Evidence for how learning occurs from the Delphi Panel of Experts 2016-2017 International Study (41 experts in 11 countries) - Part 1

Tokuhama-Espinosa (2017) available on: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315779095_Delphi_Panel_on_Mind_Brain_and_Education_2016_RESULTS

Principles (evidence for all brains)

Tenets (evidence for all brain but with great human variance)

1.UNIQUENESS: Human brains are unique as human faces. While the basic structure of most humans’ brains is the same (similar parts in similar regions), no two brains are identical. The genetic make-up unique to each person combines with life experiences and free will to shape neural pathways.

• Motivation influences learning, (however, what motivates one person and how may not motivate another in the same way).• Emotions and cognition are mutually influential. Not all stimuli result in the same affective state for all people.• Stress influences learning (but what stresses one person and how may not stress another in the same way).

2.DIFFERENT POTENTIALS: Each individual’s brain is differently prepared to learn differ-ent tasks. Learning capacities are shaped by the context of the learning, prior learning experiences, personal choice, an individu-al’s biology and genetic make-up, pre-and peri-natal events, and environmental expo-sures.

• Anxiety influences learning (but what causes anxiety in one person may not cause anxiety in another).• Depression influences learning (but what causes depression in one person may not cause depression in another).• Learning is influenced by both challenge and threat as perceived by the learner. What a person finds challenging or threatening is highly in-dividualized as are their reactions to the stimuli.

3.PRIOR EXPERIENCE: New learningis influenced by prior experience. The effi-ciency of the brain economizes effort and energy by ensuring that external stimuli are first decoded, compared, both passively and actively, with existing memories.

• Reactions to facial expressions are highly individualized: they reflect prior experience, both personal and in response to cultural expecta-tions.• The brain interprets tones of voices unconsciously and almost imme-diately, however, the reaction to the tones of voices is based in part on prior experience and therefore individualized.• Humans are social beings who learn from and with each other. Social interactions influence learning. Different amounts of social interactions around learning are desired by different people.

4.CONSTANT CHANGES IN THE BRAIN: The brain changes constantly with experience. The brain is a complex, dynamic, integrated system that is constantly changed by indi-vidual experiences. These changes occur at a molecular level either simultaneously, in parallel, or even before they are visible in behaviobehavior.

• Attention is a complex phenomenon comprised of multiple systems (supporting functions such as metacognition, self-reflection, mindful-ness and meditation as well as states of high alertness, selective atten-tion and focused attention), which work to different degrees in differ-ent relationships with one another.• Most learning does not necessarily occur linearly, but rather advances and retracts based on stages of growth, reflection and the amount of repetition to which one is exposed.• Learning involves conscious and unconscious processes, which may differ by individuals based on their training and other individual experi-ences. Learning is also described as implicit (passive or unaware pro-cesses) and explicit (active or aware processes).

Evidence for how learning occurs from the Delphi Panel of Experts 2016-2017 International Study (41 experts in 11 countries) - Part 2

Tokuhama-Espinosa (2017) available on: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315779095_Delphi_Panel_on_Mind_Brain_and_Education_2016_RESULTS

Principles (evidence for all brains)

Tenets (evidence for all brain but with great human variance)

5.PLASTICITY: The brain is plastic. Neuroplas-ticity exists throughout the lifespan though there are notable developmental differences by age.

• Learning is developmental (nature and nurture) as well as experien-tial (nurture): a person’s age, cognitive stage of development and past experiences all contribute to learning and do so differently for each person.• Learning engages the entire physiology: the body and brain interact to play a role in learning processes.• Sleep and dreaming influence learning in different ways: sufficient

6.MEMORY+ATTENTION=LEARNING: There is no new learning without some form of memory and some form of attention. Most school learning requires well-functioning short, working and long-term memory sys-tems and conscious attention. However, procedural learning, habituation, sensitiza-tion and even episodic memory can occur without conscious attention.

• Nutrition influences learning. Basic nutritional needs are common to all humans, though there are variations in the frequency of food intake and some dietary needs, which are unique to individuals.• Physical activity influences learning, however, different individuals need different amounts of physical activity to perform optimally. Inter-spersing physical and cognitive activity may improve learning.• Use it or lose it: Brains that remain active cognitively help develop• Use it or lose it: Brains that remain active cognitively help develop-ment and can also stave off cognitive decline in the aging brain, howev-er, individual variations, including experiences and genetic predisposi-tions, influence the final outcomes of interventions.

• Feedback about learning progress influences learning outcomes. Feedback itself can be a source of learning. The type, frequency, and use of feedback can influence learning outcomes, which can also vary by in-dividual.• It is easier to retrieve memories when facts and skills have been em-bedded in individually relevant and meaningful contexts (however, what is relevant or meaningful varies by individual).• Brains detect novelty and seek out patterns (however, what is novel or recognized as a pattern to one individual may not be novel or may

For more information, contact Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. tracey.tokuhama@gmail.com

Connections: The Learning Sciences Platform www.thelearningsciences.com