experimental and numerical analysis of a cross-flow closed cooling tower --
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Experimental and numerical analysis of across-flow closed wet cooling tower
Article in Applied Thermal Engineering November 2013
Impact Factor: 2.74 DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043
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Tsinghua University
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Retrieved on: 21 June 2016
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Experimental and numerical analysis of a cross-ow closedwet cooling tower
Jing-Jing Jiang, Xiao-Hua Liu*, Yi Jiang
Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
h i g h l i g h t s
A cross-ow closed wet cooling tower (CWCT) is experimentally analyzed.
Empirical correlations of the heat and mass transfer coefcients are obtained.
Numerical model of the CWCT is established and validated by experimental data.
Heat and mass transfer driving forces inside a cross-ow CWCT are more uniform.
Performance of a cross-ow CWCT is better than parallel/counter-ow patterns.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 January 2013
Accepted 31 August 2013
Available online 10 September 2013
Keywords:
Closed wet cooling tower
ExperimentNumerical model
Flow pattern
Cross ow
a b s t r a c t
Closed wet cooling tower (CWCT) is an indirect-contact evaporative cooler, in which ambient air, spray
water and process water function together. In this study, a cross-ow CWCT unit based on the plateen
heat exchanger was designed and tested under various conditions in an environmental chamber. The test
results suggest that the heat and mass transfer coefcients and the cooling efciency are remarkably
affected by the temperature of the process water and the ow rates of the air, the spray water and the
process water. Heat and mass transfer coefcients were correlated based on the sensitive parameters.
Two-dimensional steady-state numerical model of the cross-ow CWCT was established and validated
by the experimental data. The numerical analyses revealed that the cross-ow CWCT could breakthrough
the structure limitation of the commonly parallel/counter-ow conguration and obtain more uniform
driving forces, which is benecial for the cooling performance. The ow pattern optimization of the
CWCT shows that air and process water in the opposite direction, spray water and the other uids in the
cross direction is the best ow pattern, which is distinct from the general knowledge of the researches.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Closed wet cooling tower (CWCT) has been adopted in a wide
range of application elds [1], such as refrigeration, air-
conditioning, manufacturing, power generation, etc. CWCT is an
indirect-contact evaporative cooler mostly based on tubular heatexchanger structure. Three uids function together in the CWCT,
which are ambient air and spray water owing outside the tubes
and process water running inside the serpentine tubes. The prin-
ciple of CWCT can be split into evaporative heat and mass transfer
process between the ambient air and the spray water, and heat
transfer process between the spray water and the process water. As
the uid inside the tubes never contact the ambient air, the CWCT
can be used to cool uids other than water and prevent contami-
nation of the airborne dirt and impurities. Furthermore, CWCT
could operate as an air cooling tower by stopping spray water in
severe cold days which makes it possible to run continuously year-
round in hospitals, schools, data centers, etc. However, the cost of
CWCT is often higher since tubular heat exchanger needs quantityof metallic materials[2].
Series of experiments have been conducted for the fundamental
researches of the heat and mass transfer processes in CWCTs. Niitsu
et al. [3] tested the performance of the plain and nned tubes,
including the lm heat transfer coefcient and airewater mass
transfer coefcient. Experimental tests by Heyns and Krger [4]
showed the water-lm heat transfer coefcient was a function of
spray water temperature, spray water and air ow rates, while the
airewater mass transfer coefcient was a function of air and spray
water ow rates. Sarker et al. [5] assessed CWCTs with staggered
arranged bare-type or nned tubes, from the perspectives of* Corresponding author. Tel.: 86 10 6277 3772; fax: 86 10 6277 0544.
E-mail address:[email protected](X.-H. Liu).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Thermal Engineering
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m/ l o c a t e / a p t h e r m e n g
1359-4311/$e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043
Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689
http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223872513_Experimental_analysis_of_heat_and_mass_transfer_phenomena_in_a_direct_contact_evaporative_cooling_tower?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256718226_Numerical_simulation_of_a_closed_wet_cooling_tower_with_novel_design?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245213693_Experimental_investigation_into_the_thermal-flow_performance_characteristics_of_an_evaporative_cooler?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245213656_Enhancement_of_cooling_capacity_in_a_hybrid_closed_circuit_cooling_tower?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==mailto:[email protected]://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13594311http://www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermenghttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223872513_Experimental_analysis_of_heat_and_mass_transfer_phenomena_in_a_direct_contact_evaporative_cooling_tower?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245213693_Experimental_investigation_into_the_thermal-flow_performance_characteristics_of_an_evaporative_cooler?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256718226_Numerical_simulation_of_a_closed_wet_cooling_tower_with_novel_design?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/245213656_Enhancement_of_cooling_capacity_in_a_hybrid_closed_circuit_cooling_tower?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043http://www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermenghttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13594311http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.08.043&domain=pdfmailto:[email protected]://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
7/25/2019 Experimental and Numerical Analysis of a Cross-flow Closed Cooling Tower --
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cooling capacity, wet-bulb efciency and pressure drop. Experi-
mental tests showed that the n-tube CWCT had better thermal
performance although the pressure drop was higher than that of
the bare-tube one. Zheng et al. [6] investigated the thermal
behavior of an oval tube CWCT under different operating condi-
tions. The results showed that the oval tube had a better combinedthermal-hydraulic performance. Some novel CWCTs consisting of
indirect evaporative cooling stage and direct evaporative cooling
stage (or heat transfer stage) were proposed, constructed and
tested by Xia et al.[2]and Heidarinejad et al.[7].
Besides the experimental researches, a number of theoretical
and computational analyses have been conducted aiming to a morerealistic description of the transport phenomena taking place in-
side a CWCT. Hasan and Sirn[8]presented a computational model
to simulate the performance of the CWCT. The variation of the spray
water temperature was taken into consideration and the saturation
enthalpy was calculated from psychometric relations for moist air.
The coefcients of mass transfer were derived from experimental
data and then implemented in the computational model. Koschenz
[9]presented an analytical model for a CWCT for use with chilled
ceilings, assuming that the spray water temperature kept constant
along the wayand the constant temperature was equal to the outlet
process water temperature. However, the accuracy levels of these
assumptions were not quantied with respect to other approaches
or relevant experimental works. Hasan and Gan[10]compared the
cooling performances calculated by the computational modelestablished by Hasan and the analytical models utilizing the as-
sumptions raised by Koschenz. Gan and Riffat[11]conducted a CFD
Fig. 1. The cross-ow CWCT unit: (a) the schematic diagram of the three uids; and (b) the photo from the front view.
Fig. 2. The louver structure of the n.
Fig. 3. The schematic diagram of the testing con
guration.
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689 679
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method to predict the performance of CWCT according to the
cooling capacity and the pressure drop.
Plenty of works have been done by the researchers concerning
experimental tests and theoretical analyses, which give a good
description of the performance of the CWCT. Moreover, many novel
designs of structures or components have been put forward and
have already reformed the CWCT to a great extent. However, the
ow pattern analysis of the CWCT has barely been involved in
available literature. The majority of the ow pattern of the CWCT
[3e6,8e16] is air owing from the bottom to the top, while the
process water inside the serpentine tubes and the spray water
outside the tubes owing in the opposite direction, which has been
proved the best one-dimensional ow pattern of CWCT by Ren and
Yang[17]. Little work[18,19]has been carried out on the cross-ow
CWCT. The performance of a cross-ow CWCT, with a counter ow
between the airand the process waterand two crossows between
the air and the other two uids, will be analyzed in present study.
Experimental tests will be carried out to investigate the behavior
and inuencing factors of the CWCT. Numerical models of parallel/
counter-ow and cross-ow CWCTs will be established and vali-
dated to optimize the ow pattern of the CWCT.
2. Experimental test of the CWCT unit
2.1. Description of the cross-ow CWCT unit
Fig. 1(a) indicates the ow directions of the three uids in the
cross-ow CWCT unit, which are spray water owing from top to
bottom, ambient airowing from front to back through thens and
process water owing in the serpentine tubes from back to the
front. In other words, the ambient air and process water are in
counter ow and spray water is in cross ow with the other two
uids. As shown in Fig. 1(b), the CWCT unit employs n-tube
structure to expand the heat and mass transfer area. The tubes
and ns of the unit are made of stainless steel to ensureperfect heat
transfer between the spray water and the process water. Further-
more, there are discontinuous louvers on the ns, presented in
Fig. 2, to strengthen the heat and mass transfer performance and
the wettability of the ns by disturbing the boundary layer of the
spray water.
The size of the unit is 570 mm (H, the spray water ow
direction) 310 mm (W, width) 180 mm (L, the air ow direc-
tion). Its n thickness is 0.127 mm, and the distance between the
ns is 2.2 mm. The inner and external diameters of the tubes are
9.42 mm and 10.02 mm, respectively. The tube bundle consists of 8
rows of steel tubes. The tubes are 0.31 m long and are arranged in a
triangular pattern at a transversal pitch of 25.4 mm. There are 20
tubes per tube row. The external surface of the whole unit is
24.336 m2 (Fm), 0.784 m2 of which is the external surface of the
tubes and 23.552 m2 of which is the surface of the ns. The specic
surface area of the CWCT unit is 790 m2/m3.
2.2. The CWCT testing conguration
The tests for assessing the performance of the CWCT unit were
performed in an environmental chamber. The system conguration
can realize wide range of air, spray water and process water states,
as displayed inFig. 3. The cooling coil, heater A and humidier can
regulate the air inlet temperature and humidity independently. The
variable frequency fan can control the volume ow rate of the inlet
air. Also, the temperature and ow rate of the process water can be
controlled by Heater B and the water valves.
The environmental chamber provided the measuring in-
struments for the ow rates and inlet/outlet temperatures of the
air, the spray water and the process water. As listed in Table 1, theow rate of the air a was measured by standard nozzles
(GB14294) with the accuracy of 1%. Theow rate of the spray water
swas measured by a rotameter with the range from 60 to 600 L/h
and the accuracy of 1.5%. The ow rate of the process water wwas
measured by water meter with the accuracy of 3 L/h. The temper-
atures of the three uids were measured by T-type thermocouples
with the accuracy of 0.2 C.
2.3. Verication of the experimental data
In order to study the CWCT unit, a series of experiments were
conducted which intended for nding out the effects of the inlet
parameters on cooling performance. The main parameters are the
owrate of the three uids and the inlet temperature of the process
water etc. Variable condition analyses were conducted with 11
operating conditions and 46 sets of data. Each set of data was
recorded under approximately steady states, which required all the
temperature points uctuated within 0.2 C for longer than
20 min. The typical experiment data is listedin Table 2. To verify the
reliability of the experiment data, energy balance of the air, spray
Table 1
Accuracies of the measuring instruments.
Parameter Sensor Accuracy
Air dry/wet bulb temperatures T-type thermocouple 0.2 [C]
Air ow rate Standard nozzle (GB14294) 1 [%]
Spray water/process water
temperatures
T-type thermocouple 0.2 [C]
Spray water ow rate Rotameter 1.5 [%]
Process water ow rate Water meter 3 [L/h]
Table 2
The experimental data of the CWCT test.
No. Inlet parameters Outlet parameters QckW
ta,in C twb,in
C ts,in C tw,in
C akg/s skg/s wkg/s ta,out C twb,out
C ts,out C tw,out
C
1 24.8 20.1 24.7 30.3 0.35 0.13 0.32 24.2 23.9 24.4 26.7 0.36 4.94
2 25.3 20.9 25.8 32.9 0.35 0.12 0.32 25.3 25.0 25.8 28.8 0.35 5.65
3 27.0 22.0 27.9 36.6 0.35 0.12 0.32 27.3 27.0 27.8 31.2 0.37 7.26
4 27.2 21.1 26.2 30.2 0.19 0.12 0.32 26.0 25.7 26.0 27.7 0.28 3.31
5 26.7 20.6 25.6 30.8 0.27 0.12 0.32 25.2 24.8 25.3 27.6 0.32 4.31
6 27.3 22.9 26.1 30.2 0.35 0.12 0.31 25.6 25.2 25.8 27.5 0.36 3.49
7 25.1 20.8 24.8 30.4 0.35 0.12 0.26 24.4 24.0 24.5 26.6 0.40 4.10
8 25.1 21.1 24.6 30.2 0.35 0.12 0.20 24.2 23.8 24.3 26.1 0.45 3.39
9 26.8 22.6 26.2 30.2 0.35 0.06 0.29 25.1 24.6 25.6 27.6 0.34 3.22
10 26.9 22.8 25.9 30.2 0.35 0.09 0.30 25.3 25.0 25.5 27.4 0.38 3.58
11 27.0 22.6 25.8 29.9 0.35 0.13 0.30 25.3 25.0 25.4 27.0 0.40 3.77
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689680
http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229377791_An_analytical_model_for_the_heat_and_mass_transfer_processes_in_indirect_evaporative_cooling_with_parallelcounter_flow_configurations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292730103_Experimental_research_on_cross-closed_cooling_tower?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232808578_Numerical_study_on_indirect_evaporative_cooling_performance_comparison_between_counterflow_and_crossflow_heat_exchangers?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292730103_Experimental_research_on_cross-closed_cooling_tower?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229377791_An_analytical_model_for_the_heat_and_mass_transfer_processes_in_indirect_evaporative_cooling_with_parallelcounter_flow_configurations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232808578_Numerical_study_on_indirect_evaporative_cooling_performance_comparison_between_counterflow_and_crossflow_heat_exchangers?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a1cb0eea477efd5b1a1fdd0b881cbbe0-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI3MDM1NjEyNztBUzoyNjgzNjA2ODAyMTA0MzJAMTQ0MDk5MzU4MDYxNg==http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?- -
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water and process water was adopted. As shown inFig. 4, the un-
balance ratios of the heat gained by the ambient air and the heat
lost by the process water and the spray water are within20%. The
average absolute unbalance ratio is 7.4%, which means the data are
reliable.
To better describe the cooling processes, some indexes are
introduced, seen in Eqs.(1) and (2). The wet-bulb cooling efciency
[5,13,16]illustrates the distance between the outlet process water
temperature (tw,out) and the ambient wet bulb temperature (twb,in),
which is the limit of the outlet process water temperature. The
cooling capacity Qc [5,12,15]presents the cooling capacity of the
CWCT unit.
tw;intw;out
tw;inta;wb(1)
Qc cp;w _
mw
tw;intw;out
(2)
3. Experimental results and inuencing factors
3.1. Effect of the airow rate
In the environmental chamber shown inFig. 3, the ow rate of
the ambient air is easily conditioned and controlled by regulating
the rotate speed of the fan. The owrateof the air was at the lowest
rate of 0.19 kg/s and up to the maximum of 0.35 kg/sFig. 5displays
that mass transfer coefcient between the spray water and the air
(Km) increased greatly by increasing the air ow rate. While the
heat transfer coefcient between the spray water and the process
water (Kh) was generally constant since the increase of the air ow
rate had little relationship with the heat transfer between the spray
water and the process water. As a result of the strengthening of the
heat and mass transfer performance between the spray water and
the air, andQcincreased with the increase ofa. Thus, increasing
air ow rate is a good way to improve the performance of the
CWCT. However, the air ow rate is not the bigger the better if
taking the fan power consumption into consideration. There is an
optimal value of air ow rate depending on the balance of the
CWCT performance and the fan power consumption.
Uncertainty analyses for the experimental results, based on the
accuracies of the measuring instruments introduced in Section2.2,were conducted in this study using the method proposed by Kline
and McClintock [20] according to the following expression (Eq. (3)):
Dy
vf
vx1
2Dx1
2
vf
vx2
2Dx2
2/
vf
vxn
2Dxn
21=2
(3)
The uncertainties of , Qc, Km, and Kh were calculated and
expressed inFig. 5in the way of error bars. Results show that the T-
type thermocouples are the main sources of errors. TakingKmas an
example, the uncertainties of the air wet-bulb temperature and
spray water temperature account for 81.3% and 16.6% of the total
uncertainty, respectively, while that of the air mass ow rate only
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Gainedh
eatoftheair(kW)
Heat loss of process/spray water (kW)
+ 20
- 2 0 %
Fig. 4. Energy balance of the CWCT test.
Fig. 5. Effects of the air
ow rate (
a) on the CWCT: (a) wet-bulb ef
ciency; (b) cooling capacity; (c) Km; and (d) Kh.
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689 681
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accounts for 0.8%. Thus improving the temperature measurement
accuracy is the key point of improving the accuracy of the test.
3.2. Effect of the spray waterow rate
The ow rate of the spray water was regulated by changing the
valves in the pipelines. The ow rate of the spray water was from
0.06 kg/s to 0.13 kg/s. When the ow rate of the spray water
increased, wetting degree of the CWCT was improved and heat and
mass transfer area was expanded to a certain extent. Also, the in-
crease of the spray water ow rate would strengthen the heat
transfer process between the spray water and the process water, so
as to take away more heat from the process water. As a result, ,Qc,
and Kh increased, as shown in Fig. 6. On the other hand, the
Fig. 6. Effects of the spray water ow rate (s) on the CWCT: (a) wet-bulb efciency; (b) cooling capacity; (c) Km; and (d) Kh.
Fig. 7. Effects of the process water
ow rate (
w) on the CWCT: (a) wet-bulb ef
ciency; (b) cooling capacity; (c) Km; and (d) Kh.
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689682
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Fig. 8. Effects of the process water temperature (tw,in) on the CWCT: (a) cooling capacity; (b) spray water inlet temperature; (c) Km; and (d) Kh.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Calculated results of Eqs.(4) and (5): (a) Kh; and (b) Km.
Table 3
Comparison of the experimental parameters in literature [4,6,15,16].
Source Flow pattern Ga(kg/m2s) Gs(kg/m
2s) Gw(kg/m2s) Kma(kg/m
3s) Kha(kW/m3 K) a(m2/m3) Correlations
Heyns[4] Parallel/counter 0.7e3.6 1.7e4.5 - 0.5e3.2 42.0e67.2 24 e Kh 470Ga0.1Gs
0.35ts0.3
Km 0.038Ga0.73Gs
0.2
Zheng[6] Parallel/counter 2.5e5.0 1.2e3.2 2.8e5.3 2.7e5.0 23.9e60.4 31 0.11e0.19 Kh 350.3(1 0.0169ts)Ga0.59Gs
1/3
Km 0.034Ga0.977
Shim[15] Parallel/counter 1.2e4.2 1.1e3.3 0.9e4.8 6.6e21.5 18.2 31.4 33 e e
Faco[16] Parallel/counter 0.7e2.4 0.3e1.9 0.6e1.1 1.6e4.3 5.5e17.5 25 0.2e0.65 Kh 700.3(s/1.39)0.6584
Km 0.1703(a/1.7)0.8099
Present study Cross 1.3e2.4 1.1e2.3 1.1e1.8 10.3e19.0 30.8e45.0 790 0.28e0.46 Kh 31.79Gs0.238Gw
0.547
Km 0.00154tw0.471Ga
0.694Gs0.512
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689 683
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improvement of the spray water ow rate enhanced heat and mass
transfer between the ambient air and the spray water, which
resulted in the growth ofKm.
3.3. Effect of the process waterow rate
The ow rate of the process water is also a key parameter
inuencing the CWCT performance. It was from 0.20 kg/s to
0.32 kg/s in this set of experiments. Apparently, the rise of the
process water ow rate promoted the heat and mass transfer be-
tween the spray water and the process water, therefore Khincreased. Thus process water could release more heat to the spray
water, which led to the increase ofQc, as shown inFig. 7(b). Since
the inuence ofwto the outlet temperature of the process water
was more remarkable than that of Kh, the cooling effect of the
process water per unit mass was denitely worsened, though the
total cooling capacity was improved. In this way, the outlet tem-
perature of the process water increased and dropped. Since the
process water barely touched the ambient air, Kmbetween the air
and the spray water scarcely changed.
3.4. Effect of the process water temperature
This set of experiment was meant to study the performance of
the CWCT at different process water temperatures. The inlet tem-
perature of the process water was from 30.1 C to 36.6 C. The re-
sults showed that Qc and Km increased with the growth of the
process water temperature, seen in Fig. 8(a) and (c), due to the
increase of the heat and mass transfer driving forces between the
threeuids. Since the temperature of the spray water was decided
by the air and process water states, it rose with the growth of the
process water temperature, as shown inFig. 8(b).
3.5. Comparison with experimental results from previous studies
From the sensitivity analyses we could see that Kh is mainlyinuenced by the ow rates of the spray water and the process
water, whileKmis dominated by the ow rates of the air and spray
water and the inlet temperature of the process water. Therefore, for
the specic geometry of the tower, the correlation equations forKhandKmcould be presented as follows:
Kh 31:79G0:238s G
0:547w (4)
Km 0:00154t0:471w;in G
0:694a G
0:512s (5)
whereGa is the air velocity in the minimum ow area,Gs G/do,Gw w/(H$L) is the process water ow rate per ow area
(1.3< Ga< 2.4 kg/m2 s; 1.1< Gs< 2.3 kg/m
2 s; 1.1< Gw< 1.8 kg/
m2 s; 30.1< Tw,in
-
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transfer coefcient Kma, due to that the n-tube structure
tremendously extends the contact area, which is exactly the re-
striction point of the heat and mass transfer between the air and
the spray water. In contract, the performance improvement of the
n-tube structure for waterewater heat transfer process is insig-
nicant. Thats why the volume heat transfer coefcientKha is no
bigger than the others.
4. Numerical model of the cross-ow CWCT
4.1. Theoretical model
Two-dimensional steady-state model of the cross-ow CWCT, in
which airand process waterowing in the opposite direction, spray
water owing in the cross direction with the other twouids, seen
inFig. 11, will be illustrated in this section. In the CWCT, process
water releases heat to the metal nned tubes while the tubes are
cooled by the spray water. At the same time, heat and mass transfer
takes place between the spray water and the air. The main as-
sumptions for the numerical model are presented as follows[8,13,17]: 1) Heat and mass transfer processes are at steady state; 2)
The heat and mass exchange between the CWCT unit and the sur-
roundings is negligible; 3) The specic heat of the uids are
assumed to be constant; 4) The spray water lm uniformly covers
all the wall of the tubes and ns, so that Fh equals to Fm and the heat
exchange between the air and process water is negligible; and 5)
The ow of the process water and the air is approximately counter
ow.
Dene the air ow direction aszaxis and the spray water ow
direction asxaxis. The energy balance equation for the three uids
is:
_maH
vhavz
1
L
v _mshs
vx cp;w
_mwH
vtwvz
0 (6)
Mass conversion equation of the spray water and the air is given
by:
_maH
vdavz
1
L
v _msvx
0 (7)
Heat transfer between the spray water and the process water
driven by the temperature difference between them is shown as:
vtwvz
KhFhcp;w _mwL
twts (8)
As well known, there is a thin lm of saturated air at the
interface between the spray water and the air. The temperature of
the saturated air is close to that of the spray water. The humidity
ratio of the saturated air is also called the equivalent humidity ratioof the spray water, which is de. Heat transfer driven by the tem-
perature difference of the saturated air lm and the air ow and
mass transfer driven by the water vapor partial pressure difference
between the two streams take place simultaneously. Thus the mass
transfer equation and the energy balance equation for the air ow
can be expressed by the following equations separately:
vdavz
KmFm
_maL deda (9)
vhavz
K0hFm
_maL tsta r
vdavz
(10)
The Lewis factor or Lewis relation Lefcould be de
ned to indi-cate the relation between the heat and mass transfer in an evapo-
rative process[21e23]. The denition ofLefis as follows:
Lef K0hKmcp;m
(11)
Substitute Eq.(11)into Eq.(10):
vhavz
KmFm
_maL
hLef$cp;atsta rdeda
i (12)
As the enthalpy of the air can be expressed asha cp;mtar$da; Eq.(12)can be transformed into:
vhavz
KmFm
_maL $
Lef heha r
1
Lef 1
deda
(13)
Thus we get all the governing equations of the cross-ow CWCT.
The boundary conditions are shown as follows:
ta ta;in; da da;in; ha ha;in; z 0 (14)
tsjx0 tsjxH (15)
tw tw;in; z L (16)
By discretizing the governing equations, the heat and mass
transfer process could be numerically solved. When solving the
model,Lefcould be equal to 1[6,8,14]. The model of the cross-ow
CWCT was validated by the experimental results described in
Fig. 12. Comparison of the calculated values and the experimental results of the cross-ow CWCT: (a) the variance of the air humidity ratio; and (b) the variance of the temperature
of the process water.
Table 4
Simulated condition of the cross-ow CWCT.
ta,in C da,inkg/kg tw,in
C akg/s skg/s wkg/s KmFmkg/s KhFhkW/K
27.2 0.0136 30.3 0.19 0.12 0.32 0.365 1.17
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689 685
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Section 3. Asshownin Fig.12, the maximal differences between the
calculated results and the experimental values are within 8.0%, and
the average absolute differences are 3.0% and 4.0% for the variance
of the air humidity ratio and the process water temperature
respectively. On the whole, the calculated parameters by the nu-
merical model agree well with the experimental results, the model
could be used to analyze the heat and mass transfer performance of
the CWCT unit in the following content.
4.2. Typical simulation result of cross-ow CWCT
Since the distribution parameters of the cross-ow CWCT are
two-dimensional, it is difcult to describe it through experimental
results of limited measurement points. Therefore, numerical
modeling results were introduced to investigate the performance of
the CWCT. The boundary conditions from the experimental results
are displayed in Table4. Asseenin Fig.13, the wet-bulb temperature
of theair increasesin theairow direction, while the temperature of
the process water decreases in the opposite direction. Heat is
transferred fromthe processwater to the air. Without the circulation
of the spray water, the temperature distributions of the air and the
process water should be one-dimensional and the temperature
gradients of the two uids along zshould be consistent. Once the
spray water is brought in, the consistency will be disturbed.
To better explain the heat and mass transfer process of cross-
ow CWCT, we could divide it into enough control volumes along
Fig. 13. Simulated eld distribution of the cross-ow CWCT: (a) the air wet-bulb temperature; (b) the spray water temperature; (c) the process water temperature; (d) thetemperature difference between the spray water and the process water; and (e) the temperature difference between the spray water and the air (wet-bulb).
Fig. 14. Simulated temperatures of the x sections: (a) x
0.05H; (b)x
0.5H; and (c) x
0.95H.
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zaxis and assume that the heat and mass transfer between each
two control volumes could be ignored, which means the perfor-
mance of the spray water is only affected by the air and the process
water inside the volume. If the inlet temperature of the spray water
is lower than those of the process water and the air (wet-bulb),
spray water will absorb heat from both the uids when falling
along thexaxis. As a result, the spray water temperature will go up
until it gains the same heat from the process water as the heat
released to the air. Vice versa, when the inlet temperature of the
spray water is higher than those of the other uids, spray waterwill
discharge heat to the air and the process water until it transfers the
same quantity of heat from the process water to the air. In this way,
there is an equilibrium temperature of spray water in each control
volume, which is somewhere between the temperatures of the air
and the process water, determined by the heat and mass transfer
ability of the CWCT. As shown in Fig. 13(b), on the bottom of the
CWCT, the spray water temperature barely changes along the way,which means it already reaches the equilibrium temperature.
Fig.14shows the temperatures of the three uids at the sections
ofx 0.05H,x 0.5Handx 0.95H, which represent the states of
the spray water from the inlet to the outlet. It can be observed from
Fig. 14(c) that the equilibriumtemperaturerises from the airinlet to
the process water inlet. Since there is only one sink at the outlet,
spray water of different control volumes with different
temperatures must be mixed to the medium temperature before
going to the inlet. Because of the mixture, the heat and mass
transfer driving forces at the inlet are not uniform, shown in
Fig. 14(a). Fortunately, the spray water of the cross-ow CWCT has
the self-adjust ability to achieve proper equilibrium temperature.
As the simulated mass ow rate of spray water is relatively small in
this article, according to Table 4, its state is easy to be inuenced by
the other two uids and it reaches the equilibrium temperature
very quickly (at aboutx 0.2H). Whenx 0.5H, shown in Fig.14(b),
the three uids have already reached the equilibrium states and
had rather uniform heat and mass transfer driving forces. On the
whole, the heat and mass transfer driving forces are relatively
uniform in the cross-ow CWCT, especially in the lower part.
5. Effect ofow pattern on the performance of the CWCT
For two-ow heat and mass transfer system, scholars haveagreed that counter ow achieves the best performance, followed
by the cross ow and the parallel ow. By analogy, the recom-
mended ow pattern in the CWCT is two counter ows and one
parallel ow between the three uids, achieving as many counter
ows as possible and abandoning the mediocre crossow. Ren and
Yang [17] studied all the parallel/counter-ow patterns of the
CWCT, nding that theow pattern shown in Fig. 15(a) achieves the
best cooling performance. Following this conclusion, we simulated
the performance of the model to test the analogy. The boundary
conditions are listed inTable 4.
For the parallel/counter-ow CWCT, the distribution parameters
are one-dimensional. As shown in Fig. 15(b), the process water is
cooled along the way while the air is continuously heated. Since the
inlet and outlet temperatures of the spray water should be thesame, the one-dimensional spray water temperature could not
keep pace with the temperature gradient along x. As a result, the
heat transfer driving force between the process water and the spray
water is not uniform. Neither is the heat and mass transfer driving
force between the air and the spray water. This phenomenon is also
stated by many other researchers[4,10]. Unfortunately, the uneven
driving forces could not be avoided by improving the heat and mass
transfer area or regulating the ow ratios of the three uids. In
other words, the one-dimensional parallel/counter-ow CWCT has
the structural limitation. As mentioned in Section 4.2, the cross-ow CWCT could achieve uniform heat and mass transfer driving
forces in the most part of the module. In this way, the cross-ow
CWCT turns up the ideal ow pattern, although the two-ow
cross-
ow heat and mass transfer performance is not the best.
Fig. 15. (a) Parallel/counter-ow CWCT conguration; and (b) simulated temperatures.
Fig. 16. Flow pattern optimization of the CWCT.
J.-J. Jiang et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 61 (2013) 678e689 687
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The cooling capacity comparison of the parallel/counter-ow
and cross-ow CWCTs under different KmFm are shown inFig. 16.
The ow rates of the air, the spray water and the process water are
all 0.5 kg/s, while the other boundary conditions are presented in
Fig.16. Asshownin Fig.16, the cross-ow CWCT wouldalways have
a larger cooling capacity Qc, and the superiority will be amplied
when the heat and mass transfer coefcient is increased, which
means the cross-ow CWCT has better cooling performance than
the commonly used parallel/counter-ow CWCT.
6. Conclusion
A cross-ow CWCT based on the n-tube structure was
designed and tested in present study. The ow arrangement of the
airand the process water was counterow, while that of the air and
the spray water was cross ow. Experimental tests were conducted
to investigate the cooling performance and the inuencing factors
on the basis of a good energy balance discrepancy. The main con-
clusions are:
1) Effect of the process water temperature and ow rates of the
air, spray water and process water on the cooling capacity, wet-
bulb efciency, heat and mass transfer coefcients were stud-ied. Empirical correlations of the heat and mass transfer co-
efcients based on the inuencing factors were obtained.
2) Compared to the bare-tube structure in literature, the n-tube
structure tremendously extends the contacting area between
the air and the spray water, thus improves the heat and mass
transfer coefcient. While for the heat transfer coefcient be-
tween the spray water and the process water, the n-tube
structure has little impact.
3) Two-dimensional steady-state numerical model of the cross-
ow CWCT was built and validated by the experimental data.
The deviation between the model and the experimental data
was less than 8%, which ensures the accuracy of the model.
4) The numerical results show that the spray water temperature
of the cross-ow CWCT would automatically form a gradient inthe air/process water ow direction to match the temperature
variances of the air and the process water. As a result, the heat
and mass transfer driving forces of the cross-ow CWCT are
fairly uniform, which is benecial for the behaviorof the CWCT.
5) The ow pattern optimization of the CWCT shows that the
cooling performance of the cross-ow CWCT is better than that
of the commonly studied parallel/counter-ow CWCT due to
more uniform driving forces. The superiority will be amplied
when heat and mass transfer coefcients are increased.
Acknowledgements
The research described in this paper was supported by National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51138005) and thefoundation for the author of National Excellent Doctoral Disserta-
tion of China (No. 201049).
Nomenclature
a specic surface area (m2/m3)cp specic heat capacity (kJ/kg C)
d humidity ratio (g/kg)
do external diameter of the tube (m)
Fh heat transfer area (m2)
Fm mass transfer area (m2)
G mass ow rate per ow area (kg/m2s)
H height of the CWCT unit (m)
h enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Kh heat transfer coefcient between spray water and process
water (kW/m2 K)
K0h heat transfer coefcient between spray water and air
(kW/m2 K)
Km mass transfer coefcient between airand spray water (kg/
m2 s)
L thickness of the CWCT unit (m)
Lef Lewis factor (dimensionless)_m mass ow rate (kg/s)
Qc cooling capacity (kW)
r vaporization latent heat (kJ/kg)
t temperature (C)
W width of the CWCT unit (m)
Greek symbols
G spray waterow per unit breadth (kg/m s)
D change of or difference between parameters
wet-bulb cooling efciency
Subscripts
a air
e air in equilibrium with spray waterin inlet
m moist air
out outlet
s spray water
w process water
wb wet-bulb
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