Exploring Charisma in Sufism: Saints, Sainthood & Pilgrimage

IntroductionIn this session, we will explore sainthood in the Sufi traditionEssays!RecapProphets & SaintsDefining Saints and SainthoodSaints in LiteraturePilgrimage

Recap

RecapHierarchical understandings of God, Creation & HumanityDifferent layers of faith: Islam, Iman & IhsanDifferent ways of knowing: exoteric (zahir) and esoteric (batin)Sufism as the science (`ilm) of Ihsan and BatinPurification of the self (tazkiyat al-nafs) through spiritual discipline and knowledge

An Important TraditionWhosoever shows enmity to someone devoted to Me [wali], I shall be at war with him. My servant draws not near to Me with anything more loved by Me than the religious duties I have enjoined upon him, and My servant continues to draw near to Me with supererogatory works so that I shall love him. When I love him I am his hearing with which he hears, his seeing with which he sees, his hand with which he strikes and his foot with which he walks...

An Important Tradition... Were he to ask [something] of Me, I would surely give it to him, and were he to ask Me for refuge, I would surely grant him it. I do not hesitate about anything as much as I hesitate about [seizing] the soul of My faithful servant: he hates death and I hate hurting himRecorded in al-BukhariWali is the primary term for saint in the Sufi traditionWhen I love him...: union with the divine?My servant draws not near to Me...

Stages of the Spiritual JourneySpiritual development often conceptualised as an eternal journey to and then in GodUnderstood to consist of two distinct elementsStations: maqamat (sing. maqam)States: Ahwal (sing. hal)Stations achieved through human effort and discipline; psychological stages; stabilityAhwal are passing states and are the gift of GodThat is, they are not under the control of the individual themselvesGreatly elaborated in Sufi thought; a kind of spiritual mapSee examples on BlackboardSaints are those who have already traversed this terrain

Prophets & Saints

Prophets & SaintsFinality of Muhammads prophethood (based on Quran 33:40) becomes an important Muslim doctrine quite early onQuestions of legacy & legitimacy:Who has the right to lead the community after Muhammads death?Who are the true heirs to Muhammads spiritual authority?Emerging Sunni and Shi`i communities develop different answers to these questionsSunni focus on companions of Muhammad (sahaba) and scholarly elite (ulema)

Prophets & SaintsShi`ite emphasis on authority of Muhammads family (Ahl al-Bayt) and the ImamateAli ibn Abi Talib (Muhammads cousin & son-in-law) as the first infallible Imam (literally, guide)Gradual development of fixed doctrinal positionsSufi tradition developed its own ideas of post-prophetic religious authorityScholarly learning and the charisma of Muhammads family acknowledgedBut, Muhammads legacy open to all who successfully undertake spiritual journeyIn other words, the saints (awliya) are Muhammads true heirs

Prophets & SaintsDoctrinal impact of finality of Muhammads prophethoodRelationships between saints (awliya) and prophetsMost Sufi authors rank prophets above saintsThis hierarchy expressed in explicit and implicit termsExplicit: see diagramImplicitRevelation: prophets = wahy; saints = kashfMiracles: prophets = mu`jizat; saints = karamat

Nur-i MuhammadAccording to a number of Sufi writers, the Light of Muhammad the first thing to be createdOne prophetic tradition has Muhammad say:I was a prophet when Adam was between water and clayThus, Muhammad is the spiritual essence of prophethoodSahl al-Tustari (died c.896CE) early representative of these ideasInfluences exegesis of a number of Quranic passages: 21:107; 33:46; 53:13-18Saints partake of Muhammads light/charisma?

CharismaWhat is Charisma?Collins English Dictionary as:1. a special quality or power of an individual making him capable of influencing or inspiring large numbers of people. 2. A divinely bestowed power or talentMax Weber one of the first theorists to explore charismaInherently personal, does not derive from popular will, overthrows traditional structuresThe social dimension of charismaBaraka grace, blessing; a person, object or place specially blessed by God

AllahMuhammadAliThe Awliya (Saints)Muslim Community at large (Ummah)The Descent of BarakaGabriel

Defining Saints and Sainthood

Defining Saints & SainthoodId like to start this section with a song!Qawwali tradition of South AsiaA song in praise of 12th century mystic and saint - Mas`ud Farid al-DinAlso known as Baba Farid (Father Farid) and Ganj-i-Shakar (Storehouse of Sugar). Excellent summary of sufi ideas about saints and sainthoodPerformative context also another importantWe will return to music in the Sufi tradition next weekSo, it will be useful to watch this video again before thenAllah, Muhammad, Char YaarSee handout for lyrics

Defining Saints & SainthoodQuestions:What image of saints does this song portray?What do they do?

The Story of Moses and KhidrSpend 2 minutes reading through this short textIn groups, what is this story about?Who is this mysterious teacher of Moses?How does he teach Moses? What are his conditions?

The Story of Moses and KhidrSufi tradition identifies this enigmatic figure as Khidr Literally meaning, the Green one)Legendary figure: immortal, appearing whenever someone is in real needPossessor of hidden knowledge (ilm al-ladunni).Often used in Sufi teaching, especially to describe the proper relationship between master and disciple

Defining Saints & SainthoodEarlier scholarship saw Islamic sainthood through the lens of Protestant ChristianityThus, practices reminiscent of Catholicism were criticised as degradedMore broadly, see Orientalism: A ReaderSainthood as a definition a useful starting point thoughreplace angels as the intermediaries between God and humanity, and have a relationship with God that reduplicates the patronage network of society; this raises the possibility that they can intervene with God on behalf of the believer (Ernst, 1997)The key term for saint in Islam is Wali and we will look at this term more closely now

Wa-la-yaArabic words formed from three letter rootsThese word roots offer important insights into significant conceptsWa-la-ya to be very near to any one, either as kindred or neighbours (Penrice, Dictionary and Glossary of the Koran)Wali (plural awliya): near, a friend, patron, benefactor, helper, protectorGod is described by the Quran as al-Wali (meaning Guardian, or Protecting Friend); see 2:257; 3:150The friends of God [awliya] for them there is no fear, neither do they grieve (10:62)Mawla (plural mawali): lord, companion, protector, a patron or a client; a master or a servantHe whose mawla [leader and guardian] I am, Ali is also his mawlaWilaya (guardianship) is an absolutely essential term and concept

Wa-la-yaLinks with Shi`a IslamAs demonstrated by the Shi`i testament of faith (shahadah):There is no god but God, Muhammad is the Messenger of God and `Ali is the wali of GodGuidanceAllah is the Wali of those who believe. He brings them out from darknesses into the light (2:257)Love and emotional attachment Tawalla to turn backto adopt or choose any one as a friendMore broadly, repentanceThe Awliya embody these qualities, as friends of God and thus in some sense, as intermediariesMembers of the divine court

Spiritual HierarchyA number of traditions refer to a developed spiritual hierarchy among the awliyaThe authenticity of some of these traditions has been debated through the centuriesThat is, there are gradations within this class of elevated human beingsThe following diagram illustrates this hidden hierarchy

1 Qutb (Pole)3 Nuqaba (Deputies)4 Awtad (Pegs)7 Abrar (Righteous Ones)40 Abdal (Substitutes)300 Akhyar (Those of Goodness)4000 Awliya (Saints)The Hierarchy of Saints*Hidden axis of the spiritual world; supreme vice-regent; heir of MuhammadKnown only to God; unknown to themselves and othersConsciously aware of their role in spiritual hierarchy; and of each other* First advanced by al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi, becoming part of mainstream Sufi ideas; sytematised by Ibn Arabi

Saints in Literature

Saints in LiteratureRecapCharisma as a social forceBaraka as divine grace inherent in certain places, objects and peopleSpiritual HierarchyAllah Muhammad Ali SaintsThe Hierarchy of SaintsSaints as members of divine court and thus intermediariesSaints as successful spiritual travellersTeaching functionsIn Sufi literature, saints play these roles and moreIndeed, charisma is often embodied in literatureHagiography, apologetic works, poetry all attempt to embody baraka

Saints in LiteratureReadingsBy yourself, spend 5-10 minutes reading through the material I have given youWhat are the saints doing in these documents?What roles do they play? What functions do they perform?What are these texts about?

In groups, compare your answers

Pilgrimage

PilgrimagePilgrimage an important element of Islam: the Hajj Visiting Muhammads grave in Medina is another important practiceBoth believed to possess barakaSufi shrines are believed to possess a similar kind of powerThough theorists were generally careful to rank this below that of prophetsZiyara literally, visitationVisiting tombs of dead saintsSeeking intercession, healing, aidVisiting graves of masters of individual lineages an important practice saints are therefore embodied in the social landscapeA controversial practice, especially todayGrowth of an apologetic literature

Further ReadingGeaves, R (2000), The Sufis of Britain : an exploration of Muslim identity, Cardiff: Cardiff Academic PressBuehler, A F (1998), Sufi heirs of the Prophet : the Indian Naqshbandiyya and the rise of the mediating sufi shaykh, Columbia: University of South Carolina PressBirnbaum, L & Lenzer G (1969, eds.), Sociology and Religion: A Book of Readings, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.Eisenstadt, S N (1968, ed.), Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building: Selected Papers, London: University of Chicago PressErnst, C. W. (1997), The Shambhala Guide to Sufism, Boston, Mass.: Shambhala Publications (especially Chapter 3)Friedmann, Y (2003), Prophecy continuous: aspects of Ahmadi religious thought and its medieval background, New York : OUPMacfie, A L (2000), Orientalism: a Reader, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University PressMalik, J. & Hinnels, J. (2005), Sufism in the West, London: Routledge Curzon

Further ReadingMeri, J (2002), The cult of saints among MuslimsandJews in medieval Syria, Oxford: OUPMetcalf, B D (1984), Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam, Berkeley: University of California PressMojaddedi, J A (2001), The biographical tradition inSufism, Richmond: Curzon PressQureshi, R B (1986), Sufi Music of India and Pakistan, New York: Cambridge University PressRadtke, B (1999), The Concept of Wilaya in Early Sufism in Lewisohn, L (1999, ed.), The Heritage of Sufism Volume I, Oxford: Oneworld, 483-496Renard, J (2004, trans.), Knowledge of God in Classical Sufism, New York: Paulist Press

Further ReadingRenard, J (2008), Friends of God: Islamic images of piety, commitment, and servanthood, Berkeley, CA: University of California PressRozehnal, R T (2007), IslamicSufismunbound : politics and piety in twenty-first century Pakistan, Basingstoke: Palgrave MacmillanSchimmel, A. (1975), Mystical Dimensions of Islam, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina PressSchimmel, A (1985), And Muhammad is His Messenger, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina PressTurner, B S (1974), Weber and Islam : a critical study, London: Routledge and Kegan PaulWeismann, I (2007), Naqshbandiyya: orthodoxy and activism in a worldwide Sufi tradition, London: RoutledgeWerbner, P (2003), Pilgrims of love : the anthropology of a global Sufi cult, London : HurstWerbner, P & Basu, H (1998, eds.), Embodying Charisma: Modernity, Locality and Performance of Emotion in Sufi Cults, London: RoutledgeWesterlund, D (2004, ed.), Sufismin Europe and North America, London: Routledge Curzon

Sufi Devotional MusicSongs in praise of the awliya form a very important part of Sufi musicHere are some further relevant examplesTurkish Sufi MusicExample 1: Mevlevi Naat-i SerifPakistani Qawwali MusicExample 1: Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan - Shahbaaz QalandarExample 2: Sabri Bros - Shabaz Qalandar

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