Material PLA (polylactide) Date of last revision:

24.02.2015

Explanation of the symbols used The base data with respect to the statement concerning the criteria (ecology, social acceptability, security and technology, quality) are rated with barrel symbol

.

Symbol (full) → Extensive base data: multiple citations with very well documented facts and/or verifiable data (e.g. studies, environmental life cycle assessments, data sheets)

Symbol (2/3 full) Limited base data: facts not fully documented (certain weaknesses/gaps in the sources) and/or partially verifiable data (e.g. information on the packaging manufacturers' websites) and/or partially contradictory base data

Symbol (1/3 full) → Very small/no base data: very small amount/no citations and/or only partially or not verifiable data (e.g. interviews) and/or conflicting data The base data with respect to the statement concerning the criteria (ecology, social acceptability, security and technology, quality) are rated with coloured wheels. The material is rated positively regarding this criterion.

The material is rated variably regarding this criterion and must therefore be assessed on a case-by-case basis. The material is rated in a predominantly critical light with regard to this criterion.

The rating of the criteria is derived from the rating of the individual sub-criteria (1.1 Land utilisation, 1.2. Environmental compatibility etc.). The rating awarded to a criterion (colour wheel or barrel's degree of filling) is awarded on the basis of the predominant colour or the predominant degree of filling for the individual sub-criteria. In a stalemate, the lower rating is considered for the overall rating in each case.

Caution, important details must be considered here, which may refer to material groups or only to individual factors.

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Introduction Polylactide (PLA) is manufactured by polymerising lactic acid derived from starch or sugar-containing starting materials. The process is now significantly more cost-effective and requires less energy than it did years ago. [060] [085] The neutralising agent used is milk of lime, resulting in large quantities of gypsum that is used in the agricultural sector. The monomers used in manufacturing PLA can be present in both D- and L-shaped forms, resulting in very different processing conditions and areas of application. The largest manufacturer, the company NatureWorks, produces PLA from the raw material maize in Blair (USA). Genetically modified maize is the chief product used in the process. Over the next few years, several manufacturers have plans to open new production facilities around the world, with other sources of raw materials such as sugar cane, sugar beet, wheat and tapioca. In future, the industry would like to use raw materials containing cellulose, which is the focus of current research. NatureWorks has a production capacity of 150,000 tons per year at prices of <EUR 1.80 per kilogramme at present (status 2014). [007] [085] The company Corbion Purac offers a European non-GMO alternative. The company produces lactic acid and lactide in Gorinchem (Netherlands) and Rayong (Thailand). Sugar cane from Thailand is the primarily raw material. The use of other raw materials is planned. Other manufacturers further process the raw materials to PLA to a much lesser extent. In the next two to five years, major price reductions for PLA are only conceivable if new and significantly cheaper raw materials are made accessible or more reasonably priced production methods are developed. Upscaling is quite conceivable if there is sufficient demand from the market. It should be noted: whenever the term PLA is used in this document, the acronym refers to all PLA blends (all mixtures that contain PLA) .

Material manufacturers and converters in the PLA industry considered to be significant by the project team are arranged alphabetically in the following list, which is by no means exhaustive. Manufacturers with whom interviews were conducted are highlighted.

Material manufacturer (arranged alphabetically)

BASF SE (designated as BASF)

German chemical company that has a division for biodegradable plastics. BASF manufactures the material ecovio®, which consists of ecoflex® made by BASF and PLA. The ecoflex® F type is based on a fossil polyester (PBAT), whereas among other substances, the FS type is based on plant oil that is not in competition with food production. The processing capacity for ecovio® and ecoflex® is 75,000 tons.

Website: [092] Corbion Purac (designated as Corbion)

Company operating worldwide with production sites in the USA as well as in Brazil, Europe and Thailand. Produces lactide and lactic acid, which are polymerized by partner companies. Solely GMO-free goods are used for the production of monomers. The price for standard PLA is EUR 2.00 per kilogramme while the heat-stable PLA costs approximately EUR 2.50 per kilogramme. PLA with higher heat stability (up to 180°C/HDT/A) is available from Corbion together with Sulzer Chemtech AG. There are various test systems and small production facilities. Raw material: sugar cane, Origin: primarily Thailand, Production site: Gorinchem (Netherlands)

Website: [062]

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and Rajong (Thailand) Production volume lactic acid: approx. 300,000 tons per year Note: The PLA amounts produced by partner companies are significantly lower.

Galactic Galactic produces PLA from various raw goods for applications in the food industry and in technical areas. In cooperation with Total Petrochemicals, application-oriented solutions are sought after under the brand futerro. Although there are smaller pilot plants, a larger production facility for PLA is currently not yet in operation. A lactide production facility has been constructed in Asia.

Website: [063]

JinHui ZhaoLong High Technology Co. Ltd / Shanxi Jinhui Energy Group LTD Zhejiang Hisun Biomaterials Co., Ltd. Teijin (10,000 tons per year)

In China, there are several smaller manufacturers of PLA, whose products are supplied to the automotive industry, to agriculture and to a lesser extent to the packaging industry.

Website: [242] (Chinese) NatureWorks LLC

(designated as NatureWorks) Parent company: Cargill (USA), PTT Global Chemical (large Thai company) Product name: Ingeo, Raw material: maize (dextrose from starch), Origin: USA (Nebraska, Iowa) Production volume: 100,000 tons per year (status 2014), Capacity: 150,000 tons per year Very comprehensive website with product data sheets and LCAs. Areas of application include packaging for fresh food with a short shelf life (up to 4 weeks, 25-28 days for cheese), e.g. for fresh dairy products/cheese, also yoghurt cups, cutlery, drinking cups, bowls for pre-made salads or tomatoes and packaging for vegetables and fruit. The packaging has a high-gloss finish and is transparent. The company offers about 20 different types for different applications. Combinations with the Nature Flex™ film from Innovia are possible.

Website: [060]

Uhde Inventa-Fischer AG Uhde Inventa-Fischer is an international plant manufacturer and licensor and operates a PLA pilot plant in Guben (Brandenburg, Germany) with an annual capacity of 500 tons. The plant is used for process and product optimisation and for the production of material samples for potential customers. The raw material lactic acid (LA) is processed in the plant, which is manufactured in a pilot plant of the parent company ThyssenKrupp Industrial Solutions AG based on renewable raw materials. Uhde Inventa-Fischer has patented processes to map the entire production chain from the production of LA through lactides to the bioplastic PLA.

Website: [064]

Converter (arranged alphabetically)

BioPak Pty Ltd Australian manufacturer of cups, bowls, containers, cutlery, plates and plastic bags made from PLA from NatureWorks. Website: [167]

BIOTEC GmbH & Co. KG German manufacturer that specialises in compostable plastics made from starch blends. The

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(designated as BIOTEC) raw materials base includes potato starch and, in some cases, other biodegradable plastics. The company also manufactures completely biodegradable, thermoplastic polymer blends based on PLA, PHA and PBAT. Depending on a customer's request, PLA originates from various sources. Injection moulding products, e.g. coffee capsules, are manufactured from PHA. Other products include containers for oil-based creams and tubes for cream. Water vapour barriers are used for products with water-based content. Meanwhile BIOTEC is a 100% subsidiary of the Sphere Group. [234]

Website: [092]

Coveris Coveris is the sixth largest manufacturer of packaging solutions worldwide with subsidiaries in 21 countries and a turnover of 2.5 billion US dollars. It produces, among other things, co-extruded PLA blends for paper towels, napkins and protective wrappers (magazines, newspapers). Place of processing: Warburg and Halle/Westphalia (Germany).

Website: [079]

FKuR Kunststoff GmbH (designated as FKuR)

Specialist in bioplastics with an extensive portfolio of compostable/biodegradable and biobased plastics (raw material, plastic granulate). The registered office and production site are located in Germany. FKuR offers plastic compounds based on PLA under the brand name Bio-Flex®. Other product lines (Biograde®, Fibrolon®, Terralene®) are also available for different applications. In addition to packing materials produced in-house, FKuR sells and distributes biobased raw materials from various manufacturers (Bio-PE from Braskem, Bio-PET from Tojota Tsusho, Bio-PA from Evonik). Further data concerning the products and their processing is available on the company's webpage.

Website: [067]

Folienwerk Wolfen GmbH As a film manufacturer, Folienwerk Wolfen focuses on sustainable materials and has manufactured a biodegradable film made from polylactic acid (PLA) since 2003. Among other applications, PLA film is used for deep drawn parts and transparent packaging.

Website: [203]

Huhtamaki Films Manufacturer and supplier of different PLA films. Website: [204] Maag GmbH Processor (not a manufacturer) of different PLA films. Website: [205] OFOTEC Folien GmbH German manufacturer of films based on PP. A PLA monofilm under the name OFO-Naturale is

also in the product range. In addition, a biobased PE is also planned under the name OFO-Natylene.

Website: [166]

Taghleef Industries (designated as Taghleef)

Company operating worldwide with several locations. One of the largest producers of BoPP films and BoPLA films. A product range of compostable and biobased BoPLA films is offered for the packing of food under the brand Nativia. Production capacity: 360,000 tons for BoPP, CPP and BoPLA

Website: [065]

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A number of data sheets and specifications are available on the company website. However, prior registration is necessary to retrieve this information.

Areas of application in the food industry (general)

The different application methods and the material properties are listed on the manufacturer's website. The IfBB Hannover biopolymer database and the company M-Base GmbH are additional very important sources of data for the material properties of biopolymers and packaging materials made from them (Institute of Bioplastics and Biocomposites, University of Hannover). [077] Films/bags: fresh produce such as vegetables, salads, bread, dried products with short best before dates, catering products Cups, thermoforming: meat, dairy products, desserts, refrigerated ready-made meals Bottles: Fresh produce with short best before dates Other applications: viewing window for bread bags, coatings of paper bags as fat barrier.

Summary of material properties

• Biodegradation in industrial composting, but not with composting by the producer. • Mean water vapour permeability (20-80g/m2d, pursuant to DIN 53122) with other low barrier properties. [085] • Very good transparency and high rigidity of the products. PLA is more brittle and additives such as plasticisers are more

frequently used. • The good aroma barrier is an advantage and is also used, for example, in tea bags as protection against the migration of

printing inks. • In contrast, stability against acids, bases and various solvents is low. • Good printability is an advantage. • A copolymerisation with cyclical monomers can be carried out to improve the material properties. Blending with polyester is

one application. • PLA can replace LDPE, HDPE, PP, PA, PS and PET in whole or in part depending on the application. PVC shrink film and PVC

cards can also be replaced by PLA. [060] Raw goods USA: maize (glucose from maize starch)

South-east Asia: sugar cane. Additional raw materials are being planned, including for example, yam (sweet potato). Germany: small pilot plant at the Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Polymer Research (IAP), where experiments are performed with different raw materials. [204] General: barley, cassava, wheat, potatoes, sugar beet and sago are available as sources of sugar/starch. The company is also experimenting with agricultural by-products or waste materials: with cellulose e.g. from Cellulac, with bagasse from sugar cane, e.g. by the Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering Potsdam-Bornim (ATB). Extensive research is still required here as the effectiveness of the system is highly dependent on the raw material (see land requirement).

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Rating

Critera (see 1-4) Sub-criteria (see 1.1-1.7, 2.1-2.2, 3.1-3.4, 4.1-4.6)

Data

Criteria

Attention

1 Ecology Included in the rating for the ecology criterion are seven sub-criteria (performance parameters), which the organic food manufacturers consider to be significant: land usage/food competition, environmental compatibility, certifications (cultivation and processing), genetic engineering, end of life (recycling, composting), environmental life cycle assessments and biobased content.

1.1 Land usage/ food competition

General: The cultivation of biobased raw materials is associated with a higher land use than the utilisation of fossil raw materials. Current figures show that to date only a very small fraction of agricultural land is used to cultivate raw materials for the production of bioplastic packaging (see section "Figures on Land Use"). Relevant land usage would only ensue after substitution of the entire global requirement for plastics. [006] [033] The current land use for producing biogas, bioethanol for fuel purposes or starch for industrial applications (not for bioplastics) is many times higher (see section "Figures on Land Use"). It should be noted that the biogas issue is the primary focus "only" in Germany and not globally, whereas the problems associated with the production of bioethanol and biodiesel are discussed in a global context. Even if smaller land requirements are expected, it should be borne in mind that indirect land usage changes may play a role in generating additional demand for raw materials. It is difficult to identify or keep account of the impact of these indirect land utilisation changes. At present, biobased plastics are produced from agricultural or silvicultural raw materials. Over and above this, the utilisation of waste materials will be an important issue in the future. There is still considerable need for research to further develop technology for recycling waste materials. Technologies are currently not sophisticated enough to produce in a profitable manner. Relevant research projects are still ongoing at many bioplastic packaging manufacturers. In the meantime, it is crucial that agriculturally utilised land is managed in an ecologically acceptable way. In principle, bioplastics can be manufactured from any plant-based substrate, but there are large differences regarding the efficiency of the raw materials used (input raw goods - output bioplastic). Very different yield amounts are achieved depending on which plant is used as a raw materials base and which bioplastic is manufactured from this material. Moreover, the effectiveness of the manufacturing process plays a key role (e.g. ethanol production from sugar cane for manufacturing

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PE, lactic acid recovery from maize for manufacturing PLA, etc.). Data on land usage are described in detail in the webpages of the Institute of Bioplastics and Biocomposites, University of Hannover (Hannover IfBB). [070] There, the required land requirements for manufacturing a specific amount of material can be viewed for each raw material. Below you will find two graphs for the land efficiency per unit area of different bioplastics, divided according to forestry or agricultural raw goods and relating to different biobased proportions (30%, 50%, 70%, 100%). For information regarding accepted yields (height, location), please contact the person responsible for the biopolymer platform at IfBB Hanover directly. The land efficiency per unit area depends on three factors in particular: the biomass raw material type (sugar cane, wood, maize, potatoes), the manufactured bioplastic type and the biobased content in the finished product. In principle, a higher biobased content is accompanied by higher land use.

Figure 1: Source figures: [070] Note: Cellulose diacetate belongs to the group of cellulose esters.

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Figure 2: Source figures: [070] Figures on land use The land requirements for production of packaging in Germany are under 0.001% of the global agricultural usable area (status quo and near future). The land requirement for the current global production capacity for all bioplastics is said to be 0.02% to 0.05%. If all the plastic packaging used in Germany is replaced by bioplastics (as far as technically possible), the agricultural land required for this would be significantly less than 1% of the global arable land. [006] Prof Dr Endres, IfBB Hannover, predicts - with respect to the complete replacement of plastics by bioplastics in Germany - land use of less than 2% of the global arable land for 2016. [033] Only if the entire western European or global plastic requirements (as of 2007) are substituted, 1-4.7% of global arable land (or 2.4-11.5% of the land pursuant to the FAO statistics for developed countries) are required. [006]

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In the event that the global plastic requirements are completely replaced by biopolymers, Prof Dr Endres, IfBB Hanover, predicts land use of less than 5% of global arable land for 2016. [033] In comparison According to the Agency for Renewable Resources (FNR), 2.1 million hectares and thus 12.6% of agricultural usable area (a total of 16.7 million hectares) were used for the cultivation of energy crops in Germany in 2013. [212] For the generation of electricity from biogas alone, this accounted for 4.5% of the total utilised agricultural area and 6% of arable land in Germany (12 million hectares). [069] [212] According to the FNR, the land requirement was 101.5 hectares for industrial starch production in Germany in 2013. Based on 16.7 million hectares of agricultural usable area, this corresponds to a proportion of 0.61%. [213] Material/manufacturer-specific: Primarily maize (company NatureWorks) and sugar cane (company Corbion Purac) are used to produce PLA at present.

There are significant differences in the land efficiency per unit area. The production of 1 ton of PLA from sugar cane has a land requirement of 0.16 hectares, a much better land efficiency per unit area than for the production of 1 ton of PLA from maize (0.37 hectares). The production of 1 ton of PLA based on maize has a similar land requirement as for the production of 1 ton of biomass-based PET (0.31 hectares). Notes: a biobased content of 100% is assumed in each case for better comparability. PLA and biomass based PET can be manufactured from sugar cane and have some similar applications. Process routes for the manufacturing of PLA from maize or sugar cane [070]: Raw material maize (pure PLA): Input: 0.37 hectares (equivalent to 2.39 tons of maize) → output: 1 ton of PLA [071] Raw material maize (70% PLA): Input: 0.26 hectares (equivalent to 1.67 tons of maize) → output: 1 ton of PLA [071] Raw material maize (30% PLA): Input: 0.11 hectares (equivalent to 0.72 tons of maize) → output: 1 ton of PLA [071]

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Please note: forblends, the area requirement of all raw materials used must be taken into account. Raw material sugar cane: Input: 0.16 hectare (equivalent to 11.31 tons of sugar cane) → output: 1 ton of PLA [071] In this context, the type of land utilisation (intensive/extensive etc.) must be taken into account in addition to the land efficiency per unit area (see 1.2 Environmental). NatureWorks NatureWorks PLA is planning to build a PLA production plant in Thailand (starting in 2017) that is expected to be operated with sugar cane, among other things. In three to five years, the use of raw materials based on lignocellulose is planned. This is currently the subject of research. Possibilities would be, for example, sugar from maize stalks and leaves, wood chips or even grass/straw. In addition, carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane as a starting material for manufacturing lactic acid is being discussed as a next-generation of raw materials. In the US facility, maize will continue to be used as a raw material. [181] Corbion Purac Corbion Purac is involved in various research and development programmes, with the aim of developing cellulose-based raw materials as a source for PLA production that do not compete with food products. Available waste materials are being investigated for this purpose. In the near future there is expected to be a pilot plant that uses these alternative raw materials.

1.2 Environmental compatibility

General: Water, energy, fuel, pesticides and fertilisers are classically used for the cultivation of agricultural raw materials. Their amount varies depending on the crop and is affected by national and local conditions. The material manufacturer's impact on the production of raw goods varies dramatically. Individual companies are closely involved in agricultural production, whereas others buy the raw materials from large corporations and therefore exert limited influence. In the future, manufacturers will increasingly rely on production from waste materials. Many companies are working on research projects concerning alternative raw materials.

Material/manufacturer-specific: Maize or sugar cane are planted as raw goods to produce PLA. Cultivation of maize

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Maize is a very demanding culture. It has high nutrient requirements (in particular nitrogen) and has a low competitive ability compared to weeds due to its slow juvenile (early) development (later herbaceous soil cover). At certain times of the year, the high nutrient requirements may lead to increased leaching of nitrate (e.g. after harvesting when it has not been undersown with a plant that can recycle the residual nitrogen) and hence may cause ground water contamination with fertilisers. There continues to be the risk of soil compaction and erosion (depending on location). Erosion is promoted by cultivating in rows and without no undersowing. [084] [037] [197] Maize is often cultivated in monocultures. Many communities in Germany face the problem of a "Vermaisung" (a term formed from the German word for maize and referring to a "swamping" due to monoculture of this crop) the landscape (primarily as a result of a locally substantial increase in cultivation due to the utilisation in biogas plants). Maize cultivation in the USA: The National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides data from a large-scale survey relating to the use of fertilisers and pesticides in the cultivation of maize from 2010. Thereafter, nitrogen was applied to 97% of the land at an amount equivalent to 157.09 kilogramme per hectare. Furthermore, 67.33 kilogrammes of phosphates were used (78% of the land), 88.65 kilogrammes of potash (61% of the land) and 14.59 kilogrammes of sulphur (15% of the land) per hectare. Soya beans are cultivated, in part, as a crop rotation element that, as a legume, introduces nitrogen into the soil and reduces the amount of applied nitrogen. An additional positive ancillary effect of soya bean cultivation may be the prevention of the wireworm's development cycle. [174] [175] Herbicides have been applied to 98% of the land. The herbicides account for almost two thirds of the total pesticides applied. According to a survey, glyphosate isopropylammonium salt was the active substance most frequently used. [174] [175] Glyphosate is used on large areas of land for uniform ripening. It has faced increasing criticism for its capacity as a total herbicide and is by now ubiquitous. One degradation product of glyphosate is AMBER. It is used to promote early maturation of plants and is contained, in particular, as the active substance in Monsanto's Roundup Ready product. In this context, it is used in combination with GMO seeds. [226] Insecticides have been used on 12% of land. [174] [175] NatureWorks: Water consumption: Irrigation takes place depending on location. The state of Iowa is hardly irrigated, whereas eastern Nebraska is partly irrigated. A survey was carried out in 2001. According to this survey, 9.4% of

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farmers that supplied NatureWorks irrigated their land (20 litres per kilogramme of Ingeo or 13.6 litres per kilogramme maize (15% moisture content). Note: water consumption does not yet pose an environmental problem. One example of a problem is a lowering of the water table or unmonitored irrigation and thus leaching of nutrients. Cultivation of sugar cane Sugar cane is a perennial plant that develops stalks of up to seven metres high and five centimetres thick with sugar-retaining pulp (7-20% sucrose). Sugar cane has a high demand for heat (optimum: 25-28°C), water (optimum: 1200-1500 mm rainfall) and nutrients and is often cultivated as a monoculture with utilisation lasting over several years (2 to 10 years). Depending on the location, variety and cultivation conditions, the plants require 80 to 200 kilogrammes of nitrogen per hectare and up to 350 kilogrammes of potassium per hectare. The phosphate fertilization is of less importance due to fungal floras that increase phosphate uptake. Sugar cane is harvested by hand or machine. Part of the manual harvesting process is the burning of fields. However, the proportion of manual labour will become less in the future, in Brazil at any rate (see section "Biodiversity/Air pollution"). [176] Sugar cane cultivation in Thailand Irrigation: In 2006, approx. 87% of sugar cane farmers produced in rain-fed crop land, whereas 13% irrigated their fields. Irrigation in Central Thailand is of the utmost importance, where 27% of the sugar cane farmers irrigate their fields. In all other regions, the proportion of sugar cane farmers who irrigate their fields is less than 3%. [052] Note: water consumption does not yet pose an environmental problem. One example of a problem is a lowering of the water table or unmonitored irrigation and thus leaching of nutrients. Crop rotation: The main crops in crop rotation are cassava or pineapple. Others are maize, rice and legume crops. The choice of fruit is always dependent on market prices and irrigation. In Thailand, sugar cane is generally planted three times in succession. Some farmers plant sugar cane up to six times in a row. [052] Energy: The bagasse resulting from ethanol production is dried and recycled as fuel (dual use). [052]

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Biodiversity/air pollution: Burning of sugar cane fields (to reduce the number of dangerous animals in the sugar cane fields and to simplify harvesting/transportation, as only the stalks are needed for the recovery of sugar/sugar cane and not the leaves) leads to a loss in biodiversity and to air pollution (smog, dust). Mechanical harvesting is environmentally friendly, but it is done at the expense of jobs. [034] On the other hand, however, jobs with higher qualifications and higher wages are also created. In Thailand, about 60% of the sugar cane is harvested by burning the fields. Corbion Purac The company Corbion Purac uses sugar cane from Thailand for the production of lactic acid and lactides. There is little information available regarding sugar cane cultivation for Carbion Purac. The company buys sugar from more than ten mills. The main part of the sugar demand is covered in the region, so that the transportation routes are kept as short as possible. [185] BASF A separate section on the webpage is dedicated to sustainability activities (environmental and social) by BASF. [090] Information on the acceptance of responsibility along the value chain can be viewed in the BASF Report 2013, from page 90 onwards. [117] This includes the following subject areas: suppliers, transportation, production and customers. Taghleef An environmental report was published in 2013. [089] For the Italian location, a certified "Quantification and Statement of Greenhouse Gas Emissions" pursuant to ISO 14064-1:2006 is available (cf. also section 1.3 "Certifications"). [089] A final report on the greenhouse gas emissions of the Hungarian production site was published in December 2010.

1.3 Certifications (cultivation and processing)

General: Environmental impacts can be evaluated and documented with sustainability certifications for cultivation. In the process, attention should be paid to using parameters relevant to the cultivation's environmental compatibility for the rating. The exclusion of GMOs is only included in one of the employed agricultural certification schemes in the criteria catalogue (Working Landscapes Certificate). Moreover, ISCC PLUS offers a "GMO-free" module that surpasses the standard certification.

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The following agricultural certifications currently apply to material manufacturers and converters: ISCC PLUS, Bonsurco, Working Landscapes Certificate (WLC). Moreover, there is the Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) certification. Under the title "The Search for Sustainability - Comparative Analysis of Certification Schemes for Biomass for Manufacturing Biofuels", the WWF published a comparison of various agricultural certification schemes (ISCC EU, Bonsucro) in 2013, in which the strengths and weaknesses of the individual systems were highlighted in detail: [230] The following forest certifications currently apply to material manufacturers and converters: FSC, PEFC and SFI. Note that in general certified products are not exclusively processed at certified companies. If the customer wishes certified goods, this must be contractually agreed upon. Agricultural certifications ISCC and ISCC PLUS: ISCC is a non-profit organisation. It is supported by the ISCC e.V., which includes more than 70 companies, scientific organisations, associations and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). ISCC is a global certification scheme applicable to all types of biomass and their applications; the goal is to detect ecological and social sustainability and greenhouse gas savings and traceability through the supply chain. ISCC PLUS is the voluntary certification scheme of ISCC for all types of biomass and its applications in the food and feed industry and the chemical industry (e.g. packaging and bioplastics). The ISCC PLUS system consists of a set of obligatory basic requirements. These include the sustainability requirements for agricultural land (ISCC-certified biomass may not be recovered in areas of high biodiversity, in carbon-rich soils or in peat bogs. Excluded are also areas of high conservation value) and requirements for the traceability of products. Safeguarding the origin by indicating the agricultural product's country of origin through the entire supply chain and other relevant information concerning each preceding delivery stage is prescribed. Although it is mandatory for some of these mandatory basic requirements to be be met for agricultural land certification (major musts), at least 60% of such requirements must be met for others (minor musts). Above and beyond the mandatory basic requirements, there are voluntary additional obligations that are available to companies as modules (so-called "add-ons"). Possible additional modules include environmental management and biodiversity, classified chemicals, requirements regarding

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greenhouse gas emissions or even a "GMO-free" module. In addition, ISCC includes social standards (respect for human rights, labour law and land utilisation rights). [073] [198] You can find the ISCC PLUS system documents here: [217] Bonsucro: Bonsucro is a global non-profit initiative that advocates the reduction of negative environmental and social impacts in sugar cane production. The core criteria must be fully met (100%) and other requirements must be met to 80%. In ecological terms, the core criteria refer to soil, forest, chemicals, as well as biodiversity and in the social field to human and labour rights, that are, for the most part, loosely based on the standards of the International Labour Organisation (ILO standards). The production standard can be viewed here: [074]. Working Landscapes Certificate (WLC): The Working Landscapes Certificate (WLC) programme was instituted by the Institute of Agriculture and Trade Policy (IATP), a non-governmental organisation (NGO) based in the US. Sustainable agricultural production is certified in relation to the biobased materials sector, including the bioplastic industry. The requirement that no GMO maize may be used is obligatory [231] Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB): The Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) is an international initiative that brings together farmers, companies, NGOs, experts, governments and inter-governmental bodies and is entrusted with safeguarding production sustainability and the processing of biomaterials. [214] The RSB certification includes environmental and social criteria and is based on a risk management approach. Various "chain of custody" options are offered (including, for example, 100% separation, mass balance). Moreover, it is possible to certify groups of producers. [215] The production standard can be viewed here: [216]. Forest certifications FSC - Forest Stewardship Council: FSC is an independent, non-governmental organisation that was founded in 1993 as a result of the "Environment and Development" conference in Rio de Janeiro. Today, the FSC is represented with national working groups in over 80 countries. The Council promotes environmentally friendly, socially beneficial and economically self-supporting management of forests. Ten principles and 56 indicators

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were developed for this purpose; the internationally-valid FSC standards on forest management are based on these. You can find the German FSC standard here: [122] The FSC employs the product Chain of Custody (COC) tool to ensure that products carrying the FSC label are actually manufactured from the corresponding raw materials. For this purpose, every company in the product chain from forest to end customer must establish an in-house procedure to ensure that the FSC certified material can be identified at any time. The certification excludes genetically modified trees. [123] FSC is the only forest certification scheme accepted by the WWF. [210] PEFC - Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes: The certification scheme for sustainable forest management (PEFC) as regards content is based on international resolutions of the follow-up conferences to the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio. In Europe, these are the criteria and indicators that were adopted by 37 nations in the course of the pan-European process at the Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (Helsinki, 1993, Lisbon 1998, Vienna 2003). PEFC added a number of points to this requirements catalogue in 2010: no conversion of natural forests to plantations, no genetically modified organisms, special protection of the rights of indigenous peoples, etc. This catalogue is part of the PEFC Council International's Technical Document (PEFC Council) that formalizes the requirements for forest certification schemes and standards. This must be met at the national level in order to be recognised by the PEFCC. Moreover, other forest certification schemes are recognised worldwide, provided that they are credible, voluntary and transparent and do not discriminate against forest owners. The certification excludes genetically modified trees. Document "Chain of Custody of Forest Based Products - Requirements": [124] Guidelines for the establishment of a chain of custody certification scheme: [125] SFI - Certified Managed Forestry: SFI Inc. is an independent non-governmental organisation (NGO) that promotes sustainable forest management. SFI works with conservation organisations, local communities, landowners and other organisations and individuals. The standard is based on principles that promote sustainable forest management. It includes measures to protect quality, biodiversity, wildlife habitats and endangered species, as well as forests that merit a particularly high level of protection. The standard is widely used in North America. The standard also includes social criteria. [087] Standard documents 2015-2019: [126]

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The objective of the "Initiative for the Sustainable Provision of Raw Materials for Material Utilisation of Biomass" (INGOs) is to reach an agreement with industrial companies for the voluntary certification of renewable raw materials through to primary processing. INGO sustainability criteria: [075]

Material/manufacturer-specific: In case of companies with cultivation certifications it is necessary to ensure that certified goods

are only delivered at the customer's request. NatureWorks For its current location in Blair, NatureWorks is certified according to ISCC PLUS (International Sustainability and Carbon Certification). This certification is also sought for the intended site in Thailand. If a customer wants to participate in this programme, the company concludes contracts with farmers who are independently audited and certified according to the ISCC PLUS criteria. A certain harvest quantity equivalent to the customer's request is purchased after that; this quantity is not processed separately but is mixed with the remaining maize to be processed. [181] Since ISCC includes a chain of custody certification, the entire delivery quantity can be traced throughout the supply chain via a mass balance accounting system, up to the equivalent certified amount of maize that was produced and delivered to the mill. [038] Corbion Purac The majority of the ethanol is sourced from Thailand. Corbion Purac is a member of Bonsucro and SEDEX. The suppliers (sugar cane mills) are encouraged to become certified according to both standards (see 2.1 Social standards during cultivation). Currently, however, no Corbion Purac supplier is certified according to Bonsucro (status 2014). Corbion Purac itself is also not currently Bonsurco certified (note: a Bonsurco membership is not synonymous with a certification) and can therefore not offer the use of certified ethanol for manufacturing its products (status 2014). BASF Both international external and in-house standards are complied with. The BASF report from p. 95 and following and the BASF webpage provide information. [117] [090] Taghleef The company is certified according to ISO 14001 for various worldwide locations.

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1.4 Genetic engineering

General: Pursuant to EC Eco basic regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 Art. 9 the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in organic products is not allowed in agricultural production or during processing. An overwhelming majority of consumers in Germany also rejects GMOs in food (cf. Eco-barometer [228]). The use of GMOs in agriculture, in particular, is regarded very critically, because biodiversity is endangered as a result and conventional products can be contaminated by mixing. Moreover, the use of GMOs may lead to a strong dependence on seed companies (monopoly structure). In order to preserve the freedom from GMOs in organic products and to keep contamination as low as possible, manufacturers and distributors of organic foods reject the use of GMOs in packaging material. Food manufacturers see their credibility under threat with the use of GMOs in packaging material. As a consequence, the use of packaging materials containing GMOs in the organic sector is, for the most part, not desirable. The two main pathways include the cultivation of GMO plants as an agricultural raw material for manufacturing packaging and the utilisation of GMOs in the course of the manufacturing of packaging materials (e.g. through the use of additives). GMO cultivation is currently only in the field of biobased plastic packaging that is manufactured on the basis of maize (US) (status 2014).

Material/manufacturer-specific: If maize from the USA is used for manufacturing PLA, it is highly likely that it is GMO maize. An

assessment specific to region and manufacturer must be carried out. NatureWorks The majority of the procured raw material is GMO maize. Eurofins GeneScan independently guarantees via analyses that no GMOs are detectable in PLA. No distinction is made between GMO and non-GMO maize when maize is stored for industrial-scale manufacturing of lactic acid and the two are therefore mixed. The so-called "source offset" option offers an interesting possibility: This option allows the PLA purchaser to promote the cultivation of conventional non-GMO maize. The principle is known from the renewable energy market. The PLA manufacturer, in this case NatureWorks, undertakes to obtain the amount of maize starch needed for manufacturing the delivery amount of PLA stipulated by contract from conventional non-GM cultivation. The cultivation of non-GMO maize is thus supported - even if mixing of GMO maize and non-GMO maize takes place during the subsequent lactic acid polymerization in the plant. The option to purchase GMO-free products with guarantee of origin remains in place. This would

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make an intermediate cleaning of the works necessary, which would not be economical at current low purchase volumes. Accordingly, this option is not used at present. [097] Corbion Purac The manufacturer offers a European non-GMO alternative to PLA with specific processing properties, where lactic acid is produced from the raw material sugar cane. The prices are approximately EUR 2 per kilogramme for PLA, similar to NatureWorks, and about EUR 2.50 per kilogramme for heat-stable PLA. The raw material is mainly sourced from Thailand and processed in Gorinchem (Netherlands) and Rayong (Thailand). The production volume is approx. 300,000 tons per year (status 2014).

1.5 End of life options or practice (recycling, composting)

General: During the disposal of biobased plastics, carbon absorbed by the plants (biogenic carbon) is released again, whereas during the disposal of fossil-based plastics, "additional" carbon as released into the atmosphere as CO2. Four disposal routes are identified: Thermal disposal In Germany, the majority of plastic waste is disposed of in waste incineration plants. At present, a very well-developed recycling system is only available for PET bottles. Film remnants of all kinds that are smaller than A4 are added to the mixed plastic fraction (MKF) and are burned. During thermal disposal, a small proportion of energy is recovered. This means that there is - albeit short - cascade utilisation. (The material and ultimately the energetic utilisation of a raw material for as long as possible over several stages is referred to as cascade utilisation or multiple utilisation). The publication "Disposal Routes and Recycling Options of Products from biobased Polymers from the Post-consumer Sector" from Knoten Weimar GmbH provides a good overview of disposal and recycling: [218] Knoten Weimar GmbH is an engineering company operating internationally that develops and provides optimal solutions for improving infrastructure in the field of recycling and disposal (waste, waste water, energy) for the concrete specific situation on site from an ecological and socio-economic point of view. Recycling Post-consumer recycling: recycling of biobased plastics that are not identical in terms of structure (including PLA, cellulose-based plastics, starch blends) has not been realised on an industrial scale

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until now. The reasons for this lie in the mass fluxes that remain low and in the anticipated costs associated with setting up sorting systems in addition to those for PET, PP, PE and PS. At present, the biopolymers found in low quantities in the waste streams are assigned to the group of so-called mixed plastics (MKS). The economic benefit of recycling materials of a single type or of only one sort depends on many factors, including the revenue situation for the material to be disposed of or recycled, the sort of polymer, the market price for the corresponding recyclate, raw material prices and the necessary sorting and processing technology. [032] The technical capability to recycle other materials separately, in particular of PLA by means of near-infra-red spectroscopy, already exists today with the appropriate equipment. [014] [202]. Feelings of resentment towards the new plastics are harboured especially on the part of the disposer who on the one hand fears costs associated with setting up the new systems and on the other hand views the mixing with conventional plastics with a great deal of scepticism. The following problems are anticipated: pollution of industrial process water and a rise in the biological oxygen demand (BOD value) during washing processes, flotation, sink-float separation methods. [013] Moreover, it is important to note that manufacturers prefer composting when disposing of starch blends and cellulose-based plastics. Both materials degrade well, although to date the decomposition of PLA has not been fully achieved even in industrial plants if dwell times are not reached. Feedstock recycling could be an alternative to mechanical recycling if materials are available in sufficient quantities. A clear advantage of lactic acid plastics such as PLA is that they can be hydrolytically decomposed into their building blocks relatively easily. New bioplastics can be subsequently manufactured from these. Contaminants from food scraps, paper and aluminium lids etc. are critical here [013] Pre-consumer recycling: for economic reasons alone, recycling of internal production waste has already been put into practice in many companies for years. For example, companies recycle their PLA waste. Difficulties in repeated crushing and feedback in the recovered substance cycle have only been reported in a few cases. [014] A good overview of disposal routes and recycling options for products from biobased polymers from the post-consumer sector can be found at KNOTEN WEIMAR GmbH. [201] Composting (see also 1.3 certifications) Definition of terms biodegradability

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"Biodegradable plastics are polymer materials that are mainly decomposed into biomass and inorganic substances under defined conditions within a specified time by microorganisms and/or fungi. Various standards exist for the exact underlying condition, e.g. DIN EN 13432 and ASTM D6400, which are specially designed for the decomposition in industrial composting facilities. Differences can primarily be found in the degree of degradation and in the periods of time available for this." [002] There are various guidelines for the certification of biodegradability of materials in composting facilities, all of which are based on both of the aforementioned standards and confirmed by several organisations with the appropriate certification mark. The DIN CERTCO (Society for Conformity Assessment mbH) and the AIB-Vinçotte with the "seedling" and "OK Compost" certification marks play a leading role in Germany and the European area in this regard. [002] DIN EN 13432 - "Requirements for Packaging recoverable through Composting and Biodegradation": This European standard ensures that the product can be composted industrially and that not only the plastic itself, but also all the other product components are compostable, e.g. colours, labels, adhesives, food residues. [086] ASTM D6400 - "Standard Specification for Compostable Plastics": This American standard ensures that the product can be composted industrially. In contrast to DIN EN 13432, a degradation rate of 60% within 180 days is prescribed. DIN EN 13432 stipulates a degradation rate of 90%. More specific information can be viewed here: [002] There are two certifiers for biodegradability, DIN CERTCO Gesellschaft für Konformitätsbewertung mbH [115] and the AIB-Vinçotte (Europe) [114]: The Vincotte certification "OK Compost" or "OK Compost Home" certifies the biodegradability of materials in industrial plants or at low ambient temperatures such as in garden compost. DIN CERTCO awards the "seedling" certification mark. [002] [114] [115] You can find more information concerning the standards, certifications and labels in the field of composting here: [113] The Biowaste Ordinance (Ordinance on the Utilisation of Biowastes on Land used for Agricultural, Silvicultural and Horticultural Purposes (Bioabfallverordnung – BioAbfV)) describes which waste is permitted for disposal via the composting bin. Any plastic packaging with the exception of biowaste collecting bags is not permitted. The public waste management organisation on site decides whether

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to permit the disposal of the bag via the organic waste container. Many municipalities have explicitly forbidden this. In many composting facilities in Germany, all plastics are currently being sorted anyway, because no distinction can be made between biodegradable and conventional plastics. Industrial composting always requires an energy input. It is disputable if the rotten material promotes growth in the soil. [013] Since the biodegradable plastics usually contain no nutrients (e.g. P and N), they do not contribute to the nutrient supply via compost. [210] The decomposition (rotting) is dependent on the type of plastic, additives and veneers. [013] Inadequate decomposition arising during composting can prove problematic at times. One reason for this is that the dwell time in the system is often too short [013] Fermentation Fermentation constitutes a further way to dispose of biodegradable plastics. Advantages of fermentation compared to composting include,for example, lower emissions of methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) and nitrous oxide (laughing gas) (N2O), the use of plastic waste through anaerobic fermentation and gas utilisation in thermal power stations or in the natural gas grid. [211] At present, recycling in a biogas plant only sometimes leads to a significant ecological advantage. [219] Studies on the topic of fermentation:

• Endres, H-J., Kitzler, A-S. (2013): Multiple utilisation of biopolymer materials. Hochschule Hannover, IfBB. [031]

• Dinkel, F., Kägi, T. (2013): Life cycle assessment disposal BAW. Environmental comparison of biodegradable materials BAW: Disposal in a MWIP vs. disposal in a biogas plant. Carbotech AG [219]

• Grundmann, V., Wonschik, C-R. (2011): Hydrolysis and anaerobic co-fermentation of various biodegradable plastics. Müll und Abfall. 07/2011. [220]

Material/manufacturer-specific: Material recycling of PLA blends has not taken place on an industrial scale until now due to the

small available quantity. Composting is not currently regulated by law in a uniform manner. Manufacturers therefore recommended composting together with food residues, for example, to prevent landfilling or to

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facilitate agricultural work, for example (mulch films for agricultural applications).

The basis for awarding the "case-by-case assessment" (yellow), therefore represents the legal situation regarding composting in Germany or the lack of recycling systems and not the end of life options offered by manufacturers. Recycling In principle, PLA blends may be recycled chemically or mechanically, provided that there are sufficient quantities. PLA blends are currently sorted and then enter the mixed plastic fraction and are burned to produce energy. Sorting with infrared is easily possible for PLA blends, depending on the state of the technology of the facility. [202] [013] In principle, biopolymer film materials such as materials made of PLA-copolyester blends may contaminate the existing recycling routes of typical film materials such as PE. However, bioplastics in rigid bottles, deep drawn trays or cup applications such as PLA blends would mainly disrupt the PET and PS streams. [014] Even so, it is important to note that beverage bottles made of PLA blends are not currently used in Germany and as a result there is virtually no risk of contamination (status 2014). [201] A current controversial question regards the percentage of admixture of bioplastics to conventional plastics is unproblematic. Contamination of PET by PLA blends (which is albeit very unlikely at the present time (status 2014)) seems to be problematic with considerably smaller amounts compared to contamination of PE. [201] PLA blends with a density of more than 1 g/cm3 are sorted out as impurities and residual materials and thus do not enter the downstream recycling process and are therefore also not relevant in relation to recycling disruptions. It is different with PLA blends having a density of less than 1 g/cm3, which enter the recycling process and may then disrupt it. [201] The "European Bioplastics" association specifies that contamination of PE with up to 10% compostable plastics has little effect on the material properties and appearance. [029] [030] As one example, the association refers to recycling experiments by the company Biotec, which did not detect any problems relating to the mechanical properties of most Biotec film applications. NatureWorks specifies that Ingeo can be recycled, composted and fermented. Composting is possible if the following conditions are met: temperatures above 60°C, 95% air humidity and the presence of microorganisms. The material should be shredded and mixed with other material. Fermentation is useful in thermophilic dry systems with high temperatures (production of methane). Composting

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NatureWorks specifies that the end products that are made from 100% Ingeo and are compostable in municipal and industrial plants according to the following standards: DIN V 54900-1 (Germany), DIN EN 13432 (EU), ASTM 6400-04 (USA), GreenPla (Japan). [082] BASF: The option preferred by the company and is composting that is classified as "organic recycling" according to EU directives. Ecoflex® and ecovio® are certified according to DIN EN 13432, ASTM D6400, ISO 20200 and Vincotte ("OK Compost" and "OK Compost Home"). You can find a diagram with further information here: [039] In view of the current limited volume of compostable plastics, according to BASF the best alternative recycling method is combustion, if composting is not possible. Mechanical recycling of production waste resulting during production is possible and state of the art. Coveris: Coveris specifies that the raw materials used are certified according to DIN EN 13432. The co-extruded PLA blend is also compostable, i.e. it can be certified according to DIN EN 13432. [081] FKUR: According to FKuR, the in-house recycling of production waste arising during production or rejections during separation of material of only one sort is possible without any problems. The new goods can be mixed with up to 20% regranulate depending on the application. Many Bio-Flex® types are certified pursuant to DIN EN 13432 and ASTM D6400 and are thus classified as compostable materials (industrial composting). [192] Taghleef: The company chemically recycles its own PLA production waste. An addition of the recycled material to the process is possible up to a proportion of 50%, if the PLA is dried at low temperatures and is cooled to a maximum of 50°C.

1.6 Environmental life cycle assessments

General: As a rule, it is difficult to compare environmental life cycle assessments, as no uniform criteria are used. There are differences, e.g. in the system boundaries (cradle to gate/grave etc.), in the impact categories considered (e.g. eutrophication, acidification) and, in part, in terms of geography. The results of the environmental life cycle assessments must therefore be considered in a more differentiated way. [006] In the environmental life cycle assessments concerning bioplastics that have been made publicly

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available to date, topics relevant to environmental assessment such as biodiversity, changes in indirect land utilisation and extensiveness/intensity of cultivation have often not been included. Nevertheless, there are overall trends when all available results are considered. For example, a relatively consistent picture emerges when the respective advantages and disadvantages of the impact categories are considered: In the categories greenhouse gas potential, fossil fuel consumption and summer smog, there are almost always advantages of bioplastics over fossil-based plastics, whereas negative balances typically arise in the eutrophication and acidification categories - with some exceptions. The (mostly) conventional cultivation of plants and associated fertilisation and application of pesticides is a key factor. In terms of land use and fresh water removal, biobased plastics naturally have higher consumption values than plastics made from fossil raw materials. However, the associated environmental impacts are strongly dependent on the type of land use (e.g. intensive use in monoculture versus extensive use in organic farming) and on the local availability of the resource water. [006] Management in view of ecological aspects could offset many of the negative factors here and would therefore be an interesting option for the future. When it comes to environmental life cycle assessments, it is generally assumed that bioplastics still do not fare better than conventional plastics and often they even do worse. One should bear in mind, however, that manufacturing of bioplastics is still in its infancy and has a large potential for development, so that significantly more efficient manufacturing will be possible in the future. Moreover, factors such a environmental damage caused by oil drilling or the negative impacts on ecosystems in mining areas (and even considering the repercussions of war, etc.) have to date been systematically overlooked when conventional plastics are considered. A comprehensive study entitled "Investigation of the Environmental Impacts of Packaging made of Biodegradable Plastics" was conducted by ifeu - Institute for Energy and Environmental Research Heidelberg GmbH on behalf of the German Federal Environment Agency. As part of this research, biodegradable packing materials were environmentally rated to enable a definitive statement on the ecological importance of biodegradable plastics compared to conventional plastics. [006] In the area of films, the study concluded that: Ifeu estimates that bioplastic films do not show any advantages in terms of the overall ecological situation compared to conventional films at present (status 2012). But: "If the optimisation potential that has already been identified is completely implemented [e.g. reduction of the film thickness,

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improvement in material production, energy savings through processing at low temperatures], bioplastic films could be ecologically at least equivalent or even better ". [006] A challenge for the future will be the most effective utilisation of raw materials. The environmental effects must be the focus during the utilisation of raw materials in order to minimise environmental effects in case of a sharp rise in volumes. Factors that would have a positive effect on the life cycle assessment include a higher yield per unit area, lack of agricultural inputs (fertilisers, pesticides, diesel), high process efficiency, low energy consumption, high material efficiency (less waste), an optimal material usage (e.g. small film thicknesses, etc.) and short transport distances. Material/manufacturer-specific: Meta study of ifeu - Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg GmbH on behalf of the German Federal Environment Agency [006] Cups/closable bowls: "Ifeu estimates that rigid packaging made of PLA has no overall ecological benefit under the current status quo, but no disadvantage can be derived from this either. (Note: all life cycle assessments refer to the manufacturing of Ingeo in the midwestern United States). The relatively high environmental contamination by sulphur oxide, nitrogen oxide and particulate matter emissions are characterised by the local high proportion of coal-fired power." The crucial production process in the impact category acidification potential is the lactic acid production for PLA manufacturing (above-average amounts are largely derived from sulphuric acid upstream chain). This process will have significantly lower environmental impacts in the future (reduced energy and process resource requirements and improved process yield). NatureWorks NatureWorks PLA prepares its life cycle assessments based on primary data concerning resource and energy consumption and emissions, which the company collects every three years in the form of an "Eco profile" (2003, 2006, 2010, 2014). Unlike other companies, NatureWorks makes this data available online for download. [061] NatureWorks has continually improved its life cycle assessment since the beginning of production. Today, 60% fewer greenhouse gases are produced and 50% less non-renewable energy is consumed than with petroleum-based PET or PS that is being replaced (status 2010). To the Eco profile 2014: [225] BASF LCAs exist for carrier bags and mulch films.

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Corbion Purac A cradle-to-gate LCA was published in 2010. It includes cultivation, sugar cane milling, production of auxiliary chemicals, transportation and production of lactides and PLAs. The LCA can be viewed here: [053] Taghleef Taghleef has prepared a LCA with five categories for products manufactured at the Italian location. The following categories were included: raw material production, raw material processing, raw material distribution, use and disposal, including all transportation steps. [089] A "Quantification and Statement of Greenhouse Gas Emissions" was prepared for the Italian location pursuant to 14064-1:2006 in 2010. [089]

1.7 Biobased content General: Biobased polymers and plastics are technical polymers and consist, in whole or in part, of biomass, i.e. of material of biological origin, e.g. from renewable raw materials and fossil and geological sources are excluded. [224] The biobased content of bioplastics generally varies considerably - both between and within the respective bioplastic groups. Whereas in case of PET the PlantBottleTM from Coca-Cola has biobased content of between 14% (with a content of 25% recycled PET in the PlantBottleTM-PET) and 30% (without recycled PET in the PlantBottleTM-PET), contents of over 80% in case of biomass-based PE, PLA and cellulose regenerates. Manufacturers often provide detailed information regarding the content of biobased raw materials on their websites or in the product data sheets. Different quantities of additives are added depending on the desired requirements on the material's processability and the finished product's properties. Information on the biobased content and on additives must be obtained from the respective manufacturer depending on the product type. In addition, the IfBB Hanover lists several manufacturers and their products and their material compositions. [077] It is necessary to exercise care in using mixed plastics (blends). All components must be checked to verify the magnitude of the biobased content. Certification of biobased carbon content - AIB Vinçotte (Europe) [114]/USDA's BioPreferred program

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(USA) [051] These certifications ensure that a certain percentage of the carbon in the polymer is of biobased origin (according to the C14 method). AIB Vinçotte is an independent certification based on the ASTM D6866 standard. Depending on the biogenic content, AIB Vinçotte ("OK biobased" label) awards one to four stars for content of more than 20, 40, 60 and 80 mass percent of renewable raw materials. [002]

Material/manufacturer-specific: The PLA material has very high biobased content.

It is, however, also used more often in blends; it is then necessary to take into account the biobased content of the blends. Specific levels are available from the following companies NatureWorks (Ingeo): 99.7% biobased content Taghleef (Nativia): >80% biobased content FKUR (Bio-FLEX®, compounds based on PLA): 10 to 90% biobased content; objective of current developments is to increase the biobased content of all products to at least 50% BASF (ecovio®, Ecoflex/PLA blend): about 10 to above 95% biobased content

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Rating

Criteria

Data

Criteria

Attention

2 Social acceptability The rating for the social acceptability criterion refers to the presence of social standards during cultivation and processing. This can be internationally accepted guidelines, national legal standards or private commercial standards. Land from which the raw goods originate or where the processing takes place is used as the basis for the rating. There is a distinction between countries or continents where a comprehensive social legislation exists (e.g. USA, Europe) and countries where this is not the case or the issue is only inadequately addressed (developing and emerging countries). Compliance with social criteria must be scrutinised with a particularly critical eye among manufacturers outside of areas classified as unobjectionable.

2.1 Social standards in cultivation

General: There are different legal guidelines for social standards in different countries. In addition, there are private commercial environmental and social standards. Listed below are applied environmental and social standards, which include social criteria to a greater or lesser extent. The following certifications currently apply to monomer manufacturers and compounders/converters: ISCC PLUS, Bonsucro, SEDEX management tool for suppliers, SFI certified managed forestry, FSC (Forest Stewardship Council), PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes). ISCC PLUS ISCC PLUS monitors compliance with the Renewable Energy Directive (Directive 2009/28/EC) and the Biomass Sustainability Ordinance (BSO, Biomasse-Nachhaltigkeitsverordnung, BioNachV), and is recognised by the Federal Office for Agriculture and Food (Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung, BLE) and applicable worldwide. The main focus is on a reduction in greenhouse gas, sustainable management of land and protection of the natural habitat. ISCC-certified biomass may not be recovered in areas of high biodiversity, in carbon-rich soils or in peat bogs. Areas of high conservation value are also excluded. ISCC also includes social standards. [073]

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Bonsucro Bonsucro is a global non-profit initiative that advocates the reduction of negative environmental and social impacts in sugar cane production. There are core criteria that must be fully met (100%) and other requirements, which must be met to 80%. In ecological terms, the core criteria refer to soil, forest, chemicals, as well as biodiversity and in the social field to human and labour rights, that are, for the most part, loosely based on the standards of the International Labour Organisation (ILO standards). The production standard can be viewed here: [074]. SEDEX - Management tool for suppliers Sedex is a non-profit organisation committed to responsible and ethical business practices in global supply chains. The main service is an online database that allows members to store, share and report information in four core areas (labour standards, health and safety, environmental and business ethics). Users can evaluate the efforts of their suppliers and compare them with the requirements of recognised standards, such as the ILO standards, ETI Base Code, SA8000, ISO14001 and industry-specific codes of conduct. An in-house standard does not exist. [076]

SFI - Certified Managed Forestry SFI Inc. is an independent non-governmental organisation (NGO) that promotes sustainable forest management. SFI works with conservation organisations, local communities, landowners and other organisations and individuals. The standard is based on principles that promote sustainable forest management. In the social field, it includes, for example, the following core conventions of the ILO standards: freedom of association, collective bargaining, anti-discrimination, etc. [172] [173]. The standard is widely used in North America. Standard documents 2015-2019: [126] FSC - Forest Stewardship Council FSC is an independent, non-governmental organisation that was founded in 1993 as a result of the "Environment and Development" conference in Rio de Janeiro. Today, the FSC is represented with national working groups in over 80 countries. The Council promotes environmentally friendly, socially beneficial and economically self-supporting management of forests. Ten principles and 56 indicators were developed for this purpose; the internationally-valid FSC standards on forest management are based on these.

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You can find the FSC standard here: [122] The FSC employs the product Chain of Custody (COC) instrument to ensure that products carrying the FSC label are actually manufactured from the corresponding raw materials. For this purpose, every company in the product chain from forest to end customer must establish an in-house procedure to ensure that the FSC certified material can be identified at any time [123]. PEFC - Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes: The certification scheme for sustainable forest management (PEFC) as regards content is based on international resolutions of the follow-up conferences to the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio. In Europe, these are the criteria and indicators that were adopted by 37 nations in the course of the pan-European process at the Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (Helsinki, 1993, Lisbon 1998, Vienna 2003). PEFC added a number of points to this requirements catalogue in 2010: no conversion of natural forests to plantations, no genetically modified organisms, special protection of the rights of indigenous peoples, etc. This catalogue is part of the PEFC Council International's Technical Document (PEFC Council) that formalizes the requirements for forest certification schemes and standards. This must be met at the national level in order to be recognised by the PEFCC. Moreover, other forest certification schemes are recognised worldwide, provided that they are credible, voluntary and transparent and do not discriminate against forest owners. Topics dealt with include health protection, occupational safety and social affairs that are based on the ILO statement on fundamental principles and rights at work. Document "Chain of Custody of Forest Based Products - Requirements": [124] Guidelines for the establishment of a chain of custody certification scheme: [125] Material/manufacturer-specific: The rating must be carried out specifically according to cultivation area and standard. In addition to international standards, proprietary social standards exist. NatureWorks For its current location in Blair, the company is certified according to ISCC PLUS (International Sustainability and Carbon Certification). This certification is also sought for the intended site in Thailand. Corbion Purac

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The majority of the ethanol is sourced from Thailand. Corbion Purac is a member of Bonsucro and SEDEX. The suppliers (sugar cane mills) are encouraged to become certified according to both standards. Currently, however, no Corbion Purac supplier is certified according to Bonsucro (status 2014). Corbion Purac itself is also not currently Bonsurco certified (note: a membership is not synonymous with a certification) and can therefore not offer the use of certified ethanol for manufacturing its products (status 2014). Some of the larger suppliers are members of SEDEX and some also supply sugar to larger brand companies, e.g. the beverage industry, which is why they set up their own codes of conduct that include social and environmental aspects. A code of conduct is available, although it is not certified by an independent third party. [058] According to the statement from Corbion Purac, minimum wages are set by law in Thailand. Apart from this, no further information is available regarding the Thai social standards. [185] Number and organisation of Thai sugar mills 51 sugar mills were in operation in 2014. Some mills are state-owned while others are private. In 2006, there were 46 mills: four large mills with a capacity of more than 24,000 tons of sugar cane per day, 16 mid-sized mills (12,000 to 24,000 tons per day) and 26 small mills (less than 12,000 tons per day). About 80% of all Thai sugar cane suppliers were small businesses with less than 10 hectares. [052] BASF A separate section on the BASF webpage is dedicated to sustainability activities in the social field. [090] In particular, the company conducts studies known as Seebalances (sustainability studies similar to life cycle assessments but which also take into account social factors and costs). Although they are not certifications, they can be utilised for these. Information on the acceptance of responsibility along the value chain can be viewed in the BASF Report 2013, from page 90 onwards. [117] This includes the following subject areas: suppliers, transportation, production and customers. Taghleef The company has an Ethics Code for the Italian location. [088]

2.2 Social standards during processing

General: The following certifications apply: SEDEX, SHI code of conduct and OHSAS 18001. SEDEX - Management tool for suppliers

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Sedex is a non-profit organisation committed to responsible and ethical business practices in global supply chains. The main service is an online database that allows members to store, share and report information in four core areas (labour standards, health and safety, environmental and business ethics). Users can evaluate the efforts of their suppliers and compare them with the requirements of recognised standards, such as the ILO standards, ETI Base Code, SA8000, ISO14001 and industry-specific codes of conduct. An in-house standard does not exist. [076]

SHI code of conduct The body responsible for the code of conduct is the General Association of the Plastics Processing Industry (Gesamtverband Kunststoffverarbeitende Industrie e.V.). Obligations in the fields environmental protection, ensuring health and safety at work, child and forced labor, human rights, wages and working hours are the subject of discussion. [048] OHSAS 18001 - Occupational Health & Safety Advisory Services "[The BS OHSAS 18001] (...) is a British standard that closely follows the ISO 9001 (quality) and ISO 14001 (environment) and defines requirements for a professional occupational health and safety management. The BS OHSAS 18001 is the best known and most significant standard for occupational health and safety management and has international acclaim. [112] "The focus of the occupational health and safety management OHSAS 18001 is on the protection of people, occupational safety and health care. Through preventative measures in occupational health and safety management, employees are able to take the necessary measures before an accident or illness occurs. "[098] Material/manufacturer-specific:

The different standards must be observed; similarly, it is important to note whether a company is independently certified. NatureWorks NatureWorks produces in the USA. The American social standards apply for this reason. Corbion Purac Corbion Purac produces lactic acid and lactide in Gorinchem (Netherlands) and Rajong (Thailand). Polymerisation is carried out by the companies Synbry (Netherlands), Hisun (China) and Supla (China). The company has its own Code of Conduct, which is not certified by independent third parties. [058]

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BASF A separate section on the webpage is dedicated to sustainability activities in the social field. [090] Information on the acceptance of responsibility along the value chain can be viewed in the BASF Report 2013, from page 90 onwards. [117] This includes the following subject areas: suppliers, transportation, production and customers. FKuR A certification according to the GKV Code of Conduct is available since 2012. [093] Taghleef Taghleef is certified to according to BS OHSAS 18001 and is a member of SEDEX. [186] Wentus A certification according to the GKV Code of Conduct is available.

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Criteria Data

Criteria

Attention

3. Safety and technology

The security criterion focuses on the safety for the consumer. Migration potentials are the primary consideration. The technological processability of packaging material is rated in the field of technology. Can it be processed with conventional machines? Which adjustments need be taken into account where appropriate? Are there any drawbacks regarding quality, processing speed or shelf-life? Although there is already much data and practical applications are known for classic packaging produced from sustainable raw materials such as paper, application tests must be conducted for the newer packing materials made from sustainable raw materials such as PLA, PHA or starch blends, as the base data set is too small. Very comprehensive data are available for the biomass-based packing materials such as Bio-PE, Bio-PP and Bio-PET, as these have the same properties as the classical plastics. [057] [133] [134]

3.1 Migration and interactions

General: Comprehensive informational material such as specifications, safety data sheets, analyses and application conditions as well as the packaged good must be considered in order to be able to estimate migrations and interactions. [057] [133] [134] Packaging that comes into contact with food must comply with Regulation (EU) no. 10/2011 and guidelines mentioned in Section 4.1. Direct contacts with the manufacturer and knowledge regarding the significant formulation components of packaging are indispensable for assessing potential risks. A documented risk assessment must be performed for the packaging material. In addition to the main packing material components, components of small content are relevant, in particular when a lot of packing material is used in relation to filling material or when high migration potentials are known.

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Material/manufacturer-specific: PLA consists almost exclusively of polylactic acid. Since PLA is very brittle without additives, various additives are added to the material, depending on the application. It can thus be processed better. NatureWorks: On its website, NatureWorks lists the kinds of additives that are usually used. [060] [143] These are mainly stabilisers, colourants, UV blockers, nucleating agents and process auxiliary materials. NatureWorks makes recommendations for suppliers of additives, but also recommends consulting other suppliers. In the process used by NatureWorks, polylactide is polymerised by using a catalyst from dilactide. [071] NatureWorks has received FDA approval for PLA. With a view to the Regulation (EU) No. 10/2011, NatureWorks instructs users to check if requirements are met regarding the migration from manufacturers and users for the respective application.

Safety Data Sheets are available for download on the manufacturer NatureWorks' website. [060] Since PLA offers a great many application possibilities, it is advisable to communicate directly with the manufacturer regarding application conditions to obtain an assessment of each intended application. A great deal of information can be taken from the company's website; the database available there only includes general information. Other sources of information in the form of literature and websites are mentioned. [060] [062] [065] For films: If additives against fogging are used, the conformity of these additives must be checked, as these are surface-active. The additives can be added to the master batch or may be applied as a surface coating. The static charge must be taken into account and reduced by introducing mechanical precautions during processing. Good results have been achieved with water-containing coatings [060]. Glycerol esters and metal salts are used for laminates with cellophane, corresponding to the FDA guidelines. For containers: The addition of an oxygen absorber is possible for specific product applications (headspace oxygen absorbers in bottles, absorbers for packaging with barrier layer).

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3.2 Mechanical requirements

General: Although there is already much data and practical applications are known for classic packaging produced from sustainable raw materials such as paper, application tests must be conducted for the newer packing materials made from sustainable raw materials such as PLA, PHA or starch blends, as the base data set is too small. Very comprehensive data are available for the drop-in solutions (biomass-based plastics such as Bio-PE, Bio-PP and Bio-PET), as these have the same properties as the classical plastics.

Material/manufacturer-specific: Processing can be done in classical processing machines (extrusion). [203] The processing temperatures are highly variable, depending on the PLA structure, and are in the range 100-180°C. The sealing temperatures must be controlled accordingly. Thus an important machine requirement is the possibility to control the temperature of the system precisely. NatureWorks: Ingeo is a semi-crystalline polymer with very low rates of crystallization. The processing in crystallisation plants is generally not possible. If the product is heated, degradation occurs in the presence of water as a result of the amorphous structure. For this reason, all products must be thoroughly pre-dried. The recycled product is often crystallised prior to processing. A water content target value of less than 250ppm is needed. The low resistance to ethyl acetate (EtOAc), which is used in many printing methods, should be observed. Beyond 2% EtOAc, the layers may start to adhere to eachother. The manufacturer makes suggestions concerning suitable inks and packaging materials to be used for lamination. [060] Another problem is the low stability against isopropanol. Corbion Purac: Two PLA variants are offered. (Amorphous) standard PLA with low heat stability, which is produced from a mixture of D- and L-lactic acid. This material also degrades in the presence of water when heat is applied due to the amorphous structure. In addition, there is a heat stable variant that is manufactured from D-lactic acid (homopolymers) using special technology. According to the manufacturer, this material is stable at temperatures of up to 180°C. Pre-drying is also necessary here. Processing temperatures are at 90-100°C for injection moulding. [062]

3.3 Barriere-eigenschaften

General: The barrier properties of packaging material are of considerable importance for the application.

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These properties can be significantly influenced by blends, lamination and subsequent treatments. The filling material as well as processing and storage conditions must also be taken into account. [065] [148] Material/manufacturer-specific: The water vapour permeability of the PLA is at 20-80g/m2d pursuant to DIN 53122. Furthermore, oxygen permeability is at 500-600 cm3/(m2*d*bar) and carbon dioxide permeability range from 2500-3500 cm3/(m2*d*bar. [085] The desired material properties can be achieved by appropriate film finishes such as laminates.

Manufacturers as well as compounders provide appropriate data material. [065]

3.4 Miscellaneous Since PLA is already used in various applications, the packaging manufacturers have practical experience with various applications. Since these tests are frequently carried out in close cooperation with the food manufacturers, this information is not always available to the public. Here it is advisable to work closely with the packaging manufacturers. A prerequisite for the manufacturing of application-oriented blends is that sufficient quantities are removed. [033]

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4. Quality The quality criterion includes the legal requirements for packaging (section 4.1). With the aim of ensuring food safety, the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) has defined which guidelines packaging materials must follow. These guidelines also include important criteria specifically for biobased packaging materials such as ecology and environment. The packaged product also places demands on the packaging material. It is crucial to determine these specifications as accurately as possible in a practicable fashion e.g. pursuant to ISO 18602:2003 (Packaging and the environment). Requirements that are too excessive lead in many cases to expensive, unecological or, in extreme cases, non-implementable packaging. If the properties of the packaging used previously are not known, it might be helpful to check the existing packaging regarding the barrier properties and other mechanical indicators. If field tests are necessary, sufficiently long stability tests of the packaging should be conducted as the manufacturer often considers the degradability of the packaging to be more important than mechanical stability in compostable packaging. Furthermore, consumer requirements must be taken into account. Packaging should therefore be easy to open, have sufficient stability, and there should be simple and clear guidelines regarding recycling. For consumer requirements, experience has shown that consumers prefer biobased packaging, but at the same time still carefully scrutinise the manufacturing and the origin of the raw materials. [205] Products are avoided, or public criticism is likely to result, for example from environmental organisations, when contradictory, unclear or incorrect advertising statements regarding the packaging exist. [206] Interestingly, petroleum-based packaging is not questioned to the same extent. The mechanical stability of packaging is a very significant criterion that, as a rule, ensures the product's protection. The handling of packaging is also a criterion that must not be underestimated. A longer shelf-life, smaller packaging sizes, better protection against breakage or spoilage are very important arguments. Other criteria are application conditions that are as versatile as possible. For this reason, entire ranges of products can be packaged with the same packaging machine. Biomass-based packing materials have very different material properties and can be used for the most diverse packaging solutions. Biomass-based packaging materials have come out on top in applications resulting in clear advantages for all concerned. Be it a longer shelf-life, better product protection, easier handling or biodegradability. It should also be borne in mind that consumers buy existing and known packaging systems out of habit.

4.1 Legal requirements

General: There are numerous general legal guidelines for packing materials that come into contact with food.

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Legal regulations relating to specific groups of substances exist for plastics (Regulation (EU) No. 10/2011) and for materials and objects made of regenerated cellulose film (Directive 2007/42 / EC). [144] An overview of the relevant legal framework conditions can be found on the website of the Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety (BVL). [109] In addition, the database "BfR recommendations on materials for food contact" of the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) should be consulted, which provide documents that are relevant for the respective packaging material. [110] Another source of information is the respective packaging industry's associations, organic farming associations, as well as laboratories that specialise in packaging material studies. The most important prerequisite is to ensure that no food contamination arises as a result of the packing material. The declaration of the packaging manufacturer generally guarantees that this requirement is met. In this connection, it is necessary to ensure that the food manufacturer precisely defines both the area of application and the filling material. Material/manufacturer-specific: Regarding the use of PLA as packaging material for food, the legal requirements described in the general part apply. Specific requirements for PLA are not yet available. The manufacturer NatureWorks declares on its website that the product is safe PLA. The manufacturers of additives should be contacted to confirm the harmlessness of additives used, however. [109] [110]

4.2 Product requirements

General: Cooperation with the manufacturers of packing materials and very good knowledge of the product requirements are essential for determining suitable packing material. Product variety that is still limited compared to classical plastics and the limited property profiles reduce the biomass-based packing materials' application possibilities.

Material/manufacturer-specific: There are deal prerequisites for the use of fresh vegetables and bakery products, in which case a high water vapour permeability with a short storage time is desired. Lid applications PLA offers a good aroma protection at low temperatures. It has good barrier properties against fats and oils. NatureWorks provides detailed indications regarding sealability and printability. [060]

[060] Here, tests must be performed in advance to achieve the desired result.

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Shrink films or shrink bands: If shrink films or shrink bands are used, lower temperature control is very important in order to obtain a satisfactory result. The instructions from NatureWorks must be observed when using PVC shrink bands in Ingeo products. [060] PLA has very versatile application possibilities. A very comprehensive collection of material data can be found in the biopolymer database of IfBB Hannover (Institute of bioplastics and biocomposites, University of Hannover) and from the company M-Base. [147]

4.3 Consumer requirements

General: Consumer requirements are very different and sometimes contradictory. Highly convenient use is desired, while ecological packaging is expected at the same time. Packaged products should thus have a long shelf-life, while the packaging material should ideally be compostable. Although consumers rarely pose criticism against classical, mineral oil based plastic packaging, in some cases, very critical questions are raised about packing material from renewable raw materials.

- Have the ecological benefits been checked and independently verified? - Is there competition with food production?

Partially contradictory guidelines for packaging material manufacturers arise from consumer requirements, e.g. biodegradability, recyclability, high barrier properties and high mechanical stability. The manufacturer must therefore reach a compromise in order to find a feasible solution in terms of price. The fact that there are only a few reliable assessments of packaging materials is especially inconvenient. Marketing guidelines dominate the selection of packaging in many cases. The GMO-free criterion should be borne in mind when deciding on packing materials as the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has been rejected by more than 80% of the population in Germany (see section 1.4).

Material/manufacturer-specific: The consumer's requirements regarding safe packaging are met. It should be noted that the material is only used for products that have a best before date of less than 6 months. The use of products with a longer shelf life best before date might be possible in exceptional cases after intensive scrutiny. [060]

4.4 Marketing (printing, multiplicity, surface feel)

General: The sales success of a product is often highly dependent on attractive marketing. Due to the ever-increasing product range in the food retail sector, it is very important that the consumer can recognise the product well. The consumer also makes an increasing number of purchases based on visual criteria. For biobased products, statements must be specified in a precise, verifiable and indisputable manner

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regarding ecology and social issues, as well as the biobased content. The publication "ACCOUNTABILITY IS KEY - Environmental Communications Guide for Bioplastics" issued by European Bioplastics provides helpful tips on the communication of environmental performance and social benefits. [244]

Material/manufacturer-specific: The product is relatively stiff and has a beautiful gloss. Films with a very high proportion of PLA tend to rustle. More flexible blends such as ecovio® rustle less. The material has very good adhesion properties for labels. Printing:

It should be noted that the temperature control must be complied with regarding the printing of PLA films. Short hotter zones (e.g. rolls) may already lead to deformations (shrinkage). However, there are film types that are somewhat more temperature stable . Surface treatments such as the corona treatment or chemical treatments are performed for better adhesion of the ink. NatureWorks provides detailed indications regarding sealability and printability. [060] Here, tests must be performed in advance to achieve the desired result. Lid applications PLA can be used as a flat lid or as a film for closing containers.

4.5 Stability and handling

General: Handling is an important aspect from the customer's point of view. Thus, light plastic packaging for beverages has come out on top compared to heavier glass packaging in many areas. The stability of packaging is also very important as more and more products are sent via the Internet. Out-of-home consumption and smaller portion sizes are increasingly important to consumers.

Material/manufacturer-specific: PLA does not tolerate elevated storage temperatures (>35°C) or direct sunlight. This applies to the formed products as well as to the process end product. The manufacturer's guidelines must be observed regarding the packaging material's mechanical resilience. There are restrictions for isopropanol and ethyl acetate regarding stability. Very dry ambient conditions are an essential aspect for storing formed products.

4.6 Miscellaneous Since PLA is already used in various applications, the packaging manufacturers have hands-on experience with various applications. Since these tests are frequently carried out in close cooperation

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with the food manufacturers, this information is not always available to the public. It is advisable to work closely with packaging manufacturers. A prerequisite for the

manufacturing of application-oriented blends is the removal of sufficient quantities.