and hold air inside

• when the product is heated, the gases of air expand to take up greater volume

• Large bubbles - coarse textureFine, well distributed air bubbles are

necessary for soft texture • Overbeating will often cause the air to

be lost. Smaller bubbles in contact with large bubbles will merge into the larger over time

• Major leavening agent in pound cakes and angel food cakes.

2. Water Vapor (Steam)

• When water is heated, water molecules turn to gas and take up a greater volume than when the water is liquid.

• Expansion of air bubbles by increasing vapor pressure

• Main leavening agent in popovers, eclairs, cream puffs, some cookies, and crackers.

Leavening agents


Types of leavening agents3. Carbon Dioxide

- either chemically or biologically generated• important leavening agent for most baked products. • Like air, carbon dioxide is a gas that expands when

heated. • It is generated from within the product rather than being

incorporated into the product. • Sources:

– Baking soda– Baking powder– Yeast– Sourdough– Ammonium bicarbonate– Potassium bicarbonate

Leavening agents

Baking soda

• Sodium bicarbonate, soluble white chemical compound witha slight alkaline taste

• Above 60 C, 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

• When exposed to an acidNaHCO3 + HX CO2 + H2O + NaX

Leavening agents

Baking soda• Cream of Tartar (potassium acid tartrate) (1835)

-> development of the first baking sodagas release: 70/0/30 (relative percentages of gas release

at mixing/bench/cooking)

• Sodium Aluminum Sulfate (SAS) (1885) – 0/0/100• Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate (SAPP) (1900’s) – several grades

based on particle size:40/8/52, 36/8/56, 32/8/60, 28/8/64, 22/11/67

• Other modern leavening agents:- monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (60/0/40)- coated monocalcium phophate (15/35/50)- sodium aluminum phosphate (22/9/69)- dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (0/0/100)

Leavening agents

Baking Powder• Baking soda (about 30%)

+ acidulants+ starch (25-40%)

• Home use:Phosphate (monocalcium phosphate) or SAS

• Commercial:Variable; mainly SAPP + monocalcium phosphate

• Double acting: two kinds of acidulants (room temp + high temp) Single acting: contain only room-temp acidulants

• Can substitute baking powder for baking soda

• One year shelf-life and lose activity over time

Leavening agents

Ammonium bicarbonate

• Baker’s ammonia • Slight ammonia odor and

soluble in water -> alkaline soln.

• The aqueous solution of this salt liberates carbon dioxide and ammonia on heating

NH4HCO3 NH3 + H2O + CO2

• used in food industry before the introduction of baking soda

Leavening agents

Yeast

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae

• yeast cells convert carbohydratesinto carbon dioxide and alcohol.

• More yeast needed in sweet breads because excess sugar will havenegative osmotic effect on the cells

• Compressed fresh yeast (70% H2O)Granulated dry yeast (8% H2O)

Leavening agents


Functions of Intermediate Molecular Weight Carbohydrates

• Texture– Fat replacers/mimetics– Viscosity

• aW control• Bulking agent• Energy source 1 – 4 kcal/g

Maltodextrins as Fat Mimetics

• Maltodextrins with DE < 5, modified starches, dextrins

• Stabilize large amount of water into a gel-like structure

• Lubricant and flow properties similar to fat

• Give smooth and stable texture

Polydextrose

• Polymer of D-glucose (dextrose) containing bound sorbitol and citric acid with MW 22,000 Daltons

• Soluble in water• aW profile similar to sucrose – used to

lower aW in foods• Depresses freezing point• Energy 1 kcal/g• Bulking and fat sparing agent

Functions of Polysaccharides

• Interactions with water– Texture– Thickener– Gel formation

• Digestibility– Dietary fiber

• Processing aid• Binder• Adhesive• Gel or film former• Stabilizer

Function of Starches in Foods

• Thicken• Bind• Adhere• Suspend• Carry• Improve

Appearance• Extend Shelf-Life• Add Bulk

• Encapsulate• Gel• Agglomerate• Coat• Stabilize• Provide Body• Extend Ingredients

Starch

StarchGranule

Enlargement

Amylose

Amylopectin

Basic Starch StructureStarch


•Maize, Waxy Maize and High Amylose

•5-35 Micrometer Granules

Waxy Maize: 0% Amylose Maize: 27% AmyloseHigh Amylose: 55-95% Amylose

Corn StarchStarch


•Truncated Spheres‘Bell Shaped’

•17% Amylose

Tapioca StarchStarch


•Large Lenticular Granules

•20% Amylose

Potato StarchStarch

•Bi-Modal Granule Distribution•2-10 micrometer• 20-35 micrometer

•Large Lenticular and Small Spherical Granules

•27% Amylose

Wheat StarchStarch

Native Starches:The Functionality of AmyloseWaxy Corn Tapioca Potato

Dent Corn Wheat

0% Amylose

17% Amylose

20% Amylose

27% Amylose

27 % Amylose

Non-Gelling

Soft Gel Salve Consistency

Firm Gel Soft Gel

Clear Clear Clear Slightly Opaque

Slightly Opaque

Starch

Uses for Native Starches

Candy Moulding

Moisture Control

Sugar Grinding

Dusting

Starch


Chemical Modification Improves:

Freeze/Thaw Stability

Heat, Acid and Shear Stability

Texture and Mouthfeel

Process Control

Shelf-life Stability

Product Handling

Starch

Starch Modifications

Physical Modification

Native Starch

Chemical Modification

Dextrinization

Oxidation

Thinning

Crosslinking

Substitution

Agglomerate

Instantize

Starch

Thinning/Thin-Boiling

Increases:Paste ClarityGel Strength

•Decreases:Hot Paste Viscosity

•(Thin-Boiling)

Starch

Thin-Boiling

Confection JelliesBakery FillingsGelled ProductsMeats

Salad DressingsBaked GoodsMeatsDairyCoatings

Starch

Crosslinking

• Increases:Temperature Stability

Acid StabilityShear Stability

• Decreases:Viscosity

Rate of Hydration

Starch

Crosslinking

High Acid• Tomato based sauces, salad dressings

Hot Fill• Pie fillings, bakery glazes

Aseptic• Puddings, cheese sauces

Retorted• Soups, gravies, sauces

Starch


Substitution• Increases:

Freeze/Thaw StabilityWater Holding Capacity

Peak ViscosityClarity

• Decreases:Retrogradation

Pasting Temperature

Starch

Substitution

Substituting AgentsPropylene OxidePropylene Oxide

Acetic AnhydrideAcetic Anhydride

Octenyl Succinic Octenyl Succinic AcidAcid

Starch Terms

HydroxypropylHydroxypropyl(HP Starch)(HP Starch)

Acetylated StarchAcetylated Starch

OS StarchOS Starch

Starch

Acetylated Starch

1st Generation in Substituted Starches

Better Moisture Control over Unmodified Starches

Increased Clarity

Starch

Hydroxypropylated Starch

Provides Exceptional Freeze/Thaw StabilityImproved Paste ClarityIncreased Moisture ControlBetter Control of Retrogradation

Starch

Octenylsuccinate Starch

Lipophilic CharacteristicsHelps Control FatProvides Moisture BarrierExcellent Encapsulation Properties

Starch

Combined Modifications

Crosslinking

Substitution

Benefits of Both

Process Stability Process Stability ANDAND Moisture ManagementMoisture Management••Diversification of PropertiesDiversification of Properties••Product and Process SpecificProduct and Process Specific

+ =

Starch


Combined Modifications

Frozen FoodsProcessed FoodsNeutral and Acidic SystemsAseptic and Retorted FoodsMeatsDairy

Starch

Starch Modifications

Physical Modification

Native Starch

Chemical Modification

Agglomerate

Instantize

Starch

Instant Starches

UnUn--cooked Starchcooked Starch

PrePre--cook and Dry

cook and Dry

PrePre--Gelatinized StarchGelatinized Starch

Cold Water Swelling StarchCold Water Swelling Starch

PrePre--swell and Dryswell and Dry

Starch

PrePre--GelGel GranularGranular

Cold Water Swelling Starches

Starch

Advantage of Intact Granules:Quality Attributes

Starch

Pre-gelatinized Granular/CWS

Instant StarchesPregelatinized

Rapid HydrationPre-CookedFew Intact GranulesGrainy Appearance

Granular/CWS• Rapid Hydration• Pre-Swollen• Intact Granules• Cook-up Quality

without Heat– Smooth Texture– Superior Surface

Gloss

Both types require a diluent for lump-free dispersion

Starch


Agglomerated Starches

Instant StarchInstant Starch

AgglomerationAgglomeration

AgglomeratedAgglomeratedInstant StarchInstant Starch

Starch Agglomerated Starches

No Need for Diluent

Ideal for Hot Water Dispersion

Cook-up Quality

Versatile for Processing

Starch

Gums/Hydrocolloids

Functions of Gums

• Thickening/ increasing viscosity• Stabilizing aqueous dispersions,

suspensions, and emulsions• Formation of gels• See table 5-8 in book, page 75

Gums

Plant Seed Gums: Function

• Guar gum– Highest viscosity per unit concentration of any

gum– Bread staling inhibitor, sausage, salad dressings– Does not form a gel (no junction zones)

• Locust bean gum– Synergistic activity with carrageenan to improve

viscosity– Added to cottage cheese to improve yield and

speed curd formation• Both used in ice creams for binding water,

decreasing ice crystal size, stabilizer, texture

Gums

Plant Exudate Gums: Function

• Gum arabic– Flavor encapsulation

• Spray-dried citrus drink mixes– Most water soluble – up to 50% w/w

• Newtonian flow up to 40%– Acts as an emulsifier

• Gum tragacanth– Stable to heat and acid

• Used in salad dressings and sauces• Clarity and brilliance in frozen pie fillings

Gums


Seaweed Gums: Function• Agar

– Remain stable at temp > initial gelation point – High gel strength– Reduces syneresis in frozen desserts– Stability and texture in process cheese and cream

cheese• Carrageenan

– Interacts with locust bean gum and milk proteins– Chocolate milk -> stabilize chocolate suspension– Chemically set gels with potassium ion

• Alginates– Form gels at room temp. in presence of calcium ion– Icing on donuts – texture, gel, and stickiness

Gums

Bacterial Gums: Functions• Xanthan gum

– Soluble in hot and cold water– Pseudoplastic suspensions– Temperature and pH stable

• Suspending and stabilizing agent in canned foods

• Gellan– Requires monovalent or divalent cations to

form a gel– High gel strength and low syneresis

Gums

Cellulose Gums: Functions

• Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)– Forms thixotropic dispersions (water insoluble)– Body agent, foam stabilizer, suspension aid

• Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)– Nondigestible bulk and body agent in diet foods– Protective colloid in emulsions and prevents

precipitation of soy proteins or caseinates at their pI’s• Methylcellulose

– Thermogelation (gels when heated, melts when cooled)• Grease barrier in fried foods

– Soluble in cold not hot water

Gums

Pectin Functions

• Commercial pectin obtained from:– Citrus peel (lemon and lime) and apple pomace

• Extracted with acid– Hydrolysis of methyl ester groups occurs

• Pectin with > 50% carboxyl groups in methyl ester form are high-methoxyl (HM) pectins

• Pectins with < 50% carboxyl groups in methyl ester form are low-methoxyl (LM) pectins

Gums

Pectin

• Virtually impossible to dissolve without high shear and or high temperature

• Food uses:– Jelly– Fruit on the bottom yogurt

Gums

Pectin Functions

• HM pectin– Solutions gel when sufficient acid and

sugar are present– Lower pH convert charged carboxylate

groups to uncharged and these can form junction zones

– High concentrations of sugar (at least 55%, often 65%) competes for water of hydration and assists junction zone formation

Gums


Pectin Functions

• LM pectin– Gel only in the presence of divalent cations

(only calcium used in food industry)– Divalent cations provide cross-bridges

(form junction zones)– Increasing concentration of calcium

increases gelling temperature and gel strength

– Gel formation does not require sugar – can be used for diet formulations

Gums

Regulations for Hydrocolloids

• In USA:– Food additives

• CFR 21 172.580 – 172.874– GRAS

• CFR 182.1480 – 184.1724

Humectants

Humectants• Additives which are used to keep food moist.

Humectants are hygroscopic, i.e. they absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and thus are able to counteract the normal drying effects caused by evaporation.

• Typical foods kept moist by humectants include cake icings, confectionery, shredded coconut and dried fruit.

• Common humectants include GLYCEROL, MANNITOL, SORBITOL, CALCIUM LACTATE and POTASSIUM LACTATE, and PROPYLENE GLYCOL.

Other Functions of Additives For Fruits

Enzymes

Enzymes: Definitions

• Biological catalysts that make possible or greatly speed up chemical reactions

Enzymes


Enzyme Functions

• Speed up reactions• Reduce viscosity• Improve extractions• Carry out

bioconversions

• Enhance separations• Develop functionality• Create/intensify flavor• Synthesize chemicals

Enzymes

Groups of Enzymes1. Oxidoreductases

• Catalyze oxidations or reductions2. Transferases

• Catalyze a shift of a chemical group from a donor to an acceptor substrate

3. Hydrolases• Catalyze hydrolytic splitting of substrates

4. Lyases• Catalyze removal or addition of chemical groups to substrates

(excluding hydrolysis)5. Isomerases

• Catalyze intramolecular rearrangements6. Ligases (synthetases)

• Catalyze combinations of substrate molecules

Enzymes

Enzymes Important to Food Industry

• Most are hydrolases– Add one water molecule for each bond split– Carbohydrases, proteases (proteinase), esterases,

lipases – mostly unwanted and not added ( exception: protease

in cheese)• Some are oxidoreductases

– Substrate loses hydrogen or gains oxygen• One is an isomerase

– Intramolecular rearrangement– Glucose isomerase

Enzymes

Functions and Importance of Enzymes

• Enzyme activity can be:– Wanted

• Ripening of cheese• Conversion of milk to cheese• Conversion of corn starch to high fructose corn syrup

– Unwanted• Lipid hydrolysis producing hydrolytic rancidity in lipid

containing foods• Thinning of tomato paste• Browning of fruits

Enzymes

Factors that Affect Enzyme Reactions

• Enzyme Concentration• Substrate Concentration• Combined Effect of Enzyme and Substrate

Concentration• Time• Temperature• pH• Inhibitors

Enzymes

Enzyme Inactivation and Control

• Inhibitors• pH• Temperature• Denaturation

– Shear force– Very high pressure– Irradiation– Interfacial inactivation– Solvent

• Chemical modification of active site groups• Removal of substrate or cofactor

Enzymes


Enzyme activity in foods

• Desirable (often additive added as processing aid)– Control with enzyme type– Control with time– Control with temperature – Control with pH– Control with substrate concentration– Control with enzyme concentration

• To optimize enzyme activity

Enzymes

Enzyme activity in foods

• Undesirable (often endogenous enzyme)• To slow down or inactivate enzyme activity

– Control with temperature– Control with pH – Control with aw

– Control with inhibitor

Enzymes

Pectinases and juice• Pectinase is added to clarify the product by hydrolysis of

pectinaceous materials.– May also increase yield

• Control :– Enzyme Type

• Most commercial pectinase is produced by Aspergillus niger (mold)• Often combination of pectin methylesterases and

polygalacturonases

– Time• Depends on the dosage of the enzyme and variety of fruit (15 min –

2 hours)• The more the enzyme, the less time is needed

Enzymes

Pectinases and juice

– Temperature • Optimum temperature is 30-40°C

– pH• Want maximum activity

– Limited denaturation with maximum conversion of reactant to product

• The optimum is pH 4.8-5.0• Juice manufactures usually use pH 3.5

Enzymes

Amylases

• Used to hydrolyze starch to sugar• Remove starch from:

– Fruit juices and extracts– Flavoring extracts– Prepare starch-free pectin (important that this

contains no pectinases)

Glucose Oxidase and Catalase

• Keep oxygen out of products by catalyzing reaction of glucose to gluconic acid and absorbing oxygen in the process– Catalase needed to provide oxygen for the

reaction• By removing oxygen:

– Prevent off flavors in citrus concentrates and drinks

– Prevent enzymatic browning of fresh frozen fruits

– Prevent iron pickup in canned fruit drinks


Bromelain, Ficin, and Papain

• Proteases extracted from pineapple, figs, and papaya, respectively

• Hydrolyze plant and animal proteins to peptides and amino acids

• Used as meat tenderizers

Undesirable Enzyme Activity

Enzymes

Proteases in milk• Proteases in milk degrade proteins and

significantly affect flavor and protein stability

• Control– Enzyme Type

• General protease• Native to milk (e.g. plasmin) • Produced by psychrotrophic microbes

– Temperature• Very high temperature is needed to inactivate the enzymes• Pasteurization and other milk processings are not inactivate

all the enzymes, some still remain active

Enzymes

Pectinases in tomato paste

• Pectinases clarify tomato paste. However, cloudiness is desired.


• Native to commodity

– Temperature• Inactivated by denaturation (> 50°C)

Enzymes

Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) in fruits

• PPO is responsible for undesirable discoloration (brown) of fruits.


• Native to fruits

– Temperature• Not recommended to heat

– pH• Lower pH to reduce activity using organic acid

Enzymes


Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) in fruits

– aw• Lower aw to reduce activity (reduce mobility of substrates and

enzymes) by drying

– Inhibitor• Sulfite

– Substrate removal• Remove O2 using vacuum package, MAP, CAP• Remove copper

– Radiation• D37 = 30-70 kGy

Enzymes

Gelatin and raw pineapples

• Bromelain (protease) in raw pineapples will prevent gelation of gelatin.

• Control– Temperature

• Inactivated by denaturation (> 71°C)• No bromelain activity in canned pineapples

– pH• Inactivated at pH < 3 and > 9.5

Enzymes

Lipoxygenases and soybean

• Lipoxygenases in soybean produce beanyflavour.

• Control– Temperature

• Heat to inactivate (>70°C)

– Choose variety of soybean with nonlipoxygenase to avoid beany flavor

Enzymes

Serbian Enterprise Development Project:

Use of Food Additives

Dr. Lisa MauerAssociate Professor

Department of Food SciencePurdue University

f7.1 use of food additives

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