Published in:

The African Journal of Finance and Management, July 2002.

EXPORT MARKETING STRATEGIES: A Global Communication Emphasis

By

Prof. Elisante ole Gabriel (PhD, Marketing)

Lecturer – Mzumbe University

Faculty of Commerce, P O Box 6, Mzumbe, Morogoro, Tanzania

Visiting Professor of;

Strategic Marketing & Management – Finland, India, Australia & Kenya

Email: elisante_gabriel@yahoo.com

Mobile Tel. +255-784-455499, Fax +255-732-979949

Private Website: http://www.olegabriel.com

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The abstract This paper will give a general overview of what is meant by Globalisation as well

as factors encouraging the Globalisation concept. Communication as a social

phenomenon at the global dimension will be briefly discussed. More specifically

the paper will address the issue of Export Marketing strategies, their weaknesses

and strengths. Globalisation is considered to be a concept of taking the whole

world as one huge market with homogeneous needs. Depending on the

knowledge of the exporter, this can be useful but if not handled with care can

be misleading. In the real world it might be difficult to get the homogeneous

needs of customers across the world. People are different and the differences

are different. The key success factor is for the exporter to have a proper

knowledge of the alternative export strategies and make a ‘strategic strategy

choice”. The worst scenario is to choose not to choose. Companies and/or

individuals who are dealing with export transactions have to identify and

understand their Export objectives before working out the export strategies. It is

also becoming increasingly important for exporters to communicate the value

they are exporting to their customers. This communication should command the

social global aspects. If the social aspects are ignored in communicating the

values, the business is destined to fail. This question will not be whether it will

fail or not but just when it is going to fail. Therefore Exporters are encouraged

not to be myopic in managing the export business. They should see ‘beyond the

wall’ and go where no man has ever gone before.

KEY WORDS

Export, Strategy, Globalization, Communication

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1.0 Introduction

Due to the increase of the needs of customers around the world with

fewer resources in some locations, the point of equilibrium could not be

met using the local production. To this very reason and others, people

started outsourcing the deficit from abroad. Having importation of the

goods and services to cover the gap, the suppliers on the other end

were then considered to be exporters. This started by the exchange of

goods in ancient history (barter trade) up to when the medium of

exchange was put in place. The impact of technology in export business

has accelerated tremendously the size of the export transactions. The

improved level of technology has also reduced dramatically the ‘lead

time’ in export business. In any business it is very important to have a

clear understanding of the objectives of the business. In any business it

is very important to have a clear understanding of the objectives of the

business. This should be the case also to the export business. It is only

after identifying the objectives becomes appropriate to think about

strategies. However before thinking about choosing the alternative

strategies, let us pose a question.

o What is a strategy and strategy process?

THE STRATEGY

There are several definitions of the word ‘strategy’. These include:

1. A strategy is a unified, comprehensive, and integrated plan that

relates the strategic advantages of the firm to the challenges of the

environment. It is designed to ensure that the basic objectives of the

enterprise are achieved through proper execution by the

organization (by William F. Glueck).

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2. A strategy is the main way of achieving the objectives and mission.

3. Five P’s for strategy definition (by Henry Mintzberg) “….. accordingly,

five definitions of strategy are presented here as: Plan, Ploy, Pattern,

Position, and perspective – and some of their inter-relationships are

useful”. (Strategy Process, H Mintzberg, pp. 13).

STRATEGY PROCESS

This is one of the three dimensions of a strategy. Other dimensions

being strategy content and strategy context. By W & Ron Meyer;

Strategy process:

“is the manner is which strategies come about, stated in terms of a

number of questions, strategy process is concerned with the how?

and when? of strategy – how is, and when should, strategy be

made, analyses and dreamt-up, formulated, implemented, changed

and controlled. Who is involved and when do the necessary activities

take place?” (Ron Meyer, pp5)

Let us draw attention to the three basic questions concerning the

strategy process to make it easy to link with the aspect of exporting:

(i) How is and should strategy be made, dreamt-p, formulated,

implemented changed and controlled?

(ii) Who is involved in the task?

(iii) When do the necessary activities take place?

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To cover the scope of exporting more broadly, let us expand the

number of questions and connect the questions to the offer an exporter

is having in mind.

1.01 Ten key questions before exporting

� Which product are you dealing with?

� What value are you offering to your customers?

� Is it the right time to go for international markets

� Is it the right time to go for international markets?

� Is the local market exhausted?

� What are your export objectives?

� Which strategy will be the most appropriate one?

� Who are your competitors?

� Do you have any competitive advantages?

� How are you going to fund your export operations?

� ARE YOU TECHNOLOGICALLY SOPHISTICATED?

It is critical to understand that we are no longer competing by products but

by ‘value network’. Customers are no longer interested in spending their

money just for the sake of buying products but getting the value for their

money. By offering a unique value customers are even prepared to pay

premium prices.

1.02 Globalisation

This is a concept, which considers the whole world as one huge

homogeneous market Export business is part of globalization since

it is operating in marking sure that goods and services are offered

beyond the geographical and/or political boundaries. Globalization

is a strategic move focused on maintaining the global operation

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strategically. The point that it is strategic is what differentiates it

from the concept of ‘internationalization’.

This is a concept, which considers the whole world as one huge

homogeneous market Export business is part of globalization since it is

operating in marking sure that goods and services are offered beyond the

geographical and/or political boundaries. Globalization is a strategic move

focused on maintaining the global operation strategically. The point that it

is strategic is what differentiates it from the concept of

‘internationalization’.

Globalisation is based on three basic assumptions

(a) The needs of customers are becoming more homogenous that all

customers will have common needs.

(b) Customers are ready to forego their preferences provided they are

offered a low price with good quality.

(c) The cost saving from the mass production will make the firm more

competitive against its rivals.

From the business point of view there are some benefits which are

considered to emanate from the product policy which embraces global

dimension. These include:

(i) Cost reduction

Due to economies of scale achieved from mass production and

standardization of different programmes, the unit cost of the

product decreases.

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(ii) Improved quality

Due to international standards, every firm should produce to the

expected standards in order to survive in the business

environment.

(iii)

Enhanced customer preference

Especially for mobile customers, they can find the same standard

of product in every part of the world for a global product.

Example

A machine bearing with specification SKF 4308 (Japan Make), has

the same technical performance all over the world. It dimensions

of diameter, width, etc. are the same throughout.

(iv) Increased competitive leverage

Having the product design at a global dimension, it does not need

several adjustments and modifications. Its R $ D costs are lower,

hence, the saving is shifted to improve the competitive position of

the firm. Cross-subsidisation is another facet leading to leverage.

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The drivers towards a global dimension can be summarized using

the Yip’s model, as follows:

Figure 1: Globalisation drivers

COST EFFICIENCIES

GOVERNMENT COMPETITION

MARKET

Key: G = Globalization

With its benefits, this approach has also its drawbacks. These include:

(i) High management and co-operation costs

(ii) Reduced innovation of local country if over-centralisation is used

(iii) Added staff

(iv) Market participation is the major concept than profit-making

(v) Ignored customer differences.

On the other hand, from customers’ point of view, arise factors

encouraging mass customization. These include:

(i) Differing use conditions

The conditions over which a product is going to be used are not,

G

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and cannot easily be the same all over. Aspects of climate,

infrastructure, etc. are adversely different from one place to

another.

(ii) Other market factors are also different

For instance, per capital income, language, propensity to consume,

fashion desire, beliefs and taboos, etc.

(iii) Influence of government

Other products in some countries are strictly prohibited. An

example for this can be phamaceutical products.

More examples: pomographic pictures/tapes in Tanzania (Africa), are

strictly prohibited while in other countries this is allowed.

Some countries do not allow children to appear on Television

advertisements while others do allow.

(iv) Extent of urbanization

Some places are more developed than others. In this regard for

instance, if you are to launch a sophisticated automatic luxury car

at a global tune, ignoring rough roads in certain parts of the world,

it will be unfair for the customers in the least urbanized areas.

(vi) Organisation structure

The firm may have a structure that cannot accept the product to

be at the global dimension from day one. The structure may

necessitate the attention to some specific customer needs.

However, the mass-customisation approach bears also some demerits like:

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(i) Not ideal for industrial products

(ii) Too costly due to lack of economies of scale.

(iii) Time consuming, hence can be behind schedule especially for

products of shorter life cycles, e.g. Fashionable products.

(iv) Requires highly qualified personnel with a broad knowledge of

different markets in the rest of the world.

Having given the above analysis, it is now clear that each of the

approaches the product policy employs, has its merits and demerits. The

critical question is how international firms can overcome this situation

(dilemma). Exporters have to understand these merits and demerits of the

global business clearly before engaging to exportation. The dilemma of

pure globalisation or adaptation (mass-customisation) is still a challenge to

many exporting firms.

1.02.1 The following are some possible alternatives of overcoming the

dilemma.

(i) Interactive approach

In this approach the product planning is to be done by drawing the

strengths of both global and tailored dimensions. When an

international product policy incorporates this approach it creates

synthesis, hence, better results. The outcome of this will bear the

synergy of the two approaches. In this regard the subsidiaries of

the international firm are responsible for identifying the unique

characteristics of their markets and communicate them to the

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product’s planning unit.

Example: When the packaging of Coca cola drinks was developed

It was noted that the plastic bottles appealed better

in Western countries than in Africa. In Africa glass

bottles, which are recycled, are in use. Though the

product (liquid) in standardized the packaging is

somehow customised.

(ii) Decentralised approach

In this approach the group of countries with similar needs for a

certain product(s), are served as one market (region). The product

can be developed and standardized in respect to a certain region.

This enhances the strategy of segmentation.

An executive of a certain major international company expressed

what is probably a representative view. He said:

“Marketing is conspicuous by its absence from the function

which can be planned at the corporate headquarter level. It

is this phase of overseas business activity that the variations

in social patterns and the subtlety of local conditions have

the most pronounced effect on basic business strategy and

tactics. For this reasons, the responsibility for marketing and

planning must be carried out by those overseas executives

who are most familiar with the local environment”.1

(iii) Unified organization structure

An international firm should have an orgnaisations structure,

whose members have common mission, Objective, Strategies and

Tactics (MOST). If the headquarters of the international firm

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decides to opt for a pure global dimension, tailored or mixed

approach in its international product policy, the subsidiaries should

comply and implement. Short of that, internal weaknesses

emanating from the roles’ conflict will occur.

1MILLARD, H Pryor. “Planning in a world-wide business” Harward Business Review, January – February, 1965.

Example: Canon world class consumer electronics Company,

decided to manufacture a six-character calculator to

cater for the global market. This decision was made

at the headquarters in Japan in 1964. However, the

subsidiary in the US found that customers in the US

at that very particular time needed a ten-digit

calculator and the six-digit one was in decline stage

in the US market. The engineers of Canon at the US

subsidiary decided to develop a 10 digit scientific

calculator without notice to the headquarters. They

launched it within two years a Canola-130 and it was

the best selling scientific calculator, in the US market,

at that time. (D & W Meyer, - Cases and Readings).

This shows the possibility of the conflicts of interests between the

headquarters and the subsidiaries. The firm must make sure that

such conflict to no exist. This can be done properly by

understanding the physiology, psychology and anatomy of the firm

in totality as a system.

(iv) Customising global marketing2

The global dimension has its demerits but does not mean that it is

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not applicable. In terms of cost saving, it does perform a good job.

The key issue for executives is to understand that flexibility is

needed to a certain extent, as there is no way everything can be

global. Managers have to tailor their approach to fit their own

products and markets and make their plan work.

2QUELCH John A and HOFF Edward J “Customising Global Marketing”, Harward Business Review, May – June 1986, pp. 59-68.

In most cases for a firm to succeed in overcoming the dilemma, it

must have a strong marketing team countrywide.

Example: Think of the research done by Quelch and Hoff in

Coca cola and Nestle. They identified four dimensions

of global marketing: business function, products,

marketing mix elements, and countries. Both of these

companies are international. Coca Cola has a higher

degree of standardization than Nestle but to conclude

that Coca Cola is a global company might be too

myopic. It just has many areas of standardization but

not totally standardized. This can be depicted in

attached figure 17-2 and 17-3 (W J Keegan, Global

Marketing pp. 600-601).

It clearly shows that however much a company tries to globalise, it

should customize some of its activities hence “customizing global

marketing”.

The product has to fit the circumstances and not the circumstances

to fit the product.

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Exporters to “think global but act local”. (v) Sophisticated supply chain (Logistics).

Exporting firms can improve their supply chain in terms of physical

movement, information and organization so as to make the whole

world as close to their supply as possible. Once this is a possibility,

customers will get what they want, when they want it, at a

competitive price. This approach will help to reduce cost and other

non-adding values to the planning and production process of the

product. The channels of distribution should be as short as possible

and managed effectively and efficiently. The information system

should be as perfect as possible.

Example: Benaton of Italy, is a famous Trans-national jumpers

Manufacturer and supplier. The product can be

delivered in 24 hours, to any point of the world,

according to customer’s specifications. The system is

highly computerized and well managed.

Having the analysis made on suggested alternatives to overcome

the dilemma, let us give the simplified model for Integration-

Responsiveness grid which puts global dimension and tailored

dimension in a two co-ordinates plane. The vertical axis will

represent the degree of INTEGRATION (cost efficiencies) while the

Horizontal one the degree of market RESPONSIVENESS.

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Fig. 2 Yip’s Model 1-R Grid (by I. Yip) HIGH

� C D

INTEGRATION

� A

LOW B

The 112QLLUFiELCH 00 LLL LOW RESPONSIVENESS HIGH

A firm has to find its favourable attainable point(s). Most

international firms are operating around point “A” as a combination

of the two dimensions. Firms in point “C” are more global while in

point “B” are more tailored in their product development. Firms in

point “D” are referred to as Transnational and that is the most

efficient point but difficult to attain. At that point (D), the degree of

globalisation and customization are both high. Firms are considered

to be globally driven when they are more sensitive to cost

efficiencies (INTEGRATION), and become more customer driven

when they are more sensitive to different market needs

(RESPONSIVENESS).

1.3 Social Communication

The social differences of the customers across borders need a

special attention. Communication objectives should be known from

the beginning. The appreciative system with an interpretative

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approach will help to reduce the level of misunderstandings as

opposed to the ‘conduit metaphor’ approach. Customer services

need to be managed carefully in international marketing. In order

to do this the communication between the exporter and the

importer should be mutual and capable of fostering a good

relationship. For this to be a possibility the communication

objectives for a good customer service need to be considered in

export marketing activities.

1.3.1 Communication objectives in customer service

Objectives are the desired end results of the business, which can

be quantified. They are setting communication objectives before

understanding the mission. In customers’ service management,

among other things, the communication objectives should address

the following:

1. What main point do you want the customer to take away

from the communication?

2. What action do you expect the customer to take after

Receiving the message? (e.g. Try the service, send more

information, use the service more often, etc).

3. Sales may not be the only goal. There is a need to enhance

image and reputation.

4. To create awareness of the service to potential and

prospective customers.

5. To create an interactive and dialogical set up of business

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Transactions.

6. To assure feedback for adequate running of business and

Instituting corrective measures to meet customers’

assessment for better customer service.

These objectives are achieved through communications strategies.

In practice the strategies are incorporated in the communications

plan. Planning is a disciplined thinking process, which integrates

the program. The program defines the position of the service as

well as the benefits that the customer will enjoy.

In customer service improvement we can set the strategy process

to have the following three components.

(i) Start and end with the customer. This is to be done by having

incentives and points of contact. Having good points of contact will

enable the tracing of the delivery of the service. By doing so, the

customer will get the right service at the right time and the

competitive price (not lower).

(ii) Establish a relationship. The complaints are to be collected,

analysed and adjustment should take place to close the gap if any.

(iii) Differentiate by establishing rapport, empathy and dialogue. This is

the way of creating a relationship.

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The key issue is the need of communications management. This is to

enable clear interaction of activities and the flow of the benefits.

Objectives are always reached by having a clear communication plan. The

plan includes components such as; situation analysis, Objectives,

Strategies, and Evaluation. This is a dynamic process which operates with

interdependence of each component. Under the component of

communications objectives, we have to consider the following questions.

• How can we co-ordinate the entire company towards one mission?

• How can we achieve competitive advantage?

• How can we achieve image congruence?

• How can we reach our customer?

• How can we achieve our financial goals?

The better you know the customer, the sharper the selling message. The

above given questions help to set the adequate communication strategies

hence to achieve the intended communication objectives in a timely

manner. This is the way achieving integrated marketing communication

(IMC). It is very important to be sure that the received message by the

customer about the service is the sent and intended one. A message is a

written, spoken or visual “text” with an intended meaning. It is by having

an active feedback mechanism, becomes possible to understand the

prevailing situations. The service quality, which is promised to the

customer, should be delivered accordingly.

In case there is any anticipated problem, this should be communicated to

the customer before time.

2.0 Export marketing strategies

As stipulated earlier, exporting is to sell your products beyond local

geographical and/or political boundaries. There are several

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strategies to do that. However, they are mainly in two categories:

(i) Direct Vs Indirect

(ii) Going alone Vs Co-operation

Depending on the nature on the nature of the business, it is the duty of

the exporter to make a choice between the going alone Vs co-operation

strategies. Similarly a choice is important between be direct or indict

depending on the nature of transaction. The export strategies matrix can

help to depict the relationship of these facts.

2.1 Going alone strategies

This is a set of strategies whereby an organization or individual

decides to do the export on his own. The exporter will try to do all

the activities along. The strategies under this category include;

Foreign Direct Investment. This is a direct export strategy. Other

direct export strategies include, Direct sales, Agent, Distributor,

Marketing subsidiary, etc. The indirect export strategies include;

Export houses, International Trading Companies, Piggy back

marketing, etc. Tepstra in 1987, suggested that ‘No firm can go it

alone in today’s world market: Co-operation is the way forward’.

2.2 Co-operation (Integrated) Strategies

These are the export strategies, which involve more than one

exporter in conducting the business. This approach emphasizes

that a company alone cannot do better in export business as when

they join hands with other companies or facilitators.

2.2.1 Strategic alliance

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This is a situation whereby two or more rivals come together and

join their efforts to weaken the bargaining power of the customers

as well as improving the profitability. The key feature of this

strategy is that, each player will maintain its Competitive

Advantage. The major disadvantage of this strategy is the fact that

when the partners fall in a conflict, it becomes a problem to

manage the business. Another serious problem is lack of synergy

of their core competencies since each is maintaining its competitive

advantage. For these very reasons, 90% if strategic alliances like;

BPAMOCO – British Petroleum and American Oil Company; HONDA

and Rover as well as others. They normally start shining but end

up to collapse beyond believe.

2.2.2 Joint Venture

This is a situation over which a foreign company has enough equity

to have a voice in management of the business but not absolutely.

The equity normally ranges from 10% to 90% but in practice it is

between 25% to 75%. In this case one firm is a foreign and

another one must be native to the country, which is targeted to be

a foreign market. Many Governments, including the Government of

Tanzania, is in favour of this entry strategy.

Example: Fujitsu, Japan’s largest computer manufacturer,

Found it almost impossible to break into the

competitive market by itself. Therefore, it formed a

join marketing venture with TRW to get the

marketing know-how and distribution. Fujitsu could

not do this alone.

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ADVANTAGES

♦ Greater control over marketing and production functions.

♦ Due to good marketing information, it provides better market

Feedback.

♦ Reduced danger of expropriation

DISADVANTAGES

♦ There may occur conflict of interest among the partners.

♦ Profits are proportionately shared

♦ Quality control by the foreign firm might be difficult. This is the

case especially when the firm wants to standardize its

specifications to meet global demands.

2.2.3 Contract Manufacturing

In this situation, proxy does foreign manufacturing. Another

producer in the foreign market, under contract, manufactures the

firm’s product. Normally the contract covers the manufacturing

process only. The entire marketing work is to be done by the firm,

which intends to export.

ADVANTAGES

♦ Protection over political uncertainties.

♦ The firm will avoid the cost of erecting a plan abroad.

♦ Low manufacturing risks

♦ The firm will advertise its products as if they are locally made

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(Provided customers are not geocentric)

DISADVANTAGES

♦ The manufacturing profits go to the manufacturer and not the

exporting firm.

♦ It might be difficult to spot a relevant manufacturer in the

foreign market.

♦ Quality control might be a problem since the exporting firm is

not involved in the manufacturing process.

2.2.4 Licensing

The exporting firm establishes local production in a foreign market

without heavy investment. The firm (Licensor) may give the

licensee patent rights, trademark rights, copyrights, etc so that the

products are manufactured according to the licensor’s

specifications. The licensee has to produce, market and sell the

products. The licensee then pays the licensor an agreed

proportionate of the sales volume.

Example: Toyota Company, of Japan, licensing South Africa

Motors, to manufacture.

Toyota Saloon cars for the African market.

ADVANTAGES:

♦ It becomes easy to access the market using the local

manufacturer in the foreign market.

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♦ Low investment costs. There will be no variable costs on the

side of the licensor and this makes the return on investment

(ROI) very high for greater sales volume.

♦ Low risk.

♦ Low administrative costs.

In the United States of America, some firms are receiving over $10

billion just from licensing agreements (Tepstra, 7th ed. Pp 535).

DISADVANTAGES

♦ Creating your own competitor

♦ The Government use to tax royalties hence a reduced level of

profit.

♦ In some cases a licensee may disagree with the licensor and

this may bring some hazards n the business. It is more

complicated if the two are based on different legal laws and

regulations.

♦ It might be difficult for the firm to maintain its confidentiality to

the level it wants. The licensee may give some confidential

information to other licensees who are not even the licensees of

the exporting firm.

2.2.5 Franchising

This is a situation whereby an exporter (franchiser) provides the

ingredients of production to the manufacturer in the foreign

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market. Additionally, the franchiser provides; standard packaging,

Marketing system, and management services. In the other hand

the franchisee provides; Market knowledge of the intended foreign

market, part of capital, and personal involvement in management.

Example: Cocacola provides syrup (concentrate) to some

franchisees around the world for production of

Coca-cola brands. That is why even in Tanzania, all

companies who are supplying these drinks are

referred as “bottlers” and not manufacturers E.g.

Kwanza bottlers, Fahari bottlers, Highlands bottlers

etc. They are not at all manufactures and they

absolutely don’t know the chemical formula for Coca-

cola. This formula is the competitive advantage of the

company and it is patented.

Having the in-depth analysis about ‘go done’ export strategies and

‘co-operation’ strategies, let have the tables to summarise the

advantages and disadvantages of each category.

GO ALONE

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

All profits are directed to the firm High capital investment

No conflict of interests High risk, eg expropriation

Better market feedback Lack of local market knowledge

(Except when an Agent or

Learning ground for the sales force Distributor is used)

Better control

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CO-OPERATION

Low investment costs as there is Possibility of conflict of interests

sharing in some cases Firm’s confidentiality may not be

Safe in terms of expropriation protected, e.g. Patent of formulae

Gets Government approval and

support quicker

Commissions, tax, interests on

Good public relations Lack of full commitment

Provide local market experience

3.0 Why strategies fail (in Tanzania)

It is obvious that not all strategies employed do succeed. Let us

take the context of Tanzania of some reasons which can contribute

to the failure interalia they include the following:

� Poor strategic strategy choice

� Lack of knowledge about the available alternative strategies

� Poor management of the export business

� Ethnocentrism of the foreign markets

� Country of origin effect (being a third world country is a

problem in the first world).

� Lack of assessment of strategy-Environment fit

� The use of the traditional model of communication (conduit

metaphor), which has a lot of rooms for creating

misunderstandings.

The list above is not exhaustive but generally we can say in the

Tanzanian context exporter have to improve their knowledge about

the said alternative strategies. It is only by understanding them

better, they can make a better choice.

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4.0 Conclusion and Recommendations

The key success factor for making best out the export business is

to understand the type of business in question. There is no way an

exporter can survive in export business if he is not coping with the

dynamism of export business. There is no any static business

environment and this is much so in the global business

environment. We have seen the forces driving organizations to go

for global business. It is crucial for each global player to answer

the question why globalising?

4.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

� Each exporter has to know the objectives of the business

before choosing the appropriate strategy.

� Making a choice is very important. Flip flop strategy may ot do

any better in business for a longer period of time. This will lead

a firm to being ‘stuck in the middle’ (By Michael Porter).

� Making a choice is only one thing but more importantly is the

constant review and control of the choice made.

� Each exporter should ensure that there is always strategy-

Environment fit. This is to make sure that the strategy used

reflect the real prevailing business environment and that there

is no miss-match.

� Managing communication from the social point view will help a

great deal in conveying the intended meaning.

� Any business ought to be customer driven.

Finally,

� Keep on exporting if it is beneficial to do so. Make sure you do

a thorough and continuous COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS.

THE END

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