exploring international cosmetics advertising in japan

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Exploring international cosmeticsadvertising in JapanBradley Barnes & Maki YamamotoPublished online: 01 Feb 2010.

To cite this article: Bradley Barnes & Maki Yamamoto (2008) Exploring internationalcosmetics advertising in Japan, Journal of Marketing Management, 24:3-4, 299-316, DOI:10.1362/026725708X306112

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INTRODUCTION

The Japanese cosmetics market is the second largest in the world, and in 2003 it was estimated to be worth approximately 1.9 trillion yen. Many leading international cosmetics companies have entered the Japanese market, and have experienced varying degrees of success. In the mid 1990s, L’Oreal the world’s largest cosmetics company from Paris has further contributed to the competitive environment by attempting to

JOURNAL OF MARKETING MANAGEMENT, 2008, Vol. 24, No. 3-4, pp. 299-316ISSN0267-257X print /ISSN1472-1376 online © Westburn Publishers Ltd. doi: 10.1362/026725708X306112

Exploring international cosmetics advertising in Japan

Bradley Barnes, University of Kent, UK*

Maki Yamamoto, Burson-Marsteller (WPP Group), Tokyo

Abstract The Japanese cosmetics market is the second largest in the world and in 2003 was valued at approximately 1.9 trillion yen. The sector is also the largest consumer of advertising in Japan (receipts exceeding 35m yen in 2003). Despite its size and significance, research in this area is somewhat scant. To bridge the gap, our research reports the findings of an investigation designed to explore the impact of cosmetics advertising on female Japanese consumers. Our findings reveal that despite their frequent usage in ads, celebrities fail to influence purchase decisions. Specific reference groups, including experts, friends, and female family members have varying degrees of influence. However, the sample of female Japanese respondents appears to be unconvinced when such reference sources are adopted in advertising. There was some preference for western brands and music, but not models. Magazines represent the most suitable media for influencing Japanese women, while TV is less effective - despite its relatively high cost.

Keywords Japan, Japan advertising, Cross-cultural, Cosmetics advertising

JOURNAL OF

MARKETINGMANAGEMENT

*Correspondence details and biographies for the authors are located at the end of the article.

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Journal of Marketing Management, Volume 24

capture market share through the design of aggressive promotional campaigns. As the market is mature, and highly competitive, leading international organisations have considered advertising in a bid to entice customers and build market share (Fuji Keizai 2004).

Over the last thirty-five years socio-economic changes have had a significant effect on the status of Japanese women. In the 1970s, housework and childcare often dominated women’s lives, and their consumption was limited to purchasing goods for the family. After the oil crisis in 1973, more women began to seek employment. Their personal income levels soon allowed them to be more independent, and become a key figure as a contemporary and individual consumer (Skov and Moeran 1995). More recently, as over 80% of non-married women live with their parents, many have high levels of disposable income and can afford to buy leading designer brands, including cosmetics. As a result, such purchasing power has received much attention among cosmetics companies (Betros 2003).

Japanese women tend to begin purchasing cosmetics at around the age of eighteen, and mainly become relatively heavy users in their twenties. In their thirties, marriage and childbirth generally lead to a decline in usage. However, a continued trend to marry at a later stage in life, and have a job after marriage and childbirth implies that this segment remains heavy cosmetics consumers for longer (Laidler 1993; Intage Market Report 2000). The purpose of this study is to explore perceptions among Japanese women of international cosmetics advertisements. Due to the changing lifestyle demographics and the significance of the market, it is envisaged that the findings will be of particular interest to practitioners that operate within the cosmetics and ladies retail fashion sectors. The study aims to identify consumer preferences, and these may benefit managers when designing advertising strategy and content, in order to appeal more to Japanese women. Within an exploratory context, the research has three primary objectives:

First, it is intended to examine the level of preference regarding standardised and adapted advertising, in terms of the type of words, models and music used. Although Japan’s desire for western culture has changed Japanese lifestyles (Aoki 1990), simultaneously there is still a belief in “Japaneseness”, where the culture is considered to be mysterious to foreigners. Whilst western ads using models and English language are popular in modern Japan, some cultural adaptation may be needed. The argument whether Japanese women accept a standardised approach, or prefer a localised approach will be examined, to identify to what extent each advertising element should be standardised, or adapted when creative strategies are employed. The debate surrounding standardisation and localisation of international advertising in Japan is likely to stimulate interest among academics within the international marketing and advertising discipline.

Second, we aim to investigate the level of influence of reference groups, and to identify the most influential relationship appeal in cosmetics advertisements. Much academic research suggests that Japanese advertisements have unique characteristics (Kishii 1988; Lin 1993; De Mooij 1998; Nakanishi 2002). The Japanese, for example prefer implicit and indirect expression in their messages and soft-sell appeals (Kishii 1988; Usunier 2000), where advertisements tend to be more image-oriented, focusing on telling stories or entertaining the audience. The metaphor, “do what others do” is often referred to as being typical Japanese (Donahue 1999) and reference groups are often seen to be important sources of influence. In addition to individual motivational traits and social / economic status, Li et al. (2003) suggest that reference groups are also likely to influence consumer purchasing decisions. The issue here is to examine

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Barnes and Yamamoto Exploring international cosmetics advertising in Japan 301

to what extent specific reference groups are valued, and to discover the preferences associated with such sources when they are incorporated in advertising.

Finally, the research will examine the most influential medium in terms of cosmetics advertisements affecting Japanese women. Whilst some adaptation may be needed in terms of advertising content (as briefly outlined above), Ogden and Venkat (2001) suggest that it may be possible in Japan to generate effective responses to ads using a similar media strategy as in North America. The final objective therefore aims to identify which form of media most influences the purchasing decision among female Japanese consumers. Because of such rapid social changes and an in-flux of western values, data relating to women consumers in Japan is perceived to be of importance (Wan et al. 2003). As a consequence, and although the research will focus on the cosmetics market, the results may prove fruitful to others interested in marketing goods and services to Japanese women. Moreover, considering the impact of the Japanese market in other Asian countries, such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, and recently China, success in Japan may help companies expand in other Asian markets.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Advertising is largely influenced by cultural values because it is based on language and communication (Usunier 2000). Consequently, understanding local cultures is significantly important in order to succeed in international advertising. The fundamental issue is which elements should remain similar worldwide, and which need to be adapted or localised. Agrawal (1995) discussed the trend of standardisation, adaptation and a contingency approach, concluding that practitioners developed international strategies that tended to be more influenced by standardised approaches. Whilst Jones (2004) suggests that economic factors, such as income levels and demographics play a key role in influencing international advertising campaigns, Waller and Fam (2000) and Fam et al. (2004) advise that legal restrictions and social festivities also need to be considered by advertising planners when developing media policies.

However, it should be noted that consumers generally respond favourably to advertising messages that are consistent with their cultural values, and reward advertisers who understand such factors and reflect this in their advertisement content (Mueller 1991; Zhang and Gelb 1996; Usunier 2000; Fam and Waller 2004). Waller et al. (2005) for example discovered that historical factors and religious beliefs play a more significant role than geographic distance in influencing consumer attitudes. This led them to conclude that as a consequence, whether it be Australasia or beyond, it is important for those involved in international marketing to be culturally sensitive when undertaking mass media campaigns across a region.

Samovar and Porter (2001) suggest that diversity and culture are the driving forces of marketing in the 21st century, and believe that careful attention to intercultural communication is essential to increasing the effectiveness of advertising and marketing. As a result, international marketers need to understand the cultural impact of their global advertising campaigns, and consider if advertising should be sensitive, and reflect cultural – as well as ethical values (Fam and Waller 2003).

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Advertising appealJapanese culture

Although Japan’s industrial development has been relatively recent compared to the west, there appears to be a trend towards a materialistic culture, resulting in the acquisition of status orientated goods (Ogden and Venkat 2001). Aoki (1990) suggests that Japan’s desire for western culture may be attributable to the modernisation and industrialisation of Japanese society, which has been accomplished through Americanisation and the broad adoption of western ideas. As a result, Japan has an integrated hybrid culture that falls somewhere between the east and west (Donahue, 2002). In contrast, debates on “Japaneseness”, referred to as “Nihonjinron” among the Japanese has heightened in the last three decades (Kowner 2002). Nihonjinron implies the theory of the Japanese, and deals with a wide range of characteristics associated with Japanese society. Research however suggests that younger, more educated members of the Japanese population (and particularly women) have milder nationalistic attitude (NHK survey centre, 1980). Despite this, the concept of Nihonjinron is likely to have varying degrees of influence on international advertising decisions in Japan.

Advertisement style

A number of academics have undertaken cross cultural studies focusing on information content and advertisement appeal between U.S. and Japan (e.g. Madden et al. 1986; Hong et al. 1987; Mueller 1987, 1992; Ramaprasad and Hasegawa 1992; Lin 1993; Javalgi et al. 1995; Okazaki and Javier 2002). The main findings of such research reveals three areas of interest associated with Japanese ads. These being their indirect and soft-sell approach, their emotional / image orientation, and their emphasis on using celebrities to endorse products and brands. One of the most recognised characteristics of Japanese advertisements is their indirectness, or so-called soft-sell approach (Kishii 1988; Lin 1993; Johansson 1994; De Mooij 1998). Indirectness is driven from the Japanese high context culture, that message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalised in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message (Hall 1977). Furthermore, Confucius and collectivistic characteristics suggest people favour harmony and tend to be negative towards any hard sell approach (De Mooij 1998).

Although hard-hitting commercials emerge, especially in fast moving consumer goods categories these days, Japanese consumers tend to be suspicious of someone who extols the virtues of a product (Johansson 1994) and perceive this as being disrespectful. The Confucius principle suggests that those who know do not speak and those who speak do not know (Samovar and Porter 2001). Research has identified that Japanese advertisements are more informative or at least, as informative as American ads (Madden et al. 1986; Hong et al. 1987), and Japanese consumers actively seek product information (Madden et al. 1986). However, the length of commercial i.e. 15 seconds, which is most commonly used in Japan limits information, and often leads to compact and efficient content (Ramaprasad and Hasegawa 1992). As a result, this may suggest that the soft-sell approach is necessary to create a positive image among Japanese consumers, but at the same time, a high level of information content may also be required, depending on the media used.

Japanese ads also tend to be emotional and image-oriented (Kishii 1988; Di Benedetto et al. 1992; Nakanishi 2002). While western ads often use a logical

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approach to persuade people, such as facts and figures or expert endorsement (Nakanishi 2002), Japanese ads are more holistic-orientated, and utilise affective and intuitive messages (Nakanishi 2002). This is because the Japanese perceive the world as being profoundly holistic, dynamic and spiritual, rather than materialistic (Kim 1991). Therefore, Japanese advertisements may not provide such materialistic benefits associated with price or product attributes, and instead tend to appeal more to human emotions, such as love, happiness and empathy (Nakanishi 2002).

Celebrity endorsement is a phenomenon that can be seen not only in Japan, but also in other countries. Kilburn (1998) revealed that more than seventy percent of Japanese TV advertisements featured celebrities. In Japan, the media, advertising, and entertainment world have synergy. TV commercials are therefore viewed as an entertainment package rather than merely a promotional tool, and Japanese consumers often have a positive image of advertised products or brands, when promoted in association with famous celebrities (Praet 2001). Such ads frequently capture more attention among consumers who are involved at an imaginary, socially interactive level, who sub-consciously share the same product (Alperstein 1991).

The westernisation of Japanese advertisements

Mueller (1992) reveals that many Japanese advertisements incorporate non-translated English words written in “Katakana”, which is one of four types of Japanese alphabet. Katakana is easily applied to express foreign words to aid pronunciation into Japanese (Donahue 2002). Applied foreign words in Japanese advertisements are mostly in English, even though French or occasionally other languages have been used (Sherry and Camargo 1987; Cutler et al. 1995; Neelankavil et al. 1995). Although Mueller (1992) questioned the effectiveness of such messages due to the Japanese monolingual background, western-type appeals are increasingly being used in Japanese advertising (Belk and Pollay 1985).

The adoption of western models is prevalent in Japanese advertisements (Cutler 1995; Moeran 2002), but is less common compared with the use of western language (Mueller, 1992). Clammer (1995) argues that western models promote what is not by definition Japanese. For example, perfumes being advertised by French models are often enjoyed among Japanese women, as they portray an air of sophistication and internationalisation, as well as prestige and status (Mueller 1992). Furthermore, Nakazawa (1993) analysed the phenomenon and frequent emergence of Caucasian models, suggesting that Japanese considered western quality as their ideal standard of physical beauty.

Media availability

The total advertising expenditure in Japan was 5,684 billion yen in 2003, and media is highly developed and accessible (Javalgi et al. 1995; Fuji Keizai 2004). Despite the presence of a “global media” infrastructure, and magazines such as Vogue and Cosmopolitan, this does not suggest that a global approach is always appropriate (Ford and Phillips 2000). Indeed, the usage and perceptions of media frequently vary from country to country (Usunier 2000). While TV may be a preferred form of media for promoting cosmetics in China (Barnes et al. 2004), Americans have become more sceptical of the value associated with such advertisements (Martenson 1987). International advertisers may therefore need to decentralise media selection and adapt to local preferences (Terpstra and Sarathy 2000).

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Media in Japan

The cosmetics sector was the largest consumer of advertisements in Japan during 2003, with receipts totalling approximately 35 million yen. In terms of advertising expenditure, TV was the primary medium used for promoting cosmetics. However, the proportion of cosmetics advertisements in terms of advertising volume was lower for TV (13.6%) during this period than for magazines (16.6%) (Dentsu 2003). Magazines enable advertisers to pinpoint specific audiences effectively with relatively lower costs than TV, they provide a media environment with regard to elegance, quality, beauty, prestige, and offer a particular snob appeal (Shimp 2002) that may attract the image-oriented Japanese, yet still maintain high-level reproduction quality.

A further feature of magazines relates to their high involvement potential, ability to generate attention (Japan’s Magazine Advertising Association, 2003), provide practical information and inspiration (Assman 2003). The feasibility for generating emotion in TV ads may appeal more to an image-oriented Japanese audience, rather than other media. There is a risk here that the advertisement is viewed as just entertainment, rather than an advertising messenger (Brierley 2002), as the audience pay more attention to the creative part of the message than what is featured (Usunier 2000).

The rapid growth and use of new media provides an enormous potential to offer satisfaction to consumers who desire more detailed information. Many cosmetics companies include their URL in ads, and encourage prospects to access further information. The Internet is positioned as an informative medium to supplement the image-oriented mass media (Oshiba 1998). Newspapers and radio may be less suitable for cosmetics advertisements because of their lack of colour reproductions or visual image, whereas outdoor advertising and point of sales materials are often regarded as supplementary media, and work as reminders before the purchase (Moeran 2002; Shim 2002).

METHODOLOGY

After considering different data collection methods, an internet survey was considered to be the most appropriate method for delivering an optimum response from Japanese cosmetics consumers. Whilst the authors recognise that internet surveys may bias the results to those sections of the population who are literate and have access to computers, they are a useful tool in that they can navigate respondents to a particular website where questions are displayed, in a convenient, rapid, and relatively cost-effective manner (Zikmund 2003). In addition, the pre-setting of specific instructions can ensure that all questions are attempted. Based on our initial research objectives, the pertinent literature, and the need to identify respondents’ attitudes, beliefs, preferences and intentions, a series of bi-polar scaled response questions were developed for the investigation (Aaker et al. 2001). In addition, several open questions were also derived to probe further and obtain additional insights. Some of these were placed at the beginning of the questionnaire in order to develop rapport (Zikmund 2003).

The research instrument was initially constructed in English, and then translated into Japanese and although this study was primarily of an exploratory nature (involving a relatively small sample), pilot testing was undertaken to ensure the

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questionnaire would eventually function correctly (Aaker et al. 2001; Saunders et al. 2003). Three Japanese females who shared the same characteristics as the sample population, and were bilingual in English and Japanese, were individually consulted to assess the structure of the instrument. A focus group discussion was then held with these respondents in order to provide further feedback. From the discussions, it was felt that Japanese respondents (to avoid contradictions) have a tendency to frequently choose the mid or neutral-point on scaled questions. Churchill (2000) also warned that such cultural influence to response-scaled questions was in fact a possibility. As a consequence, the five scaled response questions were revised into four scaled response questions to eliminate such “neutral” tendencies.

A survey was judged to be suitable for identifying broad perceptions among Japanese females regarding cosmetics advertisements, and administering this on-line was considered to be the most ideal approach, as it provides added benefits in terms of distribution speed, a shorter response time, and low cost (Zikmund 2003). Furthermore, since the questions were about cosmetics, which are a topic that females like to discuss, there was little concern regarding any unwillingness to participate. Because the internet usage rate among the target respondents (Japanese women aged 20 to 35) is over 90% (MPHPT, 2003), this was perceived to be the best medium for delivering an optimum response. As a result, the questionnaire survey was posted onto the website www.freeonlinesurveys.com for a monthly subscription fee. The website provided the opportunity for the instrument to be designed and displayed at the URL, and respondents could simply access and respond on-line. The procedures were easy to follow, aided by the site’s “Survey Wizard”. The questionnaire and instructions were prepared in Japanese.

The URL link was sent through an e-mail requesting respondents to visit the website. To answer the questions, respondents simply had to click on the icons provided for the scaled-response questions, or type in their answers for open-ended questions. The results were collected by the web site provider, and later presented on a spreadsheet attachment file that could be downloaded. For selecting a minimum sample size, “rules of thumb” can be used as one approach (Aaker et al. 2001). Sudman (1976) suggested that judgemental samples should have 100 or more respondents, and need to also consider the sample size adopted in similar research investigations. Other research of an exploratory nature, investigating cosmetics advertising in China (see Barnes et al. 2004) was undertaken with a sample of 100 respondents. In considering the similarities of the investigations and Sudman’s suggestions, it was believed that a sample in excess of 100 was thought to be sufficient to provide initial insights of the market.

With the aim of recruiting 150 volunteer respondents, a snowball sampling technique was adopted. Because Japanese women tend to become relatively heavier users of cosmetics in their twenties, and early to mid thirties (Intage Market Report 2000), Japanese women aged 20 to 35 that were employed, or had career aspirations were targeted for the study. Females in this age category that the researchers had personal relations with i.e. colleagues, friends and family etc were initially targeted for the research. Later, upon completion of the questionnaire, these contacts were asked if they could refer subsequent respondents (such as work colleagues or friends) that specifically matched the criteria.

A total of 149 questionnaires were returned and used for the analysis. 112 (75.2%) of the respondents were working women, and 37 (24.8%) were in higher education. 81.9% of the population reside in urban cities, and 6.7% live in nearby rural areas, and commute to work, whilst 11.4% live overseas. Women in their twenties, accounted

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TABLE 1 Demographic breakdown of the respondents

Age (%) City of residence (%)20-29 85 (57.1) Tokyo area* 44 (32.9)30-35 64 (43.0) Kansai area** 65 (43.6)

Other urban area 8 ( 5.4)Profession (%) Rural area 10 ( 6.7)Admin/Business 104 (69.8) Abroad 17 (11.4)Part time clerical/ Admin 4 ( 2.7)Self-employed 4 ( 2.7)

Higher Education 37 (24.8)

* Tokyo, Kanagawa, Saitama and Chiba, ** Osaka, Kyoto, Hyogo and Nara

TABLE 2 Advertising elements

Level of importanceUnimportant Very important

Mean SDPrice indication (%) 3.4 16.1 38.3 42.3 3.19 0.83New product benefits (%) 2.0 22.1 49.7 26.2 3.00 0.75Overall image (%) 2.0 24.3 50.0 23.6 2.95 0.75Brand name (%) 6.1 32.4 52.7 8.8 2.64 0.73Celebrity appearance (%) 29.9 37.4 24.5 8.2 2.11 0.93

for the majority of the sample, and women between 30-35 years of age represented 43% (see Table 1).

RESULTS

Advertising appeal

With regards to the factors that serve to influence female consumers (see Table 2), 67.3% considered celebrities in advertisements to be relatively unimportant. This finding is in contrast to the popularity of celebrity endorsements that are extensively used in Japanese advertisements. Although the literature suggests that the visibility of price is not important in Japanese advertisements (Nakanishi 2002), the survey results clearly demonstrate that a price indication is necessary when promoting Japanese cosmetics. 80.6% of respondents felt that being able to see the price was important.

Lancôme, is one example of an international company that has used such a strategy to promote their mascara in Japan. In addition, respondents felt that a particular new product’s benefit was of more importance in advertisements (75.9%) than the actual brand name (61.5%). Therefore it is considered that Japanese women need more information about a new product’s benefits before making a purchase. The focus on brand name is not overwhelmingly high in this survey, and a reason for this possibly relates to high awareness among consumers for major cosmetics brands due to their widespread presence within prestigious department stores (Obayashi 2004). Finally, it was found that the overall image of advertisements is important (73.6%), and this serves to support the literature (Kishii 1988; Di Benedetto et al.

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1992; Nakanishi 2002), suggesting that Japanese consumers may have image related preferences (Nakanishi 2002).

Reference groups of infl uence

The outcome of the question concerning which reference groups influence the purchase of cosmetics among Japanese female consumers can be seen in Table 3. Friends and colleagues are highly influential, 88.5% of respondents felt they were important (48.6% considering them to be “very important”). Endorsements by experts, (such as make-up artists or dermatologists) have a profound impact, 87.7% of the respondents thought that they were important. Female family members were considered to be quite important, with sisters (80.4%) perceived to be more important than mothers (60.1%). Store advisors are also considered to be a reliable source of influence (69.1%). Meanwhile, husbands and boyfriends were not judged to be important, and celebrities also failed to be influential.

In contrast, when considering these reference groups and type of relationships in advertising content, they do not appear to be significantly important among Japanese consumers (see Table 4). Although reference groups appear to be important in everyday Japanese lives (Table 3), they are considered to be relatively ‘unimportant’ if used in advertisement content.

The boyfriend / girlfriend relationship did appear to obtain a slightly more positive score than others, and some respondents commented that such advertisements were


TABLE 3 Reference groups


Mean SDFriends/Colleagues (%) 0.0 11.5 39.9 48.6 3.37 0.68Cosmetic experts (%) 2.7 9.5 37.4 50.3 3.35 0.76Sisters (%) 3.4 16.2 36.5 43.9 3.21 0.84Store advisors (%) 3.4 27.5 45.6 23.5 2.89 0.79Mother (%) 10.8 29.1 40.5 19.6 2.69 0.91Husband (%) 20.8 34.7 29.2 15.3 2.39 0.98Boyfriend (%) 22.4 32.7 29.9 15.0 2.37 0.99Celebrity (%) 21.2 41.8 26.0 11.0 2.27 0.92

TABLE 4 Relationship appeal


Mean SDBoyfriend/girlfriend (%) 32.9 24.2 31.5 11.4 2.21 1.03Mother/daughter (%) 32.9 31.5 29.5 6.0 2.09 0.93Friends (%) 33.6 31.5 28.8 6.2 2.08 0.93Husband/wife (%) 32.7 40.8 21.1 5.4 1.99 0.87Sisters (%) 42.3 30.9 18.1 8.7 1.93 0.98

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impressive. However, this appeal in Japan tends not to be shown so directly, as in western ads (Maynard 2002). For example, in the west, whilst advertisements for lipstick may be associated with kissing, this appears to be more discreet in Japanese culture. Although the boy and girlfriend relationship appeal may have been accepted among Japanese consumers, indirectness and discreet creativity is perhaps preferred to a direct appeal (Kishii 1988; Lin 1993; Johansson 1994; De Mooij 1998).

Moreover, there are several cases when more than one person appears in advertisements in Japan. Yet, the focus of those advertisements is to widen the target audience or choice, rather than to influence reference groups. The use of more than one model may therefore be incorporated in order to appeal to different consumer groups, rather than directly influencing friends or sisters etc.

Standardisation and localisation

As identified in the literature review, the Japanese have a unique alphabet called “Katakana” that is used for the pronunciation of foreign words. In the survey, the acceptance level of the original brand name and the katakana equivalent were examined. As a result, 91.2% of the respondents had preference for the original name, while only 0.7% strongly preferred Katakana (see Figure 1). In Japan, English is commonly used as a commercial language (Donahue1999), and the respondents felt comfortable to see foreign languages in advertisements. This does not suggest that Katakana is inappropriate, as placing such text as a supplement for an original logo is frequently practiced in Japan. Advertising planners should therefore consider its effectiveness (Mueller 1992).

Japanese models are overwhelmingly preferred to western models. 76.2% of respondents have preference for Japanese models, while only 1.7% indicated a strong preference for western models (see Table 5). One respondent’s comments help to support this finding;

A western model seems too beautiful and too perfect for me. I can not feel that I would become as beautiful as her by using the advertised cosmetics. In contrast, Japanese models give me some hope. They are also very beautiful, but the beauty is accessible.

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FIGURE 1 Language preference

57.4%

33.8%

8.1%

0.7%

60%

40%

20%

0%

Mean: 3.24SD: 0.62

Strongpreferencefor original

Strongpreference

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A western model is a symbol for ideal beauty in Japan (Nakazawa 1993). However, the survey revealed a need to present a sense of affinity between models and the audience, and this was perhaps more important than perfect beauty.

76.5% of respondents have preference for western music in ads (see Table 5). This result suggests that a localised approach is not fundamental. However, the categorisation of simply western or Japanese music may be too broad. Music is usually used to set the mood in order to help soft-sell advertisements in Japan (De Mooij 1998), and it was perceived that music could be quite important in promoting the overall image in advertisements, especially when considering an image-oriented Japanese audience.

Media policy

The findings reveal that magazines represent the most important media in terms of cosmetics purchases, with 91.9% of respondents considering them to be important (see Table 6). Following magazines, TV, outdoor ads, and direct mail received similar evaluations.

Over 50% of the respondents felt that TV was relatively unimportant. This result suggests that TV may be a less effective source for promoting cosmetics than other media, in terms of a likely return on investment. Despite this, TV in Japan still represents a powerful medium, particularly when advertisers aim to rapidly create brand awareness. 55.4% regard outdoor advertisements (including billboards or in-store posters) as being influential. The importance of the Internet will probably increase in the future, as it may act as an alternative distribution mode to catalogue orders. In this survey, 42.5% of the respondents felt that it was an important media. Newspaper and radio are seen as less important, and this may be because such media tends to provide poor, or no visual reproduction.

TABLE 5 Preference of approach

Level of importanceWestern Japanese

Mean SDModels (%) 1.7 22.4 61.2 15.0 2.10 0.65Music (%) 11.7 64.8 22.1 1.4 2.87 0.62

TABLE 6 Media


Mean SDMagazines (%) 0.0 8.1 52.7 39.2 3.31 0.62TV (%) 7.4 43.2 34.5 14.9 2.57 0.83Outdoors (%) 10.8 33.8 42.6 12.8 2.57 0.85Direct mail (%) 17.6 35.1 36.5 10.8 2.41 0.90Internet (%) 20.3 37.2 29.7 12.8 2.35 0.95Newspapers (%) 28.3 53.1 16.6 2.1 1.92 0.73Radio (%) 49.3 44.6 5.4 0.6 1.57 0.63

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DISCUSSION

The visibility of price and information concerning new product benefits are essential for Japanese cosmetics consumers. Such elements should be simply added to Japanese versions of ads, but should not be emphasised too distinctly because of the unpopularity associated with a hard-sell approach in Japan. In addition, when a copy needs to be translated in advertisements, the use of short and catchy copy might be more effective than literal translations. Japanese value short, clear phrases, and hidden meanings are viewed as being beautiful and trustworthy. Long and direct phrases are perceived as being distrustful (Johansson 1994).

The majority of respondents preferred using original brand names to localised Katakana. This indicates that placing the original brand logo in advertisements is significantly important. At the same time, new brands and low-awareness brands should emphasise the Katakana brand name somewhere in advertisements too. Most young Japanese can read English, but this is not absolute (Mueller 1992). Moreover, if the original name is French or any other language, the possibility that consumers can read the text is much lower. In such situations, the Katakana name should also be included to help establish brand awareness and recognition.

According to the literature review, the use of Caucasian models is quite common in Japan (Cutler 1995; Moeran 2002). Since western models are considered as a symbol of ideal beauty (Nakazawa 1993), the product category related to “beauty” may be apt for western models. However, in contrast, the results of the survey clearly revealed that Japanese women prefer Japanese models in cosmetics advertisements. Although western models are a symbol of ideal beauty, they can not deliver a message regarding Japanese value. For example, a fair complexion is an important hallmark of Japanese beauty, but beautiful fair skin of a Caucasian model is often perceived to be natural and not an effect of cosmetics. Also, since the Japanese facial structure is different from that of westerners, they will not become similar in appearance if they use the same make-up as a western model. Although the use of local models may exert some risk in terms of generating inconsistency, they are likely to have a significant impact on the local market.

Max Factor is one example of a company that has succeeded through using a local model. The company has used Nanako Matsushima, a popular actress in Japan, as their image character since 1994. Previously, Max Factor had emphasised their positioning strategy as “cosmetics for Hollywood actresses”. However, after Matsushima featured, they re-positioned themselves in a bid to appeal as “ideal beauty for Japanese women”. In this survey (in response to open questions), one in five respondents positively made reference to the Max Factor campaign.

Furthermore, the use of non-Japanese Asian models may be an alternative strategy to spread potential risk. Because the issue is not down to nationality, but difference of facial and physical structure from that of western models, such a strategy may be regarded among Japanese consumers as being international and sophisticated (Clammer 1995), and at the same time bring a sense of affinity. The campaign of Shiseido PN 1997 featured three models, two of which were from Hong Kong. The primary aim was to attract Asian consumers from the region, including Hong Kong, Taiwan and Korea.

Whereas the survey results suggest the importance of reference groups for Japanese consumers, their relationship appeal in advertisement creativity is not popular. An indirect appeal, such as one that makes the audience feel a sense of romance could prove to be effective. Although experts are highly referred to in Japanese society,

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the emergence of a man with a white coat presenting logical explanations about a product is not a popular approach. To inform consumers that such products are recommended by an influential party in a very subtle manner is more persuasive in terms of Japanese value.

The results of the survey did not always support the literature, as celebrities were perceived to be rather unimportant for influencing the majority of Japanese women. However, when celebrities represent a certain social group, they tend to evolve from merely famous people into a member of that peer group in consumers’ minds (Kishii 1988; De Mooij 1998). When a celebrity is used, it may therefore be essential to carefully select one who has the same demographics as the target audience, to make Japanese women feel empathy for their way of life and beauty.

The majority of people felt that western music was suitable for cosmetics advertisements, and if it is created for a particular brand and used continually until it is imprinted in the audience’s memory, it will have a much better impact on consumers. A wide variety of media is available in Japan (Javalgi et al. 1995), and for prestigious brands, magazines should be the primary media. Magazines are clearly segmented based on readers’ demographics. According to the literature and the survey results, magazines represent the main cosmetics information source for Japanese women (Assmann 2003). As readers are positively ready for receiving cosmetics information, advertorials may be a useful option, especially for newly launched or low awareness products.

The Internet is expected to be an essential item in the future for cosmetics companies in terms of providing detailed information. All mass media advertisements should include the company’s URL, to encourage users to access further information. Outdoor advertisements can be effective media because the high population density in Japan enables advertisements to reach a large number of people in a short time (Shimp 2002). The use of media ingenuity may be important. For example, several train companies have introduced an exclusive carriage for women during busy commuting times. To buy advertising space on this carriage may prove fruitful for targeting working women.

CONCLUSION

Overall the key findings suggest that the Japanese market needs a certain level of localisation. It appears that background information relating to salient product attributes is likely to appeal to Japanese consumers, as is an early indication of the price to pay for such goods. Advertising executives must be subtle when designing cosmetics ads, and focus on an indirect soft - sell approach in order to appeal to the emotional needs of the image status Japanese consumer (De Mooij 1998). As a consequence, the leading glossy magazines such as Vogue, Cosmopolitan and Elle etc represent ideal media for targeting Japanese women, and communicating specific product attributes and benefits.

Although there is a preference among Japanese consumers for cosmetics goods to maintain their original brand name, low awareness or new introductory brands may benefit from emphasising the Katakana brand somewhere within the ad content to stimulate brand awareness and recognition. Further adaptation is also recommended in terms of the models used in advertisements. Whilst western models do frequently appear in Japan (Moeran 2002), the findings clearly signal a preference for Japanese, or other non-Japanese Asians - both represent an appearance that Japanese consumers

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can aspire to become. Similarly, although celebrities are becoming increasingly popular in Japan, their usage for promoting cosmetics brands needs to be handled with care on two accounts. Firstly, and similarly as with ‘good looks’ that are associated with models, the “personality” of the celebrity becomes important here, as consumers must feel some degree of empathy. Secondly, advertising planners going down the “celebrity” route run the risk that sophisticated Japanese consumers may become suspicious of such tactics.

Even though Japanese lifestyles are being westernised, cultural values are different from those of westerners (Arnold and Bianchi 2001), and such values largely influence Japanese perceptions of advertisements. The notion of social status and image orientation are central to Japanese culture (Usunier and Lee 2005), and this may serve to provide some rationale as to why there was strong preference towards western branded cosmetics goods, a desire for product information, and a need for informative ads. However, as with other Asian cultures, the Japanese have a tendency to safeguard traditional values, favour harmony, and succumb to group conformity (Javalgi et al. 1995; Schneider and Barsoux 1999). Usunier (2000, p. 590) adds that “like all Asians, they must not be made to ‘lose face’”. Communication that is “too direct” should therefore certainly be avoided.

In brief it is concluded that a standardised approach may be partly maintained, particularly for those western brands that are highly recognised. However, advertising executives would be wise to consider some of the cultural issues raised above in conjunction with the key research findings presented, before making any ad campaign decisions. Particularly, the social status, emotional needs, physical appearance and traditional values of Japanese women need to be recognised in order to maximise the impact of cosmetics advertising expenditure in Japan. The findings offer some useful preliminary insights for international advertisers that are interested in targeting female Japanese consumers. In addition, due to the size and significance of the Japanese cosmetics market, further research is needed to grapple with the huge population demographics that are concentrated throughout the major cities in Japan, to generate more meaningful quantitative data.

The authors acknowledge that this research is limited to a relatively small sample of female consumers. A further limitation of the study relates to the research approach adopted, particularly the use of the Internet and snowball sampling. Some caution should therefore be exercised in light of the findings and recommendations provided. As a result, and in order to provide further recommendations, it may be useful to compare and contrast Japanese consumers in different city locations, and of different age categories. Importantly, the Japanese market is currently perceived as a fashion leader in East Asian countries, and success in Japan may pre-empt success in other markets, such as South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and China.

The research implies the necessity of further exploration regarding the effectiveness of regionally standardised advertising in other Asian markets. In brief, the research findings suggest that even if Japanese people wear masks of westerners in terms of their lifestyle, marketing and advertising practitioners should not make hasty conclusions to adopt standardised strategies, as behind the mask, Japanese cultural values unconsciously root Japanese people, and such factors may significantly influence perceptions and behaviour.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Editor and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive insights on an earlier version of this manuscript.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND CORRESPONDENCE

Bradley R. Barnes is Professor of International Management at Kent Business School. He initially studied for his undergraduate degree at Sheffield Business School, before completing his Master’s in Marketing at the University of Huddersfield, and PhD from the University of Leeds. Bradley has published in a number of academic and practitioner-led Journals, in the fields of advertising, business-to-business, industrial and relationship marketing.

Corresponding author: Professor Bradley R. Barnes, Kent Business School, University of Kent, Canterbury, CT2 7PE, United Kingdom.

T +44 1227 827729 F +44 1227 761187 E [email protected]

Maki Yamamoto is an active practitioner in the field of Healthcare P.R. in Japan - is employed for Burson-Marsteller (a member of the WPP Group) and has a particular interest in the area of people’s healthy life. Previously, Maki held a senior P.R. position within a large Japanese trading company, where she specialised in corporate communications.

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exploring international cosmetics advertising in japan

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