existentialism is an environmentalism sartre and … · existentialism is an environmentalism:...
TRANSCRIPT
ExistentialismisanEnvironmentalism:SartreandWilderness
SeanS.Gould
"Others,whotrytoprovetheirexistenceisnecessary,whenman'sappearanceonearthis
merelycontingent,Iwillcallbastards."‐Jean‐PaulSartre
Despite,orperhapsinpartduetoitsimperfections,ExistentialismisaHumanism
standsasapowerfulintroductiontowards20thC.existentialistthought.Inthelecture,
Sartredescribesthehumanconditioninprimarilynegativeterms;individualslackan
internalessencebeyondwhatiscreatedbytheircommitmentswhilenothingintheworld
speaksastoguideone'schoices.OneofSartre'sgoalsforthelecturewastoconnectthese
negativeclaimswithhispositiveadvocacyofcommittedresponsibilityforone'sactions.
Particularly,headvocatesahumanistprojectofpromotingpeople'sabilitytomakefree
decisionsandtorealizethemselvesthroughthepursuitofgoalsthatreachbeyondtheir
ownselves.i
TheaimofthispaperistoinitiateareadingofSartreanexistentialismforthe
environmentalist.Ultimately,thispapersuggeststhatanon‐anthropocentric
conservationistthemecanbefoundinSartre'sdescriptionofthehumanconditionandhis
advocacyofwillingfreedom.Byencounteringreasonsforwhycommitmenttofreedom
matters,whilealsodenyingthepossibilityofantecedentstructureofvaluerequiredto
justifyaspecialethicalstatusofhumans,anenvironmentalistreadingofExistentialismisa
HumanismcanmodifySartre'spositiontowardtheconclusionthattheavoidanceofself‐
deceptionrequiresaconcernforenvironmentalstewardshipandtheconservationof
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wildlifeandwildlandsthroughexercisingarestrainednon‐impositionofourwilluponthe
freedomofothers,humanandnon‐humanalike.
ThereisverylittleworkrelatingtheideasofJean‐PaulSartretoenvironmentalism
andconservationism.Anditisperhapsunderstandablethatthosecompelledbyglacier
lilies,whitepine,andwolvesmightoverlooktheParisianurbanitewhoseprimary
examplestendtofocusuponwaitingforabsentfriendsinbarsandcafes.Althoughthere
areexceptivepassageswithinSartre'swork‐whichthispaperwillhighlight‐Sartre's
writingtendstofocusuponanthropocentricandhumanistconcerns.Anditwouldbea
misrepresentationofSartretoreadhimasanaturalfitforenvironmentalism;forexample,
hisemphasisuponhumansubjectivitycouldeasilyirritatethemorenaturalistically
mindedconservationist.However,Sartre'sphenomenologicalmethodologyalsorecognizes
thefundamentalstatusof"theenvironment"anditsirreduciblysubjectindependent
dimensionasafundamentalcomponentofthehumancondition.Thisparticular
environmentalistreadingofSartrewillbeginonthiscommonground.
ExistencePrecedesEssence
Sartreclaimsthatthecogitoisthesolepointofdeparturefortheviewsexpressedin
ExistentialismisaHumanism(EH).iiPhenomenologyandabroadlyCartesianmethodology
formthestartingpointsformostofSartre'sinitialwork,althoughSartre'sconclusions
radicallydivergefromthoseofDescartes,especiallyregardingthepossibilityofaclear
distinctionbetweenmindandworldandtheexistenceofadeity."Existentialism,"Sartre
writes,"ismerelyanattempttodrawalloftheconclusionsinferredbyaconsistently
atheisticpointofview."iiiAndso,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenDescartes’
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conclusionandthebroadlyCartesianmethodologyemployedbySartre.Specifically,
Sartre'stworemarksonthehumanconditionandtheethicalimplicationsheattemptsto
drawfromhisobservationsgrowfromaphenomenologicalanalysisofchoice.
Whenthephenomenologicallensisutilizedforintrospectivereflection,Sartre
arrivestothepreclusionofanypre‐consciousmentalfeaturethatcansimultaneouslyallow
forboththesubjectiveappearanceofachoicetoappear,assuch,whilstalsoproviding
definitiveguidanceforanygivendecision.Thus,thefirstexistentialistobservationonthe
humanconditionismerelythatnothinginourmindmakesourdecisionsforus.Forthe
purposeofclarifyingSartre'sadvocacytowardsfreedomwillingfreedom,reflective
phenomenologyshouldbeseenasdealingwithwhatSartrecharacterizesas"despair,"the
preconditionthatinquiry‐conductedunderaCartesianmethodology‐limititselfto
"reckoningonlywiththosethingsthatdependonourwill,oronthesetofprobabilitiesthat
enableaction."ivWhilesociobiologyandotherscienceshavetaughtusthattherearecertain
pre‐consciousaspectsofeveryindividualthatinfluenceone'sthoughts,feelings,and
actionsinwayswedonotcontrol,theseinfluencesareirrelevanttoquestionsaboutthe
phenomenologyofchoice.
InTheTranscendenceoftheEgo,Sartrearguesforhistransparencyofconsciousness
claim,thatitisimpossible,viaintrospection,toencounteranyaspectofconsciousnessthat
couldpotentiallyformabasisoffreelywilledpersonalitythatinclinesapersontowards
anygivenpatternofthought,feeling,orbehavior.vIfwereflectonourconsciousexperience
ofanythingandattempttoabstractawaywhateveritisweareconsciousofthenweareleft
withnothing,accordingtoSartre.Consciousness,andeverythingweencounterupon
seriousreflection,isdependentuponourselvesasfirstencounteringtherawmaterialsfor
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intentionalobjectsasexistingintheworld.UnlikeDescartes,Sartre'sinquirydoesnotlead
toadisembodieddualism,butratherwhatMarkRowlandshascharacterizedasa"radical
reversalofidealism."viAccordingtoSartre,introspectionshowsthatourmindsare
constitutedbyoursurroundings.
Evensomethingascentraltochoiceas"thewill"isforSartre,andencounteredin
theworld.Thewilltowardscertainactionsappeartousastheluringpossibilitiesand
demandsofsituations.Wedonotseewithinourselves,forinstance,awilltosavePierre,
butratherseePierreashaving‐to‐be‐helped.Weencounterourownwillandouradopted
reasonsintheformofenvironmentalaffordances.Inhispubliclecture,Sartretakesthe
transparencyclaimasmoreorlessgiven,andpresentsitasastartingpointfor
existentialismingeneral,asencapsulatedbytheslogan,"existenceprecedesessence."vii
WithinapplicationofaCartesianmethodology,Sartreclaimsthat"Existentialism"
expressesthedoctrinethat"everytruthandeveryactionimplyanenvironmentanda
humansubjectivity."viiiWhileendorsingtheestablishmentofanintrinsicconnection
subjectivityandenvironment,anenvironmentalistreaderisstillwarrantedasviewing
Sartre'sclaimasbeingfromaveryuncommonground.Fortunately,thereisstillspace
withinexistentialismtocriticizeSartre'slimitedfocusonhumansubjectivity.
Initially,thecogitoonlyprovidesonewithadisclosureofsubjectivity,butdoesnot
providethemeansforthe"human"qualification.InBeingandNothingness,Sartreattempts
toaddresspotentialproblemswithsolipicisminhissectionon"theLook,"towhichSartre
vaguelyrefersinEHasthecogito'sdisclosureofothers.ixTobrieflyexplain,Sartreclaims
thatournaturalreactiontothegazeofothersistoexperiencecertainnon‐solipicistic
assumingemotions,suchasshame,whichwenaturallyactupon.Therefore,forallpractical
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purposes,wearecompelledtoactin,andperceivetheworld,asthoughweshareitwith
othersubjects.However,theenvironmentalisthasroomtoarguethat"thelook"can
equallybeusedtodescribeourencounterwithnon‐humansubjectivity.Moreover,because
ofSartre's"radicalreversalofidealism"itseemsmostconsistenttoconfessthatwefind
nothingwithinourownconsciousexperiencetoserveasgroundsfortheexceptionalismof
human,versusnon‐human,sentience.ThequestionliesbeyondthescopeofCartesian
methodologyandthecertitudewithwhichSartreaimstogroundhisclaims.
"Abandonment"isthesecondkeyconceptinSartre'sexistentialistaccountofthe
humancondition.SartreaffirmsDostoyevsky'sstatementthat,"IfGoddoesnotexist,
everythingispermissible"anddeniesthepossibilityofencounteringanyhuman‐
independentsourceofvalueorethics.x"Abandonment"istheenvironmentalanalogof
consciousness's"nothingness"andcharacterizestheexperienceonehaswhenreflective
awarenessshowsthatnothingintheworldprovidesameterofvaluethatcoulddetermine
theoutcomeofanygivenchoice.
Whilethisrejectionofnon‐anthropogenicallyencounteredvaluemaychafesome
environmentalists,Sartre'suseof"abandonment"shouldneitherbeunderstoodas
precludingrestraintsuponhumanbehavior,i.e.thateveryactionispossible,norasa
rejectionoftheintrinsicvalueofnatureandthewild.Towardsthefirstpoint,Sartre
emphasizestheimportancethatconstraintsuponactionhaveinhowweperceivethe
world.InBeingandNothingnesshecallstheseconstraintsthe"co‐efficientsofadversity"
thatfacilitateorfrustratetheefficacyofourprojects,oncetheseprojectsareadopted.
Sartrewrites,
Inparticularthecoefficientofadversityinthingscannotbeanargumentagainstourfreedom,foritisbyusi.e.,bythepreliminarypositingofanend
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‐thatthiscoefficientofadversityarises.Aparticularcrag,whichmanifestsaprofoundresistanceifIwishtodisplaceit,willbe,onthecontrary,avaluableaidifIwanttoclimbuponitinordertoviewthecountryside.Initself‐ifonecanevenimaginewhatacragcanbeinitself‐itisneutral;thatis,itwaitstobeilluminatedbyanendinordertomanifestitselfasadverseorhelpful.xi
Certainenvironmentalconsiderations,representedabovebythecrag,mattertoour
variousprojects.Likewise,mostanthropocentricargumentsfortakingsuchthingsas
climatechangeseriouslylieinthefactthatcertaincausalsystemsproducetruthsthatare
inconvenientforthepursuitofincompatibleprojects.Wecanfreelyadoptthecombined
projectofutilizingcurrentlevelsoffossilfuelconsumptionwhilstalsotryingtopreserve
theclimatestabilityoftheplanet,butthecoefficientsofadversitybroughtaboutbyhow
carbon‐dioxidetrapsheat,doomsuchprojectstofailure.Theenvironmentalexistentialist
canthusclaimthatwhilewearefreetochoosewhatwewill,notaddressingclimatechange
andhopingforasustainablefuturemakesasmuchsenseashopingtosurvivean
unprotectedclimbup"theDiamond"onLongsPeakwhilewearingrollerskates.
Towardthesecondpoint,Sartre'sdiscussionof"abandonment"neednotbereadas
arejectionofthepossibilityofintrinsicvaluewithinnature.Rather,itcanbeunderstoodas
emphasizingtheindeterminaterelationshipfree‐willedagentshavetowardtheencounter
ofanyvalue.InEHSartresays,"evenifGodweretoexist,itwouldmakenodifference,"xii
meaningthatevenifweweretoencountervaluesintheworldwestillindependently
determineourrelationshiptothosevalueseverytimewemakeachoice.Sartre'sinclusion
of"abandonment"aspartofthehumanconditionshouldbequalifiedasmeaningthatthe
onlyvalueswhichmotivationallyinteractwithourworld‐viewarepreciselythosetowhich
webindourselvesthroughactsofcommitment.
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Atthispoint,thereseemstobeacontradictionwithinexistentialistphilosophythat
parallelsmetaethicaldebatesregardingwhethervalueisahumanprojectionorsomesort
ofqualitythatisdisclosedtous.Ononehand,Sartre'sinternalreflectionplacesboth
reasonsandevidenceofthewillasexternaltotheconsciousnessasitappearstous.
However,healsoclaimsthatreasonscannotcompelustowardanyaction.Whilenotgoing
toofardownametaethicaltangent,Sartre'sdiscussionofpossibilitiesprovidesasketchof
ananswer,
Ioperatewithinarealmofpossibilities.Butwecreditsuchpossibilitiesonlytothestrictextentthatouractionencompassesthem.FromthemomentthatthepossibilitiesIamconsideringceasetoberigorouslyengagedbymyaction,Imustnolongertakeinterestinthem...xiii
Toreconcileourindependencefromvaluewiththeclaimthatweencounterreasons
foractionasenvironmentalaffordances,onecouldsaythatwhileweencountersituations
ashavingluringpossibilitiesanddemands,whenchoiceisinvolvedthereisalwaysjust
enoughhesitationanduncertaintytoprovideamoment'squestioningofone'srelationship
totheperceiveddemandsoftheworld.Inthisway,reasonsandvaluesarenotidentifiable
assuchuntiltheyareacteduponwithcommitment.
Toillustratethispoint,consideranopenlandscapeoraruggedmountainside.More
thananyotherarea,duetoitsrelativelackofpre‐designatedsigns,boardwalks,andother
behavioralclues,wildernessareasprovidemoreopportunitiesforspontaneous
explorationthanwecanpursueatatime;newpathsemergetheinstantwechangerouteto
followacertainway.Ourprojectsandtheenvironmentcooperatetoproduceaffordances
whoseexistenceasavalueweeitherchoosetoseeornot.Andagain,asisthecasewith
globalwarming,somechoicespresentdeadends.ReadingSartreasdescribingvalueas
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manifestinendorsedaffordancesenablesonetobeginreconcilingtheissueofwhether
valuesareendorsedorprojectedwithinhisexistentialistphilosophy.
Using"abandonment"todescribethehumanconditionanddeclaringthatvaluesare
disclosedthroughourcommitmenttothemneednotbeunderstoodasclaimingthat
humans,asagroup,arespecialfountainsofinter‐speciesvalue.Sartrecallsthissortof
metaethicalanthropocentricism"absurd,foronlyadogorahorsewouldbeinapositionto
formanoveralljudgmentaboutmananddeclarethatheisamazing,whichanimals
scarcelyseemlikelytodo‐atleastasfarasIknow."xivInfact,Sartreassertsthatthe
worshipofhumanity,asanend,leadstoFascism.xvWiththisnon‐anthropocentric
assurance,wecanjustifiablyreadSartre'semphasisonhumansubjectivityand
abandonmentasfollowingfromhisattempttoremainwithinthelimitsofthecogito,rather
thanfromapotentiallyobjectionableslightingofthenon‐human.BecauseSartreisa
human,hismethodswillbeanthropogenic,butthevaluestowhichexistentialismleadsone
tocommitneednot,themselves,beanthropocentic.BecauseSartreutilizesthecogitoasa
startingpoint,hisgoalisnotcomparativebetweenhumansandanimals;rather,hemerely
seekstoaddressthewayinwhichheandhisintendedhumanaudienceencounter,
internalize,andavowcertainvaluesthroughpractice.
Undertheenvironmentalistreadingpursuedhere,itmakessensetospeakofvalue
foranythingwithwhichitalsomakessensetoassociatewiththehavingofanopportunity.
Inthisway,abroadlySartreanexistentialismtakesasteptowardsenvironmentalethics
thatissomewhatparalleltoPaulTaylor'sbasingrespectfornatureuponrespectfor
centersofautonomouschoice.xviRatherthanview"abandonment"asathreatto
proclaimingthevalueofnatureandwildplaces,environmentalistexistentialistscanutilize
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"abandonment"asablockadeagainstanyargumentsthatattempttoassignanapriori
privilegetomankindandtheirends,wherethesecompetewiththewellbeingofthe
naturalworld.Theexistentialistisfreetorejectanyassumptionthathumanshavean
ethicalrighttoundulyharmecosystemsforthebenefitofman.Whenapersontakessucha
position,theenvironmentalexistentialistcanholdhimorherresponsibleforfreely
adoptingthesevalues.
TheWilltoFreedom
Bycombininghisviewofconsciousnesswiththeconditionof"abandonment"Sartre
arrivesatbasisfortheconditionhecalls"despair"or"anguish."Thisconditioniscausedby
therecognitionthatalthoughultimatelyunguided,ourchoicesneverthelessexpressa
commitmenttothatwhichischosen.Anditisthrough"despair"thatSartreinitiateshis
Kantianstyleargumentforthenormativeuniversalizabilityofthe"willtofreedom."
"Despair"signifiesthefactthateverytimeweactweprojectourselvesintotheworld,
affirmingsomevalues,rejectingothers,andavowingtoactuponthoseaffirmed,especially
whenwemakedecisionsthatarepivotaltochoosingorownparticularformoflife.Sartre
writes,
Choosingtobethisorthatistoaffirmatthesametimethevalueofwhatwechoose[i.e.projectitbeyondourownsubjectivityasanendforoursubjectiveproject],becausewecanneverchooseevil.If,moreover,existenceprecedesessenceandwewilltoexistatthesametimeaswefashionourimage,thatimageisvalidforallandforourwholeera.Ourresponsibilityisthusmuchgreaterthanwemighthavesupposed,becauseitconcernsallmankind.xvii
Choosingaparticularwayofliferequiresustoproceedasifthereissomethingchoice‐
worthyaboutgoingaboutinsuchandsuchaway.Moreover,becauseourconsciousnessis
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nothingmorethanconsciousnessofsomething,thechoiceisexperiencedasbeing
motivatedbyacommitmenttothevalueofwhatwechoose.
Sartre'sconnectionbetweentheexistentialistslogan,"existenceprecedesessence"
andtheuniversalizingnatureofchoiceisthecruxofhisargumenttowardstheimportance
ofchoosingfreedom,andrequiresclarification.ThepointSartreistryingtogetatisthat
evenwithcarefulandreflectiverelativism,weareforcedto,atleastminimally,experience
ourchoicesasbeingvalidforanyoneelsewhohassufficientlysimilarcircumstancestoour
own.Sartrereferencetothephrase"existenceprecedesessence"isintendedtoremindus
thatgiventhesomewhattransparentnatureofconsciousness,ourconditionbeforeany
choiceis,forthemostpart,generalizable.Individualsituationsvaryenoughtorelativise
certainconsiderations,i.e.awinterexpeditionrequiresonetochooseequipmentdifferent
thanisrequiredtofloattheLochsaRiver.However,inotherconsiderationsweallstart
fromthesameplace;forexample,weareallonrelativelyequalfootingregardingwhether
ornotwechoosetoendorse,toanextentrelativetoourmeans,environmentaland
conservationistconcerns.Nosinglepersonisgivenaparticularessencewhichrelativises
theirpersonaldecisionaboutwhethertoendorseanthropocentricoreco‐centricvaluesin
hisorherownethic.
Byfocusingontherelationshipbetweencommitmentandself‐deception,Sartre
presentsthedemandthatweviewourchoicesaspotentiallyuniversalizableasa
hypothetical,ratherthanacategoricalimperative.Sartresays,"intruth,however,one
shouldalwaysaskoneself,"whatwouldhappenifeveryonedidwhatIamdoing?"Theonly
waytoevadethatdisturbingthoughtisthroughsomekindofbadfaith."xviiiSartre'saccount
of"badfaith"issufficientlydiscussedelsewhere,andforcurrentpurposesonlyneedsa
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cursorydescription.xixInitstwoprimaryforms,iteitherinvolvestakingone'schoicestobe
over‐determinedbyone'sconcretesituation,oroppositely,denyingresponsibilityfor,and
aconnectionto,theconcretesituationapersonhasbecauseofthechoicesonemakes.
Sartre'srejectionthatpeoplehaveinternalessences,whichwouldberequiredtopre‐
determinehowonemakeschoices,iswhyheconcludesthatanychoiceunderthe
assumptionofprivilegedcircumstancescanonlyoccuralongsideselfdeception,or"bad
faith."
Atfirst,aconservationistreaderofSartremightbecompelledtoimaginethe
hypocrisyofanoutdoor‐lovingrealestatedeveloperprovidesanexampleofSartre'sclaim.
Forcertainly,oneimagines,ifeveryoneinstigatedsub‐urbansprawlthenourfreewilled
landswoulddisappearinshortorder,andwhoisthedevelopertoassumetheprivilegeto
drawprofitfromclosinguplandwhencertainlyeveryonecannotdoso?Thislineof
thinking,however,wouldforceonetowardsreadingabsurditiesintotheexistentialist
position.Nothingwedo,technicallyspeaking,canbesimultaneouslydonebyeveryoneelse
inthesameplaceandatthetime.Justaswecannotallbuildourownsubdivisions,wealso
cannotallenjoythesolitudeofthewildernesstogether.Yetthereisnothingwrongwith
enjoyingthesolitudeprovidedbycertainlandscapes.Afterall,manyofussometimes
sympathizewithSartre'scharacterwhenheproclaims,"hellisotherpeople."
TomakethemostsenseoutofSartre'sposition,itseemsbesttofollowJonathan
Webber'ssuggestionthatwereadSartreasprimarilyconcernedwiththechoiceswemake
towardtheadoptionofcertaincharactertraitsandvalues.xxValuesandvirtuesarenot
limitedresourcesforwhichwecompete.Thisrestrictionofthesenseinwhichweought
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readSartre'srequirementofgeneralizabilityfollowsSartre'sownpathinhighlightinghow
theforemostgeneralizableprojectisthepromotionoffreedom.
Theanguishedthoughtthatourdecisionscommitustothevalueofwhatischosen
bringsSartretohishumanisticconclusionthatself‐consistencydemandsthatourchoices
reflectanendorsementandpromotionofpeople'sabilitytomakefreechoicesandpursue
projectsbeyondthemselves,apositionSartrecalls"willingfreedom."xxiAccordingto
Sartre,anyadopteddispositiontowardsactionthatdoesnotinvolveacommitmentto
freedomforoneselfandothersisonlyrationallypossibleifapersonhidesfromhimselfthe
existentialistaspectsofthehumancondition.Towillaprojectthatundulydeniesthe
abilityofotherstomakechoiceswhilemakingfreechoicesoneselfistodeceiveoneself
intothinkingthat,antecedenttothechoice,thereissomethingspecialaboutoneselfthat
warrantstheprivilege.Buttoassumethisprivilegeistoendorse“badfaith.”However,this
alsomeansthattoretainconsistencywithacknowledgementofabandonment,
contradictingthewilltofreedomcannotbejudgedonethicalgrounds;itcanonlybe
describedasan"intellectualerror"andasself‐deception.xxii
Willingfreedom,forSartre,entailsthatweallowothersopportunitytoexercise
theirfreedomofchoiceinaconcretemannerthroughourownpursuitofspecificconcrete
situationswhichaffordothersthispossibility.GivenSartre'sphenomenological
conclusions,"freedom"isanemptyconceptwithoutaconcretesituationtoprovidethe
environmentalaffordancesaboutwhichchoicescanbemade.Avowalstowardfreedom
cannotonlybetowardstheabstractnotion,butmusthavesituationalimport.xxiii
Furthermore,to"promote"freedomintheabstractwhilenottakingconcretestepswould
beanexampleofthesecondformof"badfaith,"thatofnottakingresponsibilityforone's
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concretesituationandassumingone'ssocalled"innerwill"isun‐diminishedbyone's
concreteinactivity.
Now,certainlyeveryactioncausessomerestrictions,someco‐effecientsof
adversity,uponotheragents.However,returningtothecragexampleabove,weshould
distinguishbetweenthefreeabilitytochoosesomeprojectandthefreedomofthatproject
fromobstacles.Itispromotingtheformer,apositivefreedomtochoose,through
promotionofconcretemeansthatSartreadvocates.Nevertheless,thisfurtherentails
certainformsofnegativefreedomofspecialrelevancetoconservation,specificallythe
securingforothersafreedomfromourownimpositionuponthem.
ConquerYourselfRatherthantheWorld
InExistentialismisaHumanism,Sartreemphasizeshow"willingfreedom"is
relevanttohumanistsandMarxists,presumablyduetoafreedomtopursueone'sown
capabilitiesandalsoafreedomfromalienationandexploitation.Buttheenvironmentalist
canaskwhatecologicallyrelevantimplicationscanbedrawnfromtheacceptanceof
Sartre'sadvocacyoftheprojectofwillingfreedomonthegroundspresentedinhislecture.
Toinitiatethisinquiry,considerthefollowingenvironmentallypoignantkeypassage:
[N]oGodorgreaterdesigncanbendtheworldanditspossibilitiestomywill.Inthefinalanalysis,whenDescartessaid"Conqueryourselfratherthantheworld,"heactuallymeantthesamething:weshouldactwithouthope.xxiv
Here,"actingwithouthope"bynomeansentailsenvironmentalpessimism.Rather,by
"actingwithouthope,"Sartremeansthatweactuponcertainpossibilitieswithoutpromise
thatourplaceamongthesepossibilitiesisunderwrittenbyaheavenlysystemofvalue.
Furthermore,ratherthanwistfullyhopingforachangeintheaffordancesoftheworld,we
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mustconquerourselvesbysteeringourwilltowardsprojectstowhichwecanfullycommit
withouthypocrisy,suchastheprojectoffreedom.
Anexistentialistwilltowardfreedomandourembeddednessinaworldof
possibilitiesprovidesgroundforanenvironmentalethicintermsofthepreservationof
freedomandpossibilitiesinnature.Certainly,thereareanthropocentricconnections
betweenconservationandhumanfreedom.Thepreservationofbio‐diversity,wildlife,and
thewildplaceswherenaturalhistoryisallowedtoproceedonitsnaturalevolutionary
courseallmustbepreserved,ifnotforhumansurvival,thanatleastinordertoretainthe
possibilityofpeople'shavingthefreechoicetoexplore,learnfrom,andlovethese
phenomenon.Wildernessadvocateshavearguedalongtheselinesforconservationfora
longtimebyemphasizingthelongingsomeofusfeel"fortheunharnessedfreedomofthe
bigoutside"andtheimportanceofpreservingopportunitiestosatiatethisdesire.xxvOr,
movingbeyondpersonalfreedom,onemightciteEdAbbeyandhisrecognitionofthelink
betweenpoliticalfreedomandwilderness.xxvi
Theexistentialistpositionexploredhereaffordsmovingbeyondthese
anthropocentricreasonsbyarguingthattheprecedingofexistenceoveressence,andthe
conditionofabandonmentbothremovethepossibilityofmerelyfocusinguponhuman
freedominourprojectofwillingfreedom.Pursuingfreedombyadoptingself‐restraintand
aprojectofnon‐impositioncanbeextendedbeyondthescopeofhuman‐to‐human
interactions.Interferencewithwildlife,thedestructionoralteringofthelandscape,and
interferencewiththeproceedingsofevolutionareallformsofimpositionthatare
acceptablewhennecessitypushessuchactionsbeyondtherealmofchoice.Wilderness
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areasarerepresentativeoftheconcretesituationsembodyingthisprojectofnon‐
imposition.
Thereareexistentialistgroundsforarguingthatself‐willedanimalsandecosystems
shouldbothbefreetopursuetheformsofpossibilitiesforwhichevolutionhasprepared
them.Andthismeansminimizingthereachofhumaninterferencewiththeunfoldingof
suchpossibilities,exceptininstanceswherehumanpracticeshavebeenaco‐evolutionary
factorforasignificantamountoftime.Thecontinuationofindigenouscommunities’
practices,suchastheharvestingofcamas,Camassiaquamash,inIdaho,orthecontinuation
ofhumaninteractionwithdomesticatedanimalsisnotnecessarilyaformofoutside
interference.Otherwise,imposingone'swilluponalandscapefeature,anecosystem,oran
animalinawaythatgoesagainstitsusualandaccustomedhistoryorformoflifeisan
interferencewithfreedomandexpressionofself‐privilegethatbetrayassumptionsofbad
faith.Suchimpositionsareliterallyfailuresto"conquerourselvesratherthantheworld."
Throughadvocatinga"willtofreedom"andthenecessityofnon‐impositiontoavoid
“badfaith,”existentialismimpliesa"leavenotrace"ethicfornotonlyourpersonal
encounterswithwildernessareas,butalsoforsocietiesinteractionswithourremaining
wildplaces.AccordingtoSartre,"willingfreedom"isaprojectwecanadoptwithoutself‐
deception,conservationislikewiseauniversalizableproject.Infact,theexistentialist
positionadoptedheretakesafirmerposition,allowingonetoaddthatexcusingoneself
fromcontributingtotheprotectionoftheenvironmentresultsinbothformsof“badfaith.”
Thosewhodonotactivelycontribute,withintheirability,toenvironmentalprotection
haveeitherexcusedthemselvesfromtheprojectoffreedomonspuriousreasons,orhave
failedtotakeresponsibilityfortheirconcretesituationontheplanet.
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iSartre,Jean‐Paul.(2007).ExistentialismisaHumanism.CarolMacomber,trans.London:YaleUniversityPress,2007.p52.iiibid.p40.iiiibid.p53.ivibid.p34.vSartre,Jean‐Paul.(1957).TheTranscendenceoftheEgo.transForrestWilliamsandRobertKirkpatrick.NewYork:NoondayPress.viRowlands,M.(2008).Externalism.Chesham:Acumen.pp63‐75.viiSartre,2007.p22.viiiibid.p18.ixSartre,Jean‐Paul.(1966).BeingandNothingness.transHazelT.Barnes.NewYork:WashingtonSquarePress.pp340‐400.Sartre,2007.p41.xSartre2007.pp28‐9.xiSartre1966.p620.xiiSartre2007.p53.xiiiibid.p35.xivibid.p52.xvibid.p52.xviTaylor,P.W.RespectforNature:ATheoryofEnvironmentalEthics.25thAniversaryEdition.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2011.p39.xviiSartre2007.p24.xviiiibid.p25.xixWebber,J.(2002).“MotivatedAversion:Non‐TheticAwarenessinBadFaith.”SartreStudiesInternationalvol.8,no.1.Santoni,RonaldE.(1995).BadFaith,GoodFaith,andAuthenticityinSartre’sEarlyPhilosophy.Philidelphia:TempleUniversityPress.Gardiner,Patrick.(1977).“SartreonCharacterandSelf‐Knowledge.”NewLiteraryHistory.Vo.9,No1,Autumn.pp.65‐82.xxWebber,J.(2009).TheExistentialismofJean‐PaulSartre.NewYork:Routledge.p135.xxiSartre2007.pp48‐9.xxiiibid.p47.xxiiiibid.pp48‐9.xxivibid.p35.xxvDilg,W.H(1927).OutdoorAmerica,IzaakWaltonLeague,October1927.citedinForeman,D.(2012).TakeBackConservation.Durango,CO:Raven'sEyePress.p74.xxviForaninterestingdiscussionoffreedomandwilderness,seeTanner,R.J.(2007)."WildernessandtheParadoxofIndividualFreedom."inWatson,Alan;Sproull,Janet;Dean,Liese,comps.Scienceandstewardshiptoprotectandsustainwildernessvalues;eighthWorldWildernessCongresssymposium:September30‐October6,2005;Anchorage,AK.ProceedingsRMRS‐P‐49.FortCollins,CO:US.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainResearchStation.
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