exploring further menstruation and spiritual healing

Exploring Further

Menstruation and SpiritualHealing

Daniel P. Wirth, M.S., J.D.

Beginning approximately 30,000years ago, matriarchal societiesand goddess worship were pre-

dominant in all major cultures on earth,with women functioning as highpriestesses, arbiters of economic andpolitical power, and the first physiciansand shamanic healers. Within these earlymatrilineal societies, there existed a recog-nition of the fundamentally sacred natureof the process of birth and a reverence forthe spiritual life-giving aspects of themenstruation cycle. Although the psycho-logic and physiologic effects of menstrua-tion are well documented, correlativereports assessing the influence of particu-lar menstrual phases on spiritual healingtreatment outcomes are notably absentfrom both the medical and complemen-tary healing literature. This report isbased on survey results that indicatedthat more than 75 percent of the respon-dents believed that there was a direct cor-relation between menstruation andincreased therapeutic potential. An ancil-lary finding of this survey was that anumber of the participants also noted a

relationship between menopause andincreased treatment efficacy.

Menstruation BegetsSpiritual Power

In the beginning, before the religions ofJudaism and Christianity and before themale-dominated pantheons of ancientGreece and Rome, matriarchal societies

and goddess worship were predominantin all major cultures on earth. Ofparamount importance to these matrilin-eal societies was a recognition of the pri-mary sacred and spiritual nature of theprocess of birth and, more specifically, anacknowledgment of and reverence for themysterious, life-giving aspects of themenstruation cycle.1'2 Although archaeo-logic evidence from these cultures is lim-ited, it is commonly held not only thatwomen were the central societal unit,wielding tremendous economic and polit-ical power within the community, butalso that as priestesses they also func-tioned as the first physicians or shamanichealers.3-9 Because the physiologic con-

nection among copulation, pregnancy,and menstruation was not fully under-stood for several thousand years, itappeared to the earliest of these culturesthat women, aided only by the supernatu-ral, brought forth life itself.1,9 Womenwere, therefore, considered to be in directconnection or communication with thedivine and, as shamans, were given ulti-mate responsibility for ensuring the sur-vival and maintaining the general healthand well-being of the entire community.Today, the perception of women as nat-

ural spiritual healers is still a commonlyaccepted axiom in complementary, nonal-lopathic healing circles. Although it hasbeen suggested that a female's emotionalsensitivity and spiritual lability may facil-itate advanced spiritual healing potential,the reports have been primarily anecdotaland have failed to suggest direct quantita-tive links between menstruation and an

increase in spiritual healing abilities.9-11

Although the psychologic and physiolog-ic effects of menstruation have been stud-ied extensively, correlative reportsassessing the influence of particular men-strual phases on spiritual healing treat-ment outcomes are notably absent fromboth the medical and complementaryhealing literature. The purpose of thisreport is to analyze the historically con-

troversial topic of menstruation and topresent possible correlations betweenmenstruation and increased spiritualhealing therapeutic potential.

According to anthropologie reports andarchaeologic evidence, beginning approx-imately 30,000 years ago during theUpper Paleolithic Era, matriarchal cul-tures all over the world worshipped an

Earth goddess and established women as

priestess/healers and the ultimatearbiters of economic and socialpower.12-22 Women's ability to bear chil-dren led to the natural image of a deity-creator in the form of a woman, and thecoincidence of menstrual cycles with thephases of the moon—considered at thetime to be an element of the supernatu-ral—provided our ancestors with evi-dence of women's intimate relationshipwith the mysteries of the universe.1Because blood was commonly equatedwith spirit in these ancient cultures, thefact that a woman could bleed regularlyyet still survive rendered women, in gen-eral, and menstruation, in particular,sacred and powerful.23-2-5 A criticalaspect of these early matriarchal societieswas that worship of the goddess and theestablishment of women as spiritual heal-ers was a natural outgrowth of the entire

115

116 ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES—APRIL 1997

A biased negative image ofwomen and menstruationpersists to this day.

community's respect and awe for themenstruation and birth process and was

fundamentally equated with a profoundreverence and love for life.25During the Neolithic Era, beginning

approximately 4500 BC, however, con-quering bands of patriarchal Indo-Euro-pean and Semitic invaders brought abouta radical shift in the balance of power thatresulted in the downfall of both the god-dess figure and the overall image ofwomen and the menstruation pro-cess.9Ä26-28 Reiying 0n torture, rape,and ideologic indoctrination, the invad-ing conquerors reduced the women rulersand goddess figures to mere chattel orpossessions of the new male lords.29Through centuries of incessant pillagingand ideologic indoctrination, the conceptof a global matriarchal society, rooted inits reverence for the goddess figure, wascompletely destroyed and replaced by a

patriarchal society that attributed all phe-nomena, including the woman's ability togive birth, to the dominion of man andGod.1 In this manner, human reproduc-tion, which was central to the goddess'sformer power and to women's exaltedsocial position and status as spiritualhealers, was made ultimately a male pre-rogative.

Menstruation Belies UncleannessUnder the tyranny of patriarchy, men-

struation was specifically targetedbecause of its direct connection in matri-lineal societies to female creativity,power, individuality, and the world ofspirit and healing. By reducing women tochattel and discrediting menstruation as

unclean and unholy, women were

ridiculed, demeaned, and forced intoexile during the menstruation phase oftheir cycle. 0-32 Menstrual huts, whichwere formerly a place of refuge, relax-ation, healing, and communion with thegoddess, became under patriarchal rule a

punishment and area of banishment forthose who were now considered to beessentially inferior, unclean, and even

toxic.32'33 In fact, during this time, themenstruating woman was commonlyconceptualized as a creature to be feared,mocked, and shamed, with menstrualblood being given the power to kill crops,rust metal, induce pregnancy in males,initiate thunderstorms, and bring aboutthe demise of hunting and war par-ties.30-33 From such deplorable begin-nings, the current day menstrual tabooand, in large part, the negative image ofwomen as fundamentally subordinateand inferior to men were formed.

The negative bias against women, god-dess worship, and menstruation was rein-forced and the self-confidence of women

further undermined by the patriarchalsocieties of ancient Greece and Rome and,later, by the feudal cultures of the Darkand Middle Ages.1'12 As the power of theoriginal female shamans in matriarchalcultures was biologically rooted in men-

struation and the "blood mysteries ofbirth,"2 the simultaneous denigration ofmenses and shamanism by the invadingpatriarchs and subsequent societiesresulted in both the diminution ofwomen's status as healers and the equat-ing of spiritual healing practice with a

woman's general instability and weak-ness during menstruation. Through cen-

turies of religious, philosophical, andspiritual indoctrination, female shaman-ism—which was originally a naturalextension of a woman's nurturing, com-

passionate, and spiritual nature—becameinextricably associated with the negativeimage of menstruation and labeled as an

unacceptable pagan practice, the penaltyfor which, depending on the era, rangedfrom stigmatization to death.1'9'34Although a biased negative image of

women and menstruation persists to thisday, isolated ancient cultures throughoutEurope and the Near East continue to

regard menstruation as a sacred time dur-ing which a woman is especially open toand in tune with the healing powers ofthe spiritual realm. Several indigenousancient religions wherein women are theprimary leaders continue to exist

throughout the world in such diverselocales as Japan, Thailand, North andSouth America, and Africa.2'10 for theMapuche women shamans of Chile, forexample, the lunar menstrual cycle hasbeen the basis of a spiritual cosmologyand healing practice for more than 25,000years.1 Similarly, on the Ryukyu Islandsof Okinawa, Japan, women direct the reli-gious and spiritual life of the family andcommunity and, as priestesses andshamans, are considered to be the soci-ety's only connection to thesupernatural.35-38 Interestingly, althoughtoday women outnumber men, theRyukyu Islands are the only knowninstance where the official religion of a

people is oriented toward women.

Other more typical examples of con-temporary goddess-worshipping matriar-chal subcultures include the Burmese Natreligion and Korean shamanism.39-46Although these smaller female factionsare well established in their respectivecommunities, the shroud of male-domi-nated religion continues to overshadowtheir practice. On the African, European,and American continents, cousins of thesefemale-oriented religions include theBlack Carib (Garifuna) of Belize and theZar of North Africa and the MiddleEast.47-53 These ancient practices are

noteworthy in that they tend to acknowl-edge a woman's ability to enter mediu-mistic states, especially during menses,wherein the spiritual healing essence ofthe goddess is most accessible.

Can MenstruationHeighten Healing?

A comparison of these currently prac-ticed female religions with ancient matri-lineal cultures suggests a common theme:a fundamental recognition of women as

the central societal component and an

acknowledgment of the menstruation pro-cess as a sacred time in which the healingpowers of the spiritual realm are particu-larly accessible. Although the reason mat-ters of the spirit were initially

ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES—APRIL 1997 117

Some survey respondents said thatthe menstruation process caused an

altered state of consciousness, whichfacilitated their healing effectiveness.

Survey Questionnaire IPlease take a few minutes to fill out the enclosed questionnaire and return it in the postage-paid envelope provided. Your responses will remain completely confidential. The informationyou provide will be used for a research study. I would like to thank you in advance for takingthe time to complete this survey.

1. Age2. How long have you been administering healing treatments to patients?3. What type of healing technique do you primarily use with your patients?A. A hands-on healing technique in which you use direct physical contact with patients or anoncontact approach in which you hold the hands several inches from the patient's body.ORB. A distant healing approach in which you administer treatment to a patient while separatedby a distance of several feet to several miles.4. Have you ever administered a healing treatment to another person during your menstrualperiod?Yes No5. In general, do you feel that your treatment effectiveness stayed the same, decreased, orincreased when you were experiencing the menstruation phase of the cycle?A. Treatment effectiveness stayed the same during menstruationB. Treatment effectiveness decreased during menstruationC. Treatment effectiveness increased during menstruation6. Please explain the rationale for your response in question 5 in as much detail as possible.

fundamentally linked to women and themenstruation process may be self-evident,considering the socialization of women tobe essentially compassionate and nurtur-ing, it is interesting to note that there are

no known treatises or studies examiningthe primary interrelationship betweenmenstrual cycles and spiritual healingtreatment efficacy. In this regard, anexploratory field survey questionnaire wasconstructed and distributed to 100 women

healers, 50 of whom attended a Health andHarmony Fair in northern California inJune of 1996 and 50 of whom attended a

Whole Life Expo Fair in southern Califor-nia in November of 1996 (sample question-naires 1 and 2). The two surveyquestionnaires were identical in formatwith the exception that group 1 partici-pants (Health and Harmony Fair) wereasked in question 6 to describe in detailtheir rationale for their opinion regardingtreatment effectiveness during menstrua-tion, whereas group 2 subjects (Whole LifeExpo Fair) were asked in question 6 tochoose from a listing of six categories thatwere derived from the answers providedby group 1 participants. In addition, a

question was included in the survey for-mat of group 2 subjects pertaining to treat-ment efficacy and menopause. Thisquestion was added because two individu-als in group 1 noted a change in treatmentefficacy after menopause.All respondents to the survey question-

naire were individuals with recognizedhealing potential within the communityand attendees of either the Health andHarmony Fair or the Whole Life ExpoFair. The healers were asked to completethe brief informal survey questionnaireand return it in the postage-paid envelopeprovided. The Health and Harmony Fairand Whole Life Expo Fair each regularlyattract more than 30,000 participants peryear. Many of the field's most soughtafter therapies and therapists are in atten-dance, with approximately 250 to 350licensed vendors offering arts, crafts, andcomplementary or alternative health andfitness products and services.

Survey responses were received from37 individuals in group 1 (Health andHarmony Fair participants) and 32 indi-viduals from group 2 (Whole Life ExpoFair participants). The median age ofrespondents was 38.1 years, with an agerange of 23-54 years, and 40.9 years, withan age range of 27-52 years, respectively.Thirty-one (84 percent) of the group 1respondents indicated that they hadadministered healing treatments for 9 or

more years, with 30 practitioners (81 per-cent) using primarily a hands-on healingapproach, and 25 (78 percent) of group 2respondents had been administering heal-ing treatments for 5 or more years, with28 practitioners (88 percent) using pri-marily a hands-on healing approach. Allrespondents had administered a healingtreatment to their patients during theirmenstruation period. Five respondentsfrom group 1 and two from group 2 indi-cated that their treatment efficacy stayed

the same, and three respondents in group1 and seven participants in group 2 feltthat treatment efficacy decreased duringmenstruation. Twenty-nine (78 percent)of the group 1 respondents and 23 (72percent) of group 2 participants felt thatthere was a direct correlation between themenstruation phase of their cycle andincreased treatment efficacy (Table 1).

Because of the open-ended nature ofsurvey question 6 for group 1 partici-pants, the rationale presented for theseperceptions varied widely among the dif-ferent practitioners. Their responses were

analyzed and grouped using a key-word/phase/category index into the fol-lowing six categories: (A) hormonalvariations, (B) chakra/healing energyactivation, (C) elevation in or alteredstates of consciousness, (D) connection or

communion with the mothering or god-dess aspect of their being, (E) lunar/solarcycles, and (F) miscellaneous. The survey


If the moon was full during the actualmenstruation phase, some survey respondents saidthey felt a greatly enhanced healing potential.

Survey Questionnaire 2Please take a few minutes to fill out the enclosed questionnaire and return it in the postage-paid envelope provided. Your responses will remain completely confidential. The informationyou provide will be used for a research study. I would like to thank you in advance for takingthe time to complete this survey.1. Age2. How long have you been administering healing treatments to patients?3. What type of healing technique do you primarily use with your patients?A. A hands-on healing technique in which you use direct physical contact with patients or anoncontact approach in which you hold the hands several inches from the patient's body.ORB. A distant healing approach in which you administer treatment to a patient while separatedby a distance of several feet to several miles.4. Have you ever administered a healing treatment to another person during your menstrualperiod?Yes No5. In general, do you feel that your treatment effectiveness stayed the same, decreased, orincreased when you were experiencing the menstruation phase of the cycle?A. Treatment effectiveness stayed the same during menstruationB. Treatment effectiveness decreased during menstruationC. Treatment effectiveness increased during menstruation6. If your treatment effectiveness stayed the same, decreased, or increased duringmenstruation, do you think it was due to one or more of the following items? Please circle theapplicable categories.A. The menstruation process caused hormonal changes that affected treatment efficacy.B. The menstruation process caused some type of chakra/healing energy activation thataffected treatment efficacy.C. The menstruation process caused an altered state of consciousness that affected treatmentefficacy.D. The menstruation process caused a connection or communion with the goddess/motheringaspect of your being that affected treatment efficacy.E. The menstruation process caused an enhanced effect of lunar/solar cycles that affectedtreatment efficacy.F. Other7. Please answer this question only if you are in the postmenopausal stage. In general, do youfeel that your treatment effectiveness stayed the same, decreased, or increased aftermenopause?A. Treatment effectiveness stayed the same after menopauseB. Treatment effectiveness decreased after menopauseC. Treatment effectiveness increased after menopause

questionnaire for group 2 participantseliminated the open-ended format ofquestion 6 and allowed respondents tochoose from an (A) through (F) listing ofthe aforementioned six categories.Although a majority of the responsesreceived were associated with one ormore of these categories, the perceivedrelationship between the categories andincreased treatment efficacy varied sig-nificantly.

The detailed responses received indi-cated that 19 group 1 participants (51percent) and 20 (63 percent) of group 2respondents felt that the hormonal shiftsthat accompany menstruation were eitherpartially or solely responsible for theirincreased treatment effectiveness. Mostof the respondents from group 1described what can be characterized asan increased awareness of physiologicfunctioning and sensations within their

bodies. Fourteen (74 percent) of theserespondents noted some type of energyfluctuations that they felt directlyincreased their therapeutic efficacy.These fluctuations were described as

"tingling sensations," "surges of electri-cal energy," "warm currents," or "con-centrations of energy." Furtherdescriptions characterized these sensa-

tions as being "strong," "overpowering,""beyond my control," and directly affect-ing energy levels within the body. Onerespondent who felt the process affectedher energy level explained that althoughshe was physically drained by the men-

struation process, she also felt more

"relaxed and content" and "in touch withher femininity," which seemed to facili-tate her healing potential. Four respon-dents in this category also described or

emphasized activation of chakra centersduring menstruation. One of the respon-dents in group 1 described an "intensifi-cation of energy," particularly in theheart chakra, that was caused by a

"releasing of negative energy" throughthe root chakra. Another respondentcharacterized the menstruation processas one that increased the activity of herchakra centers by "opening or clearing"the root chakra, resulting in a "vortex"pulling healing energy through thecrown chakra area into her body, thusfacilitating an increase in healing poten-tial. This is in comparison with seven

respondents from group 2 who attributedincreased therapeutic efficacy to

chakra/energy activation.Eight (22 percent) respondents from

group 1 and 17 (53 percent) respondentsfrom group 2 specifically indicated thatthe menstruation process caused an

altered state of consciousness, which facil-itated their healing effectiveness, with 5(63 percent) of the respondents in group 1directly attributing their altered state tohormonal fluctuations. Interestingly, 6 ofthe 8 respondents (75 percent) from group1 also indicated that they primarily used a

distant healing approach. The practition-ers from group 1 described an "elevated,"


There appears to be a direct correlationbetween the menstruation process and

increased treatment efficacy.

"heightened," "focused," "altered," or

"in-tune" state of conscious awareness or

"psyche" during menstruation. Two par-ticipants in this group described what canbe characterized as some form of physio-logic or psychologic irritability that theyfelt increased their treatment efficacyeither by acting as a "catalyst" drawingthem into the healing encounter or caus-ing a profound or noticeable "psychologicshift" to a more compassionate state ofconsciousness once the healing sessionbegan. One practitioner described experi-encing an "increased sensitivity," bothpsychologically and spiritually, thatallowed her to become "finely attuned" toa more compassionate, loving, and heal-ing state of mind and body. She empha-sized that this was her normal healingstate but that somehow it became "moreintense" or just "more noticeable" duringmenstruation. Three respondents fromgroup 1 further indicated that the men-

struation process brought out the "nur-turing," "compassionate," "motheringaspect" of their being, and 6 respondentsfrom group 2 also indicated thatincreased treatment efficacy during men-

struation was attributable to a connectionor communication with thegoddess/mothering aspect of their being.One individual from group 1 describedthe process as a "profound sense of unionwith the cosmos," whereas another indi-cated that whenever she conducted a

healing treatment during menstruation,she became "overwhelmed" by feelings of"unconditional motherly love" towardher patients, which on many occasionsbrought her to tears and significantlyaltered her view of the "interconnected-ness" of all life.

Four respondents (11 percent) in group1 and 14 (44 percent) in group 2 indicatedthat although physiologic hormonal vari-ations or altered states of consciousnesswere contributing factors in their thera-peutic efficacy during menstruation, theyalso felt that lunar or solar phases (orboth) present during menstruation influ-enced their treatment efficacy. In general,

Table I. Responses to Survey QuestionnairesGroup I (n=37) Group 2 (n=32)

AgeYears of healing experienceHands-on healing approach

23-54 years(average 38.1 years)3 ¡healers (84%) at 9 ormore years

27-52 years(average 40.9 years)25 healers (78%) at 5or more years

Distant healing approachTreatment efficacy stayed thesame during menstruation

30 healers (81%)7heaiers(Ï9%)

Treatment efficacy decreasedduring menstruationTreatment efficacy increasedduring menstruation

5 healers (14%)3heaiers(8%)

28 healers (88%)4 healers (12%)¿healers (6%)

29 healers (78%)

7 healers (22%)23 heaiers (72%)

group 1 participants noted that if themoon was full during the actual menstru-ation phase, they felt a greatly enhancedhealing potential. These respondents indi-cated that they felt "charged or invigorat-ed," "disoriented," "possessed," or

"directed by other-worldly forces" duringthis time. It is not clear from the respons-es given, however, whether this enhancedhealing potential was due solely to thepresence of the full moon or to the coinci-dence of the full moon with the menstrua-tion process.

Responses given by seven survey par-ticipants (19 percent) in group 1 and threerespondents in group 2 (9 percent) didnot fall into any of the five categories dis-cussed and were, therefore, groupedindependently. Three individuals fromgroup 1 chose not to state a rationale fortheir increased therapeutic efficacy dur-ing menstruation. The remaining fourparticipants in group 1, however, gavedetailed explanations of their perceptions.One woman indicated that she felt thather increased healing potential duringmenstruation was brought on by "fluidretention," which increased her healing"vibration." Another felt that "God" was

reminding her of her "sacredness" andability to "heal and bring forth life." Oneparticipant gave a detailed explanation ofthe alchemical aspects of menstrual bloodand attributed increased healing potential

with being either in "direct contact withmenstrual blood" or in "direct contactwith someone who was experiencingmenstruation." Another felt that because,she was being "purged of evils," she was

better able to heal others during this time.

Menopause EmpowersAs previously noted, two of the respon-

dents in group 1 who indicated that theyhad been aware of an increased effective-ness in their healing treatments duringmenstruation also mentioned that theywere in the postmenopausal stage. Bothpractitioners made a point of indicatingthat they experienced an overall increasein therapeutic potential after menopauseas compared with during menstruation.One woman described her healing poten-tial as being "amplified" by themenopause process, and the other men-

tioned that she felt as if her healings were

more "consistent" and not affected by the"ebb and flow" that she previously expe-rienced during menstruation. Becausethese two respondents made a directunsolicited correlative comparisonbetween the increased therapeutic poten-tial of menstruation and menopause, thedetermination was made to include a

question pertaining to this topic for group2 participants. Six individuals in thisgroup indicated that they felt an increase


It is now time to overcome the millenniaof oppressive patriarchal opinion on menstruation.

in treatment efficacy after menopause. Itis interesting to note that in ancient times,matriarchal cultures traditionally elevatedpostmenopausal women into positions ofpower and status in the community, withmenopause being acknowledged as a riteof passage and initiation into a new andmore profound way of life. It was com-

monly held that when women reachedthe age of retaining their "wise blood,"they crossed a threshold and became truepriestesses, healers, and keepers of thegates of birth and death.54_5° Althoughthe subject population of this survey istoo small to draw definitive conclusions,the responses indicate that themenopause process, like menstruation,should not be viewed as merely a biologicevent but, rather, more as a processimbued with mystical spiritual implica-tions that may serve to increase treatmentefficacy.

SummaryIt is clear from the survey responses

obtained that there appears to be a directcorrelation, at least in the minds of thepractitioners surveyed, between the men-

struation process and increased treatment

efficacy. What is particularly noteworthyabout the survey responses received,specifically the responses of group 1 par-ticipants, is the wide range of internal andexternal experiences and influencesreported during menstruation and theperceived correlative effect on spiritualhealing treatment outcome. The surveyresponses obtained indicated phe-nomenologically based correlative expla-nations for increased therapeuticpotential during menstruation rangingfrom hormonal variations, chakra/heal-ing energy activation, elevation in or

altered states of consciousness, connec-tion or communion with the mothering or

goddess aspect of their being, andlunar/solar cycles.57 Although this was

an exploratory field survey that used a

California-based New Age subject popu-lation, the fact that more than 75 percentof those surveyed indicated that therewas a direct connection between menstru-ation and increased therapeutic potentialsuggests that the process of menstruationand its relation to spiritual healing maybe a rich source of information regardingincreased therapeutic potentials. An ancil-lary finding of this survey was that some

participants noted a relationship betweenmenopause and increased treatment effi-cacy, which warrants further exploration.Interestingly, a majority of the practition-ers in group 1 described highly positiveexperiences during menstruation, in par-ticular during the coincidence of menstru-ation and spiritual healing. Theseobservations are in direct contrast to thepervasive negative stereotype of the men-strual experience that permeates virtuallyevery society on earth today. Perhaps thefindings of this report suggest that it isnow time to overcome the millennia ofoppressive patriarchal opinion on thistopic and return to a time when menstru-ation and menopause were viewed as

more than merely biologic events andwere acknowledged for their inherentmystical and spiritual qualities and recog-nized for their potential to increase treat-ment efficacy.58 D

References1. Eller, C. Living in the Lap of the Goddess: TheFeminist Spirituality Movement in America.Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.2. Noble, V. Shakti Woman: Feeling Our Fire,

Healing Our World. San Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 1991.3. Gimbutas, M. The Gods and Goddesses of OldEurope, 7000-3500 B.C.: Myths, Legends, andCult Images. London: Thames and Hudson,1974.4. Frymer-Kensky, T. In the Wake of the Goddess:Women, Culture, and the Biblical TransformationofPagan Myth. New York: Free Press, 1992.5. Engels, F. In: Tiffany, S. (ed.), The power ofmatriarchal ideas. Int J Women's Studies 5:62-75,1982.6. Bachofen, J.J. Myth, Religion, and Mother Right(Manheim, R., trans.). Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1967.7. Tylor, E.B. Primitive Culture: Research into theDevelopment ofMythology, Philosophy, Religion,Language, Art, and Custom. London: John Mur-ray, 1871.8. Morgan, L.H. Ancient Society. New York:World Publishing, 1877.9. Stone, M. When God Was a Woman. NewYork: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.10. Sered, S.S. Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister:Religions Dominated by Women. New York:Oxford University Press, 1994.11. Wirth, D.P. Implementing spiritual healingin modern medical practice. Advances: JMind-Body Health 9:69-81,1993.12. Flowers, F.A. The P.M.S. Conspiracy. MarinaDel Rey, CA: Circle of Aradia Productions,1986.13. Frazer, J. The Golden Bough. London:Macmillan, 1911.14. Briffault, R. The Mothers: The MatriarchalTheory of Social Origins. New York: Atheneum,1977.15. Graves, R. The White Goddess: A HistoricalGrammar of Poetic Myth. New York: Farrar,Straus, and Giroux, 1973.16. Murray, M. The Witch-Cult in WesternEurope. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921.17. Murray, M. The God of the Witches. London:Sampson Low, Marston, and Co., Ltd., 1933.18. Neumann, E. The Great Mother. Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1963.19. Mellaart, J. Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town inAnatolia. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.


20. Shuttle, P., Redgrove, P. The Wise Wound:The Myths, Realities, and Meanings ofMenstrua-tion. New York: Bantam Books, 1990.21. Gimbutas, M. The Civilization of the Goddess:The World ofOld Europe. San Francisco: Harper-San Francisco, 1991.22. Davis, E.G. The First Sex. New York: Pen-guin Books, 1971.23. Hallie, I.A. The Heart of the Goddess: Art,Myth, and Meditations of the World's Sacred Femi-nine. Berkeley, CA: Wingbow Press, 1990.24. Dudley, R.J. She who bleeds, yet does notdie. Heresies 2:15-28,1990.25. Eisler, R. The chalice and the blade. Paperpresented at annual meeting of AmericanAcademy of Religion, Anaheim, CA, 1989.26. Gimbutas, M. The Language of the Goddess:Unearthing the Hidden Symbols ofWestern Civi-lization. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1989.27. Cady, S., Ronan, M., Taussig, H. Wisdom'sFeast: Sophia in Study and Celebration. San Fran-cisco: Harper and Row, 1989.28. Wynne, P. The Womanspirit Sourcebook. SanFrancisco: Harper and Row, 1989.29. Walker, B.G. The Skeptical Feminist: Discover-ing the Virgin, Mother, and Crone. San Francisco:Harper and Row, 1987.30. Weideger, P. Menstruation and Menopause:The Physiology and Psychology, the Myth and theReality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976.31. Hays, H.R. The Dangerous Sex. New York:Pocket Books, 1972.32. Pliny. Natural History (Rackham, H., trans.).Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,1961, Vol. VII.33. Komnenich, P., McSweeney, M., Noack, JA.,Elder, N. The Menstrual Cycle: Vol. 2: Researchand Implications for Women's Health. New York:Springer Publishing Company, 1987.34. Trevor-Roper, H.R. The European Witch-Craze of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuriesand Other Essays. New York: Harper Torch-books, 1969.35. Mabuchi, T. Spiritual predominance of thesister. In: Smith, A.H. (ed.), Ryukyuan Cultureand Society. Honolulu: University of HawaiiPress, 1964.36. Mabuchi, T. Toward the reconstruction of

Ryukyuan cosmology. In: Matsumoto, N.,Mabuchi, T. (eds.), Folk Religion and the World-view in the Southwestern Pacific. Tokyo: KeioUniversity, 1968.37. Kamata, H. Daughters of the gods: Shamanpriestesses in Japan and Okinawa. In: Folk Cul-tures of Japan and East Asia. Monumenta Nip-ponica Monographs, No. 25. Tokyo: SophiaUniversity Press, 1966.38. McCume, S. The Ryukyu Islands. Harrisburg:Stackpole Books, 1975.39. Nash, J.C. Living with Nats: An analysis ofanimism in Burman village social relations.South East Asia Studies, Yale University. In:Anthropological Studies in Theravada Buddhism.Cultural Reports Series. New Haven: Yale Uni-versity Press, 1966, Vol. 13.40. Spiro, M. Burmeses Supernaturalism. Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967.41. Spiro, M. Buddhism and Society. London:George Allen and Unwin, 1971.42. Spiro, M. Kinship and Marriage in Burma.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press,1977.43. Harvey, Y.K. The Korean mudang as a

household therapist. In: Lebra, W.P. (ed.), Cul-ture-bound Syndromes, Ethnopsychiatry and Alter-native Therapies. Honolulu: University ofHawaii Press, 1976.44. Harvey, Y.K. Possession sickness andwomen shamans in Korea. In: Falk, N.A., Gross,R.M. (eds.), Unspoken Worlds: Women's ReligiousLives in Non-Western Cultures. San Francisco:Harper and Row, 1980.45. Kendall, L. Korean ancestors: From thewoman's side. In: Kendall, L., Peterson, M.(eds.), Korean Women, View from the Inner Room.New Haven: East Rock Press, 1983.46. Kendall, L. Shamans, Housewives, and OtherRestless Spirits: Women in Korean Ritual Life.Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985.47. Chernela, J.M. Symbolic inaction rituals ofgender and procreation among the Garifuna(Black Caribs) of Honduras. Ethos 19:52-67,1991.48. Kerns, V. Black Carib women and rites ofdeath. In: Falk, N.A., Gross, R.M. (eds), Unspo-ken Worlds: Women's Religious Lives in Non-West-

ern Cultures. San Francisco: Harper and Row,1980.49. Kerns, V. Women and the Ancestors: BlackCarib Kinship and Ritual. Urbana: University ofIllinois Press, 1983.50. Boddy, J. Spirits and selves in northernSudan: The cultural therapeutics of possessionand trance. Am Ethnologist 15:4-27,1988.51. Boddy, J. Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women,Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan. Madi-son: University ofWisconsin Press, 1989.52. Kahana, Y. The Zar spirits, a category ofmagic in the system of mental health care inEthiopia. IntJSoc Psychiatry 31:125-142,1985.53. Lewis, I.M. Introduction: Zar in context: Thepast, the present, and the future of an Africanhealing cult. In: Lewis, I.M., Al-Safi, A., Hur-reiz, S. (eds.), Women's Medicine: The Zar-BoriCult in African and Beyond. Edinburgh: Edin-burgh University Press, 1991.54. West, M. Celebrating the change. New Age166:95-99,1996.55. Brown, J.K., Kerns, V. In Her Prime: NewViews ofMiddle-Aged Women. Urbana: Universi-ty of Illinois Press, 1992.56. Gutmann, D. Reclaimed Powers. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1994.57. Wirth, D.P. The significance of belief andexpectancy within the spiritual healingencounter. Soc Sei Med 41:249-260,1995.58. Sharan, F. Natural treatment of menopauseusing herbs. ALTERNATIVE & COMPLEMEN-TARY THERAPIES 1:147-153,1995.

Daniel P. Wirth, M.S., is an attorney in privatepractice and the founding director of HealingSciences Research International, a researchorganization specializing in the study of alter-native and complementary approaches inmedicine, in Orinda, California.

To order reprints of this article, write to or call:Karen Ballen, ALTERNATIVE & COMPLE-MENTARY THERAPIES, Mary Ann Liebert,Inc., 2 Madison Avenue, Larchmont, NY 10538-1962, (914) 834-3100.

exploring further menstruation and spiritual healing

Documents